TITLE PAGE
RESPONSE OF SORGHUM (Sorghum bicolor) TO DIFFERENT BLENDS OF
ORGANIC AND INORGANIC FERTILIZERS IN MUBI, ADAMAWA STATE
NIGERIA
ANTHONY ANEYANI JOHN
16U/310065
BEING A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,
FACULTY OF SCIENCE, ADAMAWA STATE UNIVERSITY MUBI, IN PARTIAL
FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF
SCIENCE (B. Sc. HONS.) IN BOTANY.
NOVEMBER, 2021.
i
DECLARATION
I, ANTHONY ANEYANI JOHN hereby declare that, this project is an outcome of my original
research under the guidance of my supervisor Mr. Timon David. It is a record of my research
work and it is not being presented anywhere for the award of degree.
Sign: ………………………
ANTHONY ANEYANI JOHN
(16U/310065)
Date: ………………………
ii
CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that this research project work “entitled response of Sorghum orkapi to
different blends of organic and inorganic fertilizers in Mubi, Adamawa state Nigeria by
Anthony Aneyani John was carried out under the supervision of Mr. Timon David and has been
approved as meeting the requirements for the award of a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) Botany,
Department of Botany, Faculty Science, Adamawa State University, Mubi.
……………………………………
……………………………………
Mr. Timon David
Date
(Project Supervisor)
……………………………………
……………………………………
Dr. Comfort Yusuf Sankem
Date
(Head of Department)
……………………………………
……………………………………
(EXTERNAL EXAMINER)
Date
iii
DEDICATION
I humbly dedicate this research work to God Almighty for giving me the inspiration, strength,
grace, health and courage throughout my degree programme. I also dedicate this project to my
beloved parents.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
My utmost gratitude goes to Almighty God the ultimate creator of the universe, who in His
infinite mercies inspired the conception of this project and also made it possible for the entire
research work to be a successful.
Special accolade goes to my project supervisor Mr. Timon David whose advice, suggestion
and efforts aided the outcome of this research, in spite of his tight schedules, has taken much
of his time to make constructive criticism and positive corrections, may Almighty God bless
and increase you.
Special appreciation goes to my H.O.D Dr. Comfort Yusuf Sankem and to all lecturers of the
Department of Botany Mr. Zakawa N. N, Mr. Mallum S. M., Mr. T. D. Tizhe, Mr. Wakshama
P., Dr. Kucheli Batta, Mr. Paul Abraham W. for their contributions, assistance and advice
throughout my studies, may God Almighty reward you all.
My profound gratitude goes to my beloved parents Mr and Mrs. Anthony John for their moral
upbringing and my beloved siblings, for their prayers, contributions and support throughout
my studies, may God Almighty richly bless all of you.
The effort of my colleagues will never be forgotten, without your support and team work, this
work wouldn’t have come to completion.
Finally, The great effort, support and love shown me by friends and well-wishers will never be
forgotten. Thank you all
v
ABSTRACT
A field experiment was conducted at the Adamawa State University, Mubi Faculty of
Agricultural, Department of crop Science Teaching and research farming during the 2021
rainy season to determine the response of sorghum (orkapi) to different blend of organic and
inorganic fertilizer with the objective of selecting the best fertilizer blend that will enhance the
yield of sorghum and to determine the correlation between seed yield and other related
character. The treatment consists of Treatment 300 kg/h-1 NPK, treatment 2, 500 kg/h-1 of
cowdung, treatment 3, 300 kg/h-1 of chicken dropping treatment 5, 150 kg/h-1 of NPK + 150
kg/h-1 chicken dropping treatment 6, 75 kg/h-1 of NPK + 125 kg/h-1 of cow dung and 75 kg/h-1
of chicken dropping. The experiment was layout randomized complete block design (RCBD) in
three replicate data were analyzed using coched SPSE on 2021 computer software program.
Significant mean was separated by Duncan. Multiple range test (DMRT) at P≤ 0.05. the
following character were observed the stem girth in (cm) number of leaves at harvest in (m).
Plant height in (cm) seed yield per plant, seed yield per plot and seed yield in kg/h -1 as 50%
panicle, panicle girth, panicle length. The result shows significant different in the early growth
on a stem at 300 kg/h-1 NPK shows the significant different while in number of leaves there is
significant different, seed yield per plot and seed yield in kg/h-1 was recorded in the mixture of
NPK and chicken dropping, finding from this research revealed that a mixture of NPK and
chicken droppingis the best combination that can help in enhancing the performance of
sorghum.
