Basic Principles of
Physical Fitness
Chapter 2
Principles of Physical
Fitness
 Physical Activity and Exercise for Health and Fitness
 Components of Physical Fitness
 Principles of Physical Training: Adaptation to Stress
 Designing Your Own Exercise Program
2-2
Test your Knowledge
To improve your health, you must
exercise vigorously for at least 30 minutes
straight 5 or more days per week. True of
False?
False short bouts of up to 10 minutes
help
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Test your Knowledge
Which of the following activities uses
about 150 calories?
1. washing a car for 45-60 minutes
2. shooting a basketball for 30 minutes
3. Jumping rope for 15 minutes
All three the more intense an activity is
the more calories it burns per minute
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Test your knowledge
Regular Exercise can make a person
smarter. True of False
True Regular exercise benefits the human
brain and the rest of the nervous system .
Exercise improves the brains ability to
learn, remember, think and reason.
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Physical Activity and Exercise
for Health and Fitness
Physical activity levels have declined
Healthy People 2020:
About 36% of U.S. adults do not engage in
recommended amounts of activity
Levels of Physical Activity
Physical Activity and
Exercise for Health and
Fitness
Almost any kind of physical
activity promotes health
Short periods of intense exercise do
not compensate for hours of inactivity
2-8
FIGURE 2.1
Exercise promotes longevity
SOURCE: Adapted from a composite of 12 studies
involving more than 200,000 men and women. Wen,
M., et al. 2013. Physical activity and mortality among
middle-aged and older adults in the United States.
Journal Physical Activity & Health. Published online;
Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee
Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee
Report, 2008. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, 2008.
2-9
Physical Activity on a
Continuum
Physical activity:
any body movement carried out by the skeletal muscles
and requiring energy
Exercise:
planned, structured, repetitive movement of the body
designed to improve or maintain physical fitness
Physical fitness:
a set of physical attributes that allows the body to respond
or adapt to the demands and stress of physical effort
Snacking on Exercise
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
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Fitness/Exercise
Levels of fitness depend on physiological
factors such as the hearts ability to pump
blood and energy generating capacity of
cells
Both of these factors are related to
genetics and behavior
Physical activity improves health and
wellness
Exercise improves fitness
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Physical Activity on a
Continuum
Increasing physical activity to improve
health and wellness
Healthy adults should perform
150 minutes of moderate intensity aerobic
exercise or at least 75 minutes
of vigorous intensity exercise per week
Increasing volume and intensity
results in additional health benefits
Activity should be spread throughout the week
2-13
Physical Activity on a
Continuum
Increasing Physical Activity
More extensive health benefits
require adults to engage in aerobic
physical activity for about 300
minutes/week of moderate intensity or
150 minutes/week of vigorous intensity activity
Avoid inactivity
2-14
How Much Physical
Activity Is Enough?
Regular physical activity promotes
health and protects from chronic
diseases
Need physical energy and stamina
Any increase improves health
and well-being
Lowers risk of type 2 diabetes,
colon cancer & osteoporosis and
reduces feelings of mild to moderate
depression and anxiety
2-15
Lifestyle Physical Activity
For health promotion:
Expend about 150 calories—equivalent to 30
minutes of brisk walking—on most days
For health promotion and weight
management:
Engage in 60 or more daily minutes of
activity to prevent unhealthy weight gain
Engage in 60-90 daily minutes of activity to
sustain weight loss
Moderate Amounts of
Physical Activity
Moderate physical activity
Brisk walking, dancing, swimming, cycling
and yard work use about 150 calories of E
and cause a noticeable increases in heart rate
The same amount of calories can be burned
by engaging in a lower intensity activity for a
longer period of time of a high intensity
activity for a shorter period of time
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
The Evidence for Exercise
Exercise is Good for your Brain
Reading Tip
Ask Yourself questions as you read
How does this apply to everyday life?
How can you use this?
How does it tie into what we have learned
before?