vi
Table of Contents
TITLE PAGE .............................................................................................................................. i
DECLARATION .......................................................................................................................ii
CERTIFICATION ................................................................................................................... iii
DEDICATION .......................................................................................................................... iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................................... v
ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................. vi
CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................ 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background of the study. ..................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Statement of problem ........................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Aim and Objectives.............................................................................................................. 5
1.5 Justification .......................................................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER TWO ....................................................................................................................... 6
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................... 6
2.1 Origin and Distribution of Sorghum .................................................................................... 6
2.2 Taxonomy of sorghum ......................................................................................................... 7
2.3 Climate and Soil Requirement ............................................................................................. 8
2.4 Temperature ......................................................................................................................... 8
2.5 Day length ............................................................................................................................ 9
2.6 Water requirements .............................................................................................................. 9
2.7 Botany and Ecology ........................................................................................................... 10
2.8 Fertilizer and Its Utilization ............................................................................................... 11
2.9 Economics Importance of Sorghum................................................................................... 16
2.9.1 Commercial uses ............................................................................................................. 16
2.9.2 Food ................................................................................................................................ 17
2.9.3 Feed................................................................................................................................. 17
2.9.4 Biofuel ............................................................................................................................. 18
2.9.4 Overview on Sorghum .................................................................................................... 18
CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................................. 21
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS ....................................................................................... 21
3.1 Description of the study area ............................................................................................. 21
3.2 Climatic Condition ............................................................................................................. 21
3.2 Methods.............................................................................................................................. 22
vii
3.3 Seed Collection and Preparation. ....................................................................................... 22
3.4 Experimental Design and Treatment Allocation.............................................................. 22
3.5 Land Preparation and Layout ............................................................................................. 23
3.6 Planting and Spacing.......................................................................................................... 23
3.7 Cultural Practices ............................................................................................................... 23
3.8 Data Collection .................................................................................................................. 23
3.9 Stem Girth .......................................................................................................................... 24
3.10 Statistical Analysis ........................................................................................................... 24
CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................... 25
RESULTS ................................................................................................................................ 25
4.1 RESULTS .......................................................................................................................... 25
4.1 Effect of fertilizer blend on stem girth, Number of leaves at harvest and plant height. .... 25
4.2 Effect of fertilizer blend on seed yield per plot, seed yield in kg/ha treatment seed yield per
plant.......................................................................................................................................... 27
4.3 Effect of fertilizer mixture on days at 50% plant panicle, panicle circumference and panicle
length........................................................................................................................................ 29
CHAPTER FIVE ..................................................................................................................... 33
5.0 DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ....................................... 33
5.1 DISCUSSION. ................................................................................................................... 33
5.2 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................. 33
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................................... 34
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table 4.1 Effect of fertilizer blend on stem girth, Number of leaves at harvest and plant height
33
Table 4.2 Effect of fertilizer blend on seed yield per plot, seed yield in kg/ha treatment seed
yield per plant.
35
Table 4.3 Effect of fertilizer mixture on days at 50% plant panicle, panicle circumference and
panicle length
37
Table 4: Pearson Correlations for Growth and Yield Character of Sorghum
39
ix
LIST OF APPENDICES
Page
Appendix I: Experimental field layout
Appendix II: Analysis of Variance Table for DFPP
47
Appendix III: Analysis of Variance Table for NOLH
47
Appendix IV: Analysis of Variance Table for PACL
47
Appendix V Analysis of Variance Table for PALG
48
Appendix VI Analysis of Variance Table for PHAH
48
Appendix VII Analysis of Variance Table for SEYP
48
Appendix VIII Analysis of Variance Table for SPPK
49
Appendix IX Analysis of Variance Table for STGH
49
Appendix X Analysis of Variance Table for SYKH
49
x
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the study.
Sorghum is an important crop globally used for food (as grain and in sorghum syrup),
fodder, alcoholic beverages and bio-fuels. Sorghum is adapted to a wide range of
environmental condition but is particularly adapted to drought. Most research work show that
the use of several organic materials especially Cow dung, poultry manure and farmyard manure
as soil amendment for increasing crop production particularly among subsistence farmers with
inorganic fertilizer. However the benefit derivable from the use of organic materials has not
been utilized fully in the northern guinea savannah mainly due to large amount of organic
materials required in order to satisfy the nutritional need of the crops (Mabhaudhi, et al., 2015).
Sorghum is a food crop that is widely produced and commonly consumed in northern Nigeria.
Locally most varieties of sorghum are usually differentiated by their natural colours. In Nigeria,
sorghum is consumed in different forms. Generally it is consumed as whole grain or processed
in to powdered form (flour) from which different local traditional Nigerian meals are prepared.
Sorghum has been rated globally as the fifth most important staple food crop after rice, wheat,
maize and barley (FAO, 2016).
Improving crop yield performance and food self-sufficiency under increasing population
pressure is a primary goal for attaining food security in Africa (Bremner, 2012). At the same
time, declining soil fertility is a dominant constraint toward achieving improved yield across
Africa (Bosede 2010, Chianu et al., 2012, Mafongoya et al., 2006, Waddington et al., 2010).
In addition, many farmers are unable to access inorganic fertilizer due to lack of credit,
fertilizer’s high cost, and general lack of policy and institutional support for fertilizer use
(Chianu et al., 2012; Croppenstedt et al., 2003; Holloway et al., 2005).
1
The major constrain to productivity of crops in the semi-arid region is inadequate, unreliable
and poorly distributed rainfall and low soil fertility especially (N and P). The limited use of
mineral and organic fertilizer on crop is due to limited resources by the farmers and the risk
associated with fertilization in the environment of low and uncertain rainfall. The importance
of integrated use of organic and inorganic nutrient sources in the semi-arid tropics have been
reported;( Chianu et al., 2012).
Organic sources such as animal manure is an effective source of major nutrient (N, P, and K)
when applied at optimum rates and can influence the temporal dynamics of nutrients
availability, increase water use efficiency of crops, decrease phosphorous fixation and enhance
its availability in the soils through its effects on physical and chemical properties of the soil (
Shuaibu et al., 2018).
Despite all these, a complementary application of mineral fertilizer is usually required for a
good nutrient balance. Intensive farming with fertilizer responsive crop rely on high application
of inorganic fertilizer, this is very expensive and pose a serious threat to soil health and ground
water. Entire dependence on organic sources of nutrient may not be adequate for good
productivity. Soil fertility decline is caused by the interaction of natural and managerial factors,
usually through leaching, soil erosion and crop removal. The steady decline in food production
observed over the years has been attributed to the decline in soil fertility (Zinyengere et al.,
2013). Unless the nutrient are replenished through the use of organic or mineral fertilizers or
through traditional fallow system that allows restoration of nutrient and reconstitution of soil
organic matter, the food security in the semi-arid region will not be achieved. Majority of the
farmers in the study area are subsistence and cannot afford the required amount of inorganic
fertilizer, due to cost associated with transporting huge amount of organic fertilizer and lack of
information on the inappropriate combining ratio of organic and inorganic fertilizer in sorghum
production. This lead to significant low yield in sorghum production due to poor soil fertility
2
which is the limiting factor for optimum yield of sorghum. Soil degradation which is brought
about by loss of organic matter as a result of continuous cropping become aggravated when
inorganic fertilizers are solely applied repeatedly ( Schroetter ,2014).
Family of Sorghum
The Sorghum genus is found in the family Poaceae, tribe Andropogoneae, with the cultivated
Sorghum bicolor being the most well known species. Selection for superior characteristics,
either for food or feed crops, has resulted in distinct classes of sorghum varieties. The genus
consists of 25 species and has been split into five sections: Eu-Sorghum, Chaetosorghum,
Heterosorghum, Para-Sorghum, and Stiposorghum. Cultivated Sorghum is divided into five
distinct races, namely, bicolor, caudatum, guinea, durra, and kafir. The Eu-Sorghum is
distributed throughout Africa and southern Asia. Species within the Para-Sorghum are found
in Asia, Australia, and Central America. Chaetosorghum and Heterosorghum are monotypic
and native to Australia and Southeast Asia. In comparison, the Stiposorghum are comprised of
ten species only found in northern Australia. Most of the Australian Sorghums are found across
the tropical and subtropical northern belt of Australia, with only S. leiocladum being
widespread across eastern Australia. ( Price et al., 2005).