Key points
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Physical Activity on a
Continuum
Increasing physical
activity to manage weight
66% of Americans carry extra weight
U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services:
150 minutes per week of physical
activity may not be enough to lose weight
Recommend up to 90 minutes of physical activity
per day
Exercise along may not cause a weight loss though
Health benefits exist2-20without weight loss
Physical Activity on a
Continuum
Exercising to improve physical fitness
People can obtain greater health and
wellness benefits by increasing the duration
and intensity of physical activity
2-21
Exercise to Develop Physical Fitness
Lifestyle physical activity improves health
but may not improve fitness
A structured, formal exercise program
improves physical fitness and provides
even greater health improvements
TABLE 2.2
Physical Activity and Exercise
Recommendations for Promoting General
Health, Fitness, and Weight Management
2-23
How Much Physical
Activity Is Enough?
Regular physical activity promotes
health and protects from chronic
diseases
Need physical
energy and stamina
Any increase
improves health
and well-being now and
In the future
2-24
How Much Physical Activity
Is Enough?
Health-Related Components
of Physical Fitness
Health-related fitness = physical
capacities that contribute to health
Five components:
1. Cardiorespiratory endurance = the ability of
the body to perform prolonged, large-muscle,
dynamic exercise at moderate-to-high levels of
intensity
Test Your Knowledge
Compared to sedentary people those who
engage in regular moderate exercise are
likely to:
1. have fewer colds
2. be less anxious and depressed
3. fall asleep more quickly and sleep
better
4. be more alert and creative
5. all of the above
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Test Your Knowledge
Compared to sedentary people those who
engage in regular moderate exercise are
likely to:
1. have fewer colds
2. be less anxious and depressed
3. fall asleep more quickly and sleep
better
4. be more alert and creative
5. all of the above
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Test Your Knowledge
About how much blood does the heart
pump each minute during maximumintensity aerobic exercise?
1. 5 quarts
2. 10 quarts
3. 20 quarts
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Test Your Knowledge
About how much blood does the heart
pump each minute during maximumintensity aerobic exercise?
1. 5 quarts
2. 10 quarts
3. 20 quarts
At rest about 5 quarts /minute are
pumped
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Test your Knowledge
During an effective 30 minute
cardiorespiratory endurance workout, you
should lose 1-2 pounds True or False?
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Test your Knowledge
During an effective 30 minute
cardiorespiratory endurance workout, you
should lose 1-2 pounds True or False?
Any weight that is lost is actually ?
Water weight
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Components of Physical
Fitness
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Cardiorespiratory endurance
Muscular strength
Muscular endurance
Flexibility
Body composition
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Cardiorespiratory
When cardiorespiratory fitness is low the heart
has to work harder during normal daily activities
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
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6 factors that determine
cardiorespiratory endurance
Depends on:
Ability of lungs to deliver O2 from the
environment to the bloodstream
Capacity of heart to pump blood
Ability of nervous system regulate blood flow and
Ability of blood vessels to regulate blood flow
 capability of cells chemical systems to use O2
Process fuels for exercise and rest
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Cardiorespiratory fitness
Example: A cardiorespiratory fitness improves
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The heart pumps more blood per beat
Resting heart rate decreases
Blood volume increases
Blood supply to tissue improves
The body can cool itself better
Resting blood pressure decreases
Metabolism in skeletal muscle is enhanced
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Cardiorespiratory
Endurance
A healthy heart functions better in daily
activities and the stress of emergencies
The muscle and liver chemical reactions
improve
Body improves its ability to use insulin
reducing Type 2 Diabetes
Healthier genes – telomeres(ends of DNA
which holds them together)don’t shorten
Shortened telomeres = illness and death
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
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More Cardiorespiratory
Cardiovascular endurance is vital as it is
the basis of overall fitness ( You need a
strong/healthy heart and lungs)
What type of exercises improves
cardiovascular fitness?