World production of sorghum and Nigeria
Sorghum is an important food crop in Africa and is the fifth most important cereal crop grown
in the world as well as the most important cereal food in the Northern states of Nigeria that
cover the Sahelien, Sudanian and Guinea Savannah ecological zones. Sorghum is locally called
guinea-corn or dawa, the most widely cultivated cereal crop and the most important food crop
in the Savanna areas of Nigeria.( Abubakar et al., 2018) Nigeria is the second largest producer
of sorghum, grown on about 5.9 million ha with current annual production estimated to be
about 6.7 million tonnes. Sorghum is grown by over 59% and 55% of farmers in Adamawa and
Borno States, respectively. It is mostly grown for domestic consumption and the excess sold to
3
generate income. Among the constraints to sorghum production are subsistence farmers who
do not invest much in fertilizer and improved varieties, rising labor cost, changing consumer
food preferences, bird attacks and parasitic weeds such as Striga. Another major problem is the
variable rainfall that leads to wild fluctuations in production. Prices fall abruptly in good years,
leaving traders reluctant to enter the market. This increases the price risk that sorghum
producers face; hence their reluctance to invest in commercial sorghum production. Sorghum
is produced in almost all the states of Nigeria, Adamawa, Bauchi, Benue, Borno, Gombe,
Jigawa, Kaduna, Kano, Katsina, Kebbi, Kogi, Kwara, Nasarawa, Niger, Plateau, Sokoto,
Taraba, and Zamfara States are the major producers. (USAID-MARKETS, 2009)
SORGHUM AND ITS UTILIZATION
A majority of the domestic produce is used for household consumption by many rural
communities. It finds uses in the production of beverage, malt, sorghum meal, and livestock
feed, among others. Whole grain is ground into flour used to make traditional foods. Sorghum
is mainly used as flour or paste processed into tuwo (thick porridge), kamu (thin diet porridge),
and pate (soup like and light porridge mixed with vegetables, sometime containing beans). A
gradual increase in demand for pre-processed sorghum convenience foods as well as for
industrial sorghum products has been observed. Sorghum is also processed into malt for malted
drinks and foods, high quality flours, and as a raw material for the poultry and fish feed
industries. Sorghum is also processed into cake, biscuits, sweets and other confectionaries. (
Hakeem et al .,2020)
1.2 Statement of problem
To curtail the food security challenge, there is need to improve the productivity of crops in the
semi-arid region is inadequate, unreliable and poorly distributed rainfall and low soil fertility
especially (N and P). The limited use of mineral and organic fertilizer on crop is due to limited
resources by the farmers and the risk associated with fertilization in the environment of low
4
and uncertain rainfall. The importance of integrated use of organic and inorganic nutrient
sources in the semi-arid tropics have been reported. Organic sources such animal dungs is an
important source of major nutrient (N, P, and K) when applied at an optimum rates can
influence the temporal dynamics of nutrients availability in the soil. Therefore there is need to
increase the production yield of
sorghum (orkapi) using different blends of organic and
inorganic fertilizer.
1.3 Aim and Objectives
The aim of this study is to evaluate the performance of sorghum (orkapi) in different blends of
organic and inorganic fertilizer.
The objective of this study is:
i. To evaluate for the performance of sorghum to different blends of organic and inorganic
fertilizer.
1.5 Justification
There is a recent increase in population growth in many African countries like Nigeria
Increasing crop production to meet the population need in Nigeria
like many Sahelian
countries is the main goal to achieve. Nigeria has experienced accelerated demographic growth
rate while its agriculture is confronted with extremely difficult and change in climatic
conditions. Climatic change plays a crucial role in resource depletion ending in failed crops or
very low yields. Therefore, the use of fertilizer as additive to the soil can help to improve the
soil fertility thereby increasing productivity.
5
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Origin and Distribution of Sorghum
Sorghum is grown in all parts of the world except cool North east part of Europe. Sorghum
belts in India receive 400-1000mm rainfall. In the World, Africa (Nigeria, Sudan) is the major
continent that cultivates sorghum and North America, South America and Asian continents
also grow sorghum. In India, mainly on central & peninsular India such as, Maharashtra,
Karnataka, MP, AP, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Gujarat are important states cultivates
sorghum crop. Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) is the fifth most important cereal crop
in the world after wheat (Triticum aestivum L), rice (Oryza sativa L.), maize (Zea mays L.),
and barley (Hordeum vulgare L.). The center of origin of sorghum is believed to be near Lake
Chad in Africa. This crop was first domesticated about 7000 BP in West Africa. Thereafter, it
reached India about 1500 BC and China by 900 AD. Cultivated sorghums was first introduced
to America about 100 years ago. Worldwide, grain sorghum is produced on 43.8 million ha,
with an estimated total production in 2007 of 64.6 million tons. Major sorghum production
areas include the great plains of North America, Sub-Saharan Africa, northeast China, and the
Deccan plateau of central India. Important sorghum producing countries in the world are India,
Nigeria, Sudan, United States, Niger, and Mexico. Many of the tropical sorghums are shortday plants and their response to day length is an important adaptation. However, the selection
of early-maturing varieties and hybridization helped its spread in the USA. This country is the
worlds’ largest exporter of grain sorghum, and its share in world trade is about 70%.
There are different views about history and origin of sorghum. (Warth,1937) was of the opinion
that it was originated in India and Africa. De Candolle said that sorghum was originated in
Africa. It is believed to have been originated from North East of Africa and brought to USA
and European countries by slaves. The centre of origin and distribution of sorghum is
considered to be the north-eastern part of Africa, most likely in the modern Ethiopia and Sudan
6
regions where cultivation started approximately 4000 - 3000 BC (Dillon et al., 2007).
Cultivated sorghums of today arose from the wild Sorghum bicolor subsp. arundinaceum
(Doggett, 1988). Early domestication occurred via a process of disruptive selection. Initially,
selection efforts are likely to have concentrated on replacing the small-seeded, shattering, open
panicles of wild types with the large seeded, non-shattering and compact panicles of
domesticated lines (Doggett, 1965). These changes contributed to improved yields over the
original landrace varieties (Dillon et al., 2007).