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
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Exercise and
Cardiovascular Health
Read the article and think about what you
read
Be prepared to discuss it
Bullet points-patterns,
Vocabulary
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Muscular Strength
Muscular strength: force a muscle
produces with single maximum effort
Metabolism: Sum of the vital processes by
which food energy and nutrients are made
available to and used by the body
Greater muscle mass means
higher rate of metabolism
Metabolism - is a term that is used to describe all
chemical reactions involved in maintaining the
living state of the cells and the organism. How
your body uses energy
2-40
Greater muscle mass maintains
mitochondria(powerhouse of the cell)
Overall stronger people usually live longer
As one ages their muscles cells decrease
in size and number this is called
sarcopenia
Muscle cells also slow down as they lose
their attachment the nervous system
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
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Strength training(resistance training,
weight training) increases lowers stress
on the body, helps maintain muscle mass
and function and decreases risk of
osteoporosis
This helps to prevent life threatening
injuries
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
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Muscular endurance: Ability of muscle
to remain contracted or to contract repeatedly
for a long period of time( resist fatigue and
sustain a given level of muscle tension)
It depends on: muscle cell size, ability of
muscle to store fuel, blood supply, and
metabolic capacity of muscles
Helps with: good posture and injury prevention
 Strong abdominal and back muscles are needed to
support and stabilize the spine or one gets back
injuries and back pain
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
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Muscular endurance is required in the
trunk muscles to prevent back pain
Muscular endurance helps people cope
with daily physical demand and enhances
sports and work performance
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
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Flexibility
 Flexibility: ability to move
joints through their full
ranges of motion
Depends on: joint structure,
the length and elasticity of
connective tissue, and
nervous system activity
Inactivity causes joints to
become stiff causing poor
posture stressing joints and
muscles2-45
Health-Related Components of
Physical Fitness
Body composition = the proportion of fat and fatfree mass (muscle, bone, and water) in the
body
Body Composition
 Body composition: Proportion of fat and fatfree mass (muscle, bone, and water) in a body
Healthy body-high proportion of fat free mass
to low body fat (age and gender)
Excessive body fat(especially in the
abdomen increases the risk of heart
disease, insulin resistance, high BP,
stroke, joint problems, type 2 diabetes, gall
bladder disease, blood vessel inflammation,
some types of cancer, back pain and premature
2-47
death
Somatotype: body-type classification
system that describes people as
predominantly muscular
(mesomorph), tall and thin (ectomorph),
or round and heavy (endomorph)
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Vocabulary
Physical activity- body movement that is carried
out by the skeletal muscles and requires energy
Exercise- planned, structured , repetitive
movement intended to improve or maintain
physical fitness
Muscle strength- amount of force a muscle can
produce with a single maximum effort
Metabolism – all of the chemical processes that
occur in the body
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
More Vocabulary
Cardiorespiratory endurance-the ability of the
body to perform prolonged exercise at moderate
to high levels of intensity
Muscular endurance- ability of a muscle to
remain contracted or to continually contract
over a long period of time
Flexibility- ability to move joints through their
full range of motion
Body composition- proportion of fat and fat free
mass
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Skill-Related Components of
Fitness
Speed
Power
Agility
Balance
Coordination
Reaction time
Speed-ability to perform a movement in a
short period of time
Power- ability to exert force rapidly based
on a combination f strength and speed
Agility- ability to change position of the
body quickly and accurately
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
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Balance the ability to maintain equilibrium
while moving or while stationary
Coordination –the ability to perform
motor tasks accurately and smoothly
using body movement and the senses
Reaction and movement time –ability to
respond and react quickly to a stimulus
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Reaction Time Activity
more reaction time
reaction time 3
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
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Principals of Physical Training
Adaptation To Stress
The goal of physical training is to produce
long term changes and improvement in
the body’s functioning and fitness
Wellness benefits are available to everyone
Fitness and Disability Article
Lightbulb moments
How can this help you individually and you
professionally
Key points
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Basic Principles of
Physical Training
Specificity
Progressive overload
Reversibility
Individual differences
All rest on Adaptation
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Principles of Physical
Training: Adaptation to Stress
The human body is adaptable and adjusts
to meet increasing demands
Short term adjustments lead
to long-term changes and improvements
in fitness levels
Physical training: Performance of different
types of activities to produce long-term
changes and improvements in the body’s
functioning and fitness
2-58
Specificity—Adapting to
Type of Training
The body adapts to the particular type and
amount of stress placed on it
To develop a particular fitness component,
perform exercises specifically designed for
that component- specificity
Specificity example
Weight training develops muscular
strength but is less effective for
developing cardiorespiratory endurance or
flexibility
Specificity also applies to the skill-related
component of fitness- to improve at
tennis you need to play tennis
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Test Your Knowledge
For women, weight training typically
results in which of the following?
1. bulky muscles
2. significant increases in body weight
3. improved body image
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Test Your Knowledge
For women, weight training typically
results in which of the following?
1. bulky muscles
2. significant increases in body weight
3. improved body image
Because most women have low levels of
testosterone they do not develop really large
muscles or gain significant amounts of
weight
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Test Your Knowledge
To maximize strength gains, it is a good
idea to hold your breath as you lift a
weight True of False?
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Test Your Knowledge
To maximize strength gains, it is a good
idea to hold your breath as you lift a
weight True of False?
Holding one’s breath while lifting weights
can significantly elevate blood pressure, it
also reduces blood flow to the heart and
may cause faintness
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Test your Knowledge
Regular strength training is associated with
which of the following benefits:
1. denser bones
2. reduced res of heart disease
3. improved body composition
4. fewer injuries
5. improved metabolic health
6. increased longevity
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Test your Knowledge
Regular strength training is associated with
which of the following benefits:
1. denser bones
2. reduced res of heart disease
3. improved body composition
4. fewer injuries
5. improved metabolic health
6. increased longevity
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Progressive Overload
Progressive overload: Training principle
that states that placing increasing
amounts of exercise(overload or stress)on
the body causes adaptations that
improve fitness
As amount of exercise progressively
increases, fitness improves
2-67
The amount of exercise is also important
Too little exercise will have no effect on
fitness
May improve health though
Too much exercise may cause injury and
problems with the body’s immune or
endocrine systems
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Progressive Overload—Adapting
to Amount of Training
Placing increasing amounts of stress on
the body causes adaptations that improve
fitness; progression is critical
FITT principle for overload:
Frequency—How often
Intensity—How hard
Time—How long (duration)
Type—Mode of activity
FITT Principle
Frequency- for most people 3-5 days per
week of cardiorespiratory endurance
exercise and 2 or more days/week of
resistance and flexibility training are
appropriate for a general fitness plan
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Reversibility—Adapting to a
Reduction in Training
Fitness improvements are lost when
demands on the body are
lowered(reversibility)
If you stop exercising, up to 50% of
fitness improvements are lost within 2
months
Individual Differences—
Limits on Adaptability
Everyone is NOT created equal from a
physical standpoint
There are large individual differences in
ability to improve fitness, body
composition, and sports skills
Designing Your Own
Exercise Program
Medical clearance
Fitness assessment
Setting goals
Specific
Measurable
Attainable
Realistic
Time frame specific
Medical Clearance
Most people who are not at high risk for
serious health problems can safely
exercise at moderate intensity without a
prior medical evaluation
Males under 40
Female under 50
Need clearance- high BP, heart disease
muscle or joint problems or obesity
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Designing Your Own
Exercise Program
Choosing activities for a balanced
program
Include activities to develop health-related
components of physical fitness
Cardiorespiratory endurance
Muscular strength and endurance
Flexibility and healthy body compositon
Physical Activity Pyramid
Benefits of Different Types
of Programs
Guidelines for Training
Train the way you want your body to
change
Train regularly
Start slowly, and get in shape gradually;
do not overtrain
Warm up before exercise
Cool down after exercise
Exercise safely
Guidelines for Training
Listen to your body, and get adequate rest
Cycle the volume and intensity of your workouts
Try training with a partner
Vary your activities
Train your mind
Fuel your activity appropriately
Have fun
Track your progress
Keep your exercise program in perspective
Progression of an Exercise
Program: Get in Shape Gradually
Amount of Exercise for
Fitness Benefits
Choosing a Fitness Center
How Would You Chose One?
Convenience
Atmosphere
Safety
Trained personnel
Cost
Effectiveness
http://video.pbs.org/video/1785416952
fitness
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Test Your Knowledge
ID 6 factors that affect cardiorespiratory
endurance are:
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Test Your Knowledge
ID 6 factors that affect cardiorespiratory
endurance are:
Ability of lungs to deliver O2 from the
environment to the bloodstream
Capacity of heart to pump blood
Ability of nervous system regulate blood flow and
Ability of blood vessels to regulate blood flow
 capability of cells chemical systems to use O2
Process fuels for exercise and rest
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Identify some factors that
determine joint flexibility
Joint structure
Length and elasticity of connective
tissue
 Nervous system activity
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Identify the components of the
physical activity pyramid
Sedentary
Strength
Cardiorespiratory
Moderate intensity physical activity
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.
Fahey/Insel/Roth, Fit & Well: Core Concepts and Labs in Physical Fitness and Wellness, Chapter 2
© 2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.