Where several traits advantageous to
cultivation were favoured (Doggett, 1988). In addition to disruptive selection, geographic
isolation and recombination in different environments led to the creation of a large number of
types, varieties and races of sorghum. As a result, three broad groups of S. bicolor were
generated; cultivated and improved types; wild types; and intermediate types (Kimber,2000)
Cultivated sorghums developed with diverse morphological traits including height and
inflorescence characters, and for numerous uses including food, fodder, fibre and as a building
material (Dillon et al., 2007)
2.2 Taxonomy of sorghum
The genus Sorghum belongs to the grass family Poaceae (Gramineae), subfamily Panicoideae,
tribe Andropogoneae, subtribe Sorghinae (Clayton and Renvoize, 1986). The Andropogoneae
also contains important crops such as sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) and maize (Zea mays). The
genus Sorghum is a very diverse group which has made the classification of domesticated and
wild sorghums difficult (Wiersema and Dahlberg, 2007). It consists of 25 recognized species
that are classified morphologically into five subgenera: Chaetosorghum, Heterosorghum,
Parasorghum, Stiposorghum and Eusorghum (Celarier 1958, Price et al., 2005 USDA ARS
2015). Cultivated sorghum belongs to the subgenus Eusorghum . Extensive lists of synonyms
for Sorghum species can be found in the World Checklist of Selected Plant Species (WCSP
2015).
7
2.3 Climate and Soil Requirement
Sorghum is mainly grown on low potential, shallow soils with high clay content, which usually
are not suitable for the production of maize. Sorghum usually grows poorly on sandy soils,
except where a heavy textured sub-soil is present. Sorghum is more tolerant of alkaline salts
than other grain crops and can therefore be successfully cultivated on soils with a pH (KCl)
between 5.5 and 8.5. Sorghum can better tolerate short periods of water logging compared with
maize. Soils with a clay percentage of between 10 % and 30 % are optimal for sorghum
production.
The climatic requirements for the production of sorghum are divided into
temperature, day length and water needs.
2.4 Temperature
Sorghum is a warm-weather crop, which requires high temperatures for good germination and
growth. The minimum temperature for germination varies from 7 to 10 ºC. At a temperature of
15 ºC, 80 % of seed germinate within 10 to 12 days. The best time to plant is when there is
sufficient water in the soil and the soil temperature is 15 ºC or higher at a depth of 10 cm.
Temperature plays an important role in growth and development after germination. A
temperature of 27 to 30 ºC is required for optimum growth and development. The temperature
can, however be as low as 21 ºC, without a dramatic effect on growth and yield. Exceptionally
high temperatures cause a decrease in yield. Flower initiation and the development of flower
primordial are delayed with increased day and night temperatures. Plants with four to six
mature leaves that are exposed to a cold treatment (temperatures less than 18 ºC) will form
lateral shoots. However, in plants with or beyond the eight-leaf stage, apical dominance will
prevent the formation of lateral shoots. Temperatures below freezing are detrimental to
sorghum and may kill the plant. At an age of one to three weeks, plants may recover if exposed
to a temperature of 5 ºC below the freezing point, but at 7 ºC below freezing, plants are killed.
Plants older than three weeks are less tolerant to low temperatures and may be killed at 0 ºC.
8
2.5 Day length
Sorghum is a short-day plant, which means that the plant requires short days (long nights)
before proceeding to the reproductive stage. The optimum photoperiod, which will induce
flower formation, is between 10 and 11 hours. Photoperiods longer than 11 to 12 hours
stimulate vegetative growth. The tropical varieties are usually more sensitive to photoperiod
than the quick, short-season varieties. Sorghum plants are most sensitive to photoperiod during
flower initiation.
2.6 Water requirements
Sorghum is produced in South Africa on a wide range of soils, and under fluctuating rainfall
conditions of approximately 400 mm in the drier western parts to about 800 mm in the wetter
eastern parts. Drought tolerance Sorghum is able to tolerate drought better than most other
grain crops and can be attributed to: An exceptionally well developed and finely branched root
system, which is very efficient in the absorption of water; It has a small leaf area per plant,
which limits transpiration; The leaves fold up more efficiently during warm, dry conditions
than that of maize; It has an effective transpiration ratio of 1:310, as the plant uses only 310
parts of water to produce one part of dry matter, compared to a ratio of 1:400 for maize; The
epidermis of the leaf is corky and covered with a waxy layer, which protects the plant form
desiccation; The stomata close rapidly to limit water loss; During dry periods, sorghum has the
ability to remain in a virtually dormant stage and resume growth as soon as conditions become
favourable. Even though the main stem can die, side shoots can develop and form seed when
the water supply improves. Production potential It is essential for the sorghum producer to
make a realistic yield estimate. Production practices such as planting density, fertilization,
cultivar choice depends on the planned yield. Various methods, each having limitations, can
be used to determine yield potential. The most reliable method is to use long-term yield data
9
from each producer. This reflects the inherent yield of the specific environment, as well as the
effect of agronomic practices such as fertilization, soil cultivation, plant density, weed control,
and pest control and the managerial skills of the producer.
2.7 Botany and Ecology
Basic Botany of the Species the Sorghum genus is found in the family Poaceae, tribe
Andropogoneae, with the cultivated Sorghum bicolor being the most well-known species.
Selection for superior characteristics, either for food or feed crops, has resulted in distinct
classes of sorghum varieties. The genus consists of 25 species and has been split into five
sections: Eu-Sorghum, Chaetosorghum, Heterosorghum, Para-Sorghum, and Stiposorghum.
Cultivated Sorghum is divided into five distinct races, namely, bicolor, caudatum, guinea,
durra, and kafir. The broad geographical distribution of the five sections of the Sorghum genus
has been well described and summarized by (Price et al., 2005). The Eu-Sorghum is distributed
throughout Africa and southern Asia. Species within the Para-Sorghum are found in Asia,
Australia, and Central America. Chaetosorghum and Heterosorghum are monotypic and native
to Australia and Southeast Asia. In comparison, the Stiposorghum are comprised of ten species
only found in northern Australia. Most of the Australian Sorghums are found across the tropical
and subtropical northern belt of Australia, with only S. leiocladum being widespread across
eastern Australia. n S. bicolor cultivated sorghum, is an important cereal, pasture crop and is
closely related to maize and sugarcane (Dillon et al. 2007; Paterson et al. 2009). It is the world’s
fifth most widely grown cereal crop after wheat, rice, maize, and barley. Sorghum has been
used for human consumption by ancient tribes, dating back to 8000 BC. Originating from
Africa, Ethiopia is reported to be the center of genetic diversity for the species. The progenitor
species of cultivated sorghum may include S. arundinaceum, S. _ drummondii, m S. halepense
and S. propinquum Sorghum is one of the oldest cultivated crops and is currently grown in
over a hundred countries. Annual production of cultivated sorghum is only about 60 million
10
tons, which is a much lower level of production than the major cereal crops wheat and rice
(Sasaki and Antonio 2009). This is partly because sorghum and its wild relatives have not been
exploited to their true breeding potential. The species within the Sorghum genus fall into a
primary, secondary, and tertiary gene pool. The primary and secondary gene pools consist of
Eu-Sorghum (S. bicolor, S. _ almum, S. _ drummondii, S. halepense, S. propinquum, S.
arundinaceum), while the broad tertiary gene pool consists of Chaetosorghum (S.
macrospermum), Heterosorghum (S. laxiflorum), Para-Sorghum (S. grande, S. leiocladum, S.
matarankense, S. nitidum, S. timorense), and Stiposorghum (S. amplum, S. angustum, S.
brachypodum, S. bulbosum, S. ecarinatum, S. exstans, S. interjectum, S. intrans,S. plumosum,
S. stipoideum) (Dillon et al., 2004;( Price et al., 2005), which are increasingly being exploited
in biotechnology and breeding programs. S. bicolor is strictly a short-day plant and very
sensitive to photoperiod. It is cultivated in harsh conditions, on marginal land with minimum
resources requiring less water (high water use efficiency, WUE) and low dosage of
fertilizers/nutrients. (Dillon et al. 2007) presented the broad, phylogenetic relationships within
the Sorghum genus.
2.8 Fertilizer and Its Utilization
Despite having the fastest growing population and highest depletion rates in the world farmers
in sub Saharan countries have the lowest global fertilizer use. This is due to high price
associated with mineral or inorganic fertilizer. It is highly likely that the reduction of the
fertilizer prices could increase their usage and, hence, improve the yields of staple food crops
like cereals (McArthur, et al.,2017) One of the most important cereals in sub Saharan African
countries is sorghum Okapi. It is a staple food for over 600 million people in the region
(Sekumade, 2017). In the case of Uganda, maize is the most grown cereal crop in both acreage
and production( FAO, 2017) as well as the second largest consumer of mineral fertilizers in
the country . However, maize yields across the country remain low when compared to acreage
11
of land under production with a decreasing trend over several years. For instance, in 2013,
average maize yields were 2.395 tons per hectare
as compared to 2.353 in 2015, which
represents a 6% decrease in yield (FAO, 2017). During the same period, usage of Nitrogen (N)
fertilizers on agricultural fields decreased despite a 2% increase in land under maize
production. The consequence of these figures is stressed by (Masso et al., 2017 )who reported
that more than 80% of agricultural land in East Africa is N deficient due to over mining of soil
nutrients especially with crop harvests with insufficient or no replacement for the lost nutrients.
The use of fertilizers to increase crop yields is, therefore, inevitable. ( Ciceri and Allanore,
2019) indicate that fertilizer usage can lead to an increase in crop yield in SSA of about 30%–
50% in the next 30 years. While there is increased advocacy for use of inorganic fertilizers,
their excessive use is associated with soil, water, and air pollution. (Abayomi, and Adebayo,
2014) . Furthermore, inorganic fertilizers are expensive and their use may not be economically
justifiable especially for the poor smallholder farmers who mainly practice subsistence
farming. The use of organic amendments such as cattle manure is an alternative to these
detrimental effects of inorganic fertilizers because of its wide-spread availability, its additional
value for soil carbon sequestration, and its capacity for storing and releasing nutrients over a
longer time period ( Diacono and Montemurro, 2010)
Mineral or inorganic fertilizers, particularly nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK),
are widely used in intensive arable farming globally but at present organic fertilizers are not
common . In 2017, organic fertilizers in the form of manure or slurry were applied to 25% of
the area of arable crops in the UK. Across all farm types, cattle slurry (49%) Mineral accounts
for the greatest source of organic fertilizer, followed by farmyard manure (FYM, 38%), bio
solids (treated sewage sludge), and industrial wastes (including compost brewery effluents,
and paper waste), each accounting for ~2% of the organic fertilizer applied (DEFRA., 2018)
On-farm processing of waste using anaerobic digestion is carried out by 5.4% of farms.(
12
DEFRA, 2019) Crop straw is removed from 73% of UK farms, which removes 10% more P
and 50% more K compared to the removal of grain alone .( DEFRA, 2019) Recycling organic
waste as a crop fertilizer, as opposed to its disposal at landfill, would reduce .greenhouse gas
emissions Case et al., 2018 In the EU in 2017, 26% of MSW (municipal solid waste/ bio-waste)
was landfilled, 30% was recycled, and a further 17% was composted ( Eurostat, 2019) This is
an increase in recycling and composting of 195% and 205% respectively, since 1995 and the
adoption of the European Landfill Directive (European,2019). In the UK, there has been a
reduction in methane emissions from landfills of 74% over the period 1990–2013 , and in the
EU a reduction in CO2 emissions from landfills of over 56% since 2001 (CCC, 2019) which is
predominantly explained by the recycling of biodegradable materials. The use of organic
fertilizers would also contribute to carbon sequestration (EEA, 2013) Model predictions using
data from the Askov long-term agricultural trials suggest an increase in carbon storage after
conversion to organic farming of 10–40 g C m−2 y −1in the first 50 years ( Foereid,2004) Use
of locally produced organic fertilizers would reduce the energy costs associated with the
production and transport of mineral fertilizers. Soil organic carbon (SOC) is an important
indicator of soil health, particularly with regard to soil fertility for crops, because it has
numerous benefits: improving soil structure through soil particle aggregation enabling better
root access, increased water infiltration and retention, increased nutrient bioavailability due to
SOM (soil organic matter) decomposition, and more exchange sites for mineral nutrients
increasing the soil’s cation exchange capacity. In a non-fertilized soil, SOM may provide 90%
of plant available N, 80% of plant available P, and 50% of plant available S, as well as micro
nutrients . The Hounsfield experiment at Rothamsted, UK, shows that over the past 40 years a
greater barley yield was reached with the manure only treatment compared with the mineral
fertilizer only treatment (Rothamsted Research., 2019) Similar benefits of manure were
reported from other long-term field trials; in rice-wheat systems in India in wheat-fallow
13
experiments in Columbia, USA and in a winter wheat-maize rotation in China ( Liu et al.,
2010) Yet, a meta-analysis of long-term trials in Europe , in particular of the Askov trials in
Denmark, showed that when the FYM amendment was balanced with the mineral fertilizer to
have the same NPK rates applied, the mineral fertilizer treatment gave slightly greater yields
than the fertilizer + manure treatments after 10 years ( Edmeades, 2003)The latter studies
suggest that it may specifically be the added nutrient benefit of organic matter rather than an
improvement in soil health generally which improves yield over treatments with mineral
fertilizer alone. High input agricultural systems that supply only major nutrients to the crop
may suffer from a lack of secondary nutrients (e.g., Ca, Mg, and S) and micro nutrients (e.g.,
Fe, Cu, and Zn), which can impact yield and nutritional quality of harvested products [20,21].
Modern high-yielding varieties that grow larger and faster may not acquire secondary and
micro nutrients at a sufficient rate a ‘genetic dilution effect (’ Fan et al., 2008) For example,
archived wheat grains grown on the Rothamsted long-term Broadbalk wheat experiment
showed a 19% reduction in Mg concentration from 1138 to 924 mg kg−1 in modern high
yielding varieties grown since 1968 compared with older varieties and similar observations in
durum wheat have been made ( Ficco, 2009) Significant declines in micro nutrient
concentrations in UK vegetable and fruit produce from the 1980s compared with the 1930s
have also been found . (White, and Broadley, 2019) This ‘yield dilution effect’ has been seen
in strong inverse relationships between wheat grain yield and grain micro nutrient
concentrations . An additional supply of secondary and micro nutrients from organic sources
will likely benefit both yield and the quality of produce. However, comparisons of the effect
of different organic amendments on crop nutrient concentrations have not been studied
extensively. Wheat grain Zn concentrations were found to more than double with sewage
sludge applications over 4 years in UK field experiments( White and Broadley, 2019) The
concentration of secondary and micro nutrients Mg, Fe, K, Ca, and Mn of the edible part of
14
vegetables was greater when grown in organic compared with conventional farms (Hattab et al
.,2019), whereas heavy metal toxicant concentrations of vegetables were greater when grown
in conventional rather than organic systems (Hadayat et al., 2019 ) It was observed in rice that
uptake of P and K was greater with chicken manure than compost treatment, whereas uptake
of N, Ca, and Mg was greater with compost treatment ( Steiner et al., 2007) Application of
FYM and green manure (clover) increased wheat shoot and grain N, S, and P, but shoot and
grain Zn and Cd only increased with FYM application (Gruter et al., 2017). The uptake of P
from phosphate fertilizers applied to maize increased with the application of green manure (
de Medeiros al., et 2019) Organic fertilizers include a wide range of different materials with
sometimes quite different properties. Here we used four different materials widely available to
farmers in the UK. Anaerobic digestate (AD) is a by-product of bio-gas production from
organic waste under anaerobic decomposition. The digestate consists of left-over indigestible
material and dead micro-organisms. All nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium remains in the
digestate as none is lost in the biogas, and plant available ammonium content increases after
digestion . (Gutser et al., 2004). Compost has already been somewhat mineralized, and in
contrast to fresh residues, decomposes and releases nutrients slowly when added to soil ( Pinto
et al., 2017 ) Farmyard manure is usually a mix of crop residues and animal feces with a low
C/N ratio, which decomposes fast and readily releases plant available nutrients ( Peigne et al.,
2007) Fresh straw has a very high carbon to nitrogen ratio, meaning that free N can be
immobilized by micro-organisms during decomposition and less is available for plant uptake.
Nitrogen is more readily available in digestate, but P and K are Mmore readily available in
compost and FYM . Co-composting low C/N-ratio materials, e.g., manure with high C/N-ratio
materials (e.g., straw), provides increased carbon for microbes to immobilize the free N in the
manure and therefore minimizes excess nitrate leaching, and, on the other hand, provides
sufficient nitrogen to speed the decomposition of the straw. (Paltridge et al., 2012).
15
2.9 Economics Importance of Sorghum
Sorghum is a cereal grain crop mostly grown in Africa, Asia and Central America, primarily
to ease food insecurity. It is the world's fifth largest grain crop and Africa's second most
important in terms of tonnage. Sorghum is mostly grown in semi-arid or sub-tropical regions
due to its resistance to harsh weather conditions. Sorghum, a grain, forage or sugar crop is
among the most efficient crops in conversion of solar energy and use of water. Sorghum is
known as a high-energy, drought tolerant crop. Because of its wide uses and adaptation
“sorghum is one of the really indispensable crops” required for the survival of humankind. In
the United States, South America, and Australia sorghum grain is used primarily for livestock
feed and in a growing number of ethanol plants. In the livestock market, sorghum is used in
the poultry, beef and pork industries. Stems and foliage are used for green chop, hay, silage,
and pasture.(FAO,2010).
2.9.1 Commercial uses
Sorghum is the fifth largest and most important cereal crop in the world after wheat, maize,
rice and barley (ICRISAT 2015). Annual global production of sorghum is estimated at
approximately 60 million tonnes (FAOSTAT 2013). Uses of sorghum are diverse and a number
of in-depth reviews are available (Doggett 1988; FAO 1995; Taylor 2003). Sorghum is an
important crop that serves as human staple and is a major livestock feed in intensive production
syst ems. Sorghum may be seen as one of the crops best suited to future climate change due to
its ability to adapt to conditions such as drought, salinity and high temperatures (ICRISAT
2015). Different races or cultivars of S. bicolor may be described as grain sorghum, fodder
sorghum or sweet sorghum depending on their morphology or end use (Purseglove 1972). In
some cases, sorghum is used as a dual purpose crop; after the grain is harvested, cattle are
grazed on the stubble. Its potential as a biofuel crop has been identified and is gaining in
importance (CGIAR 2015).
16
2.9.2 Food
Sorghum is an important dietary staple for more than 500 million people in 30 countries of
Africa and Asia (ICRISAT 2015). In Africa, sorghum underpins food security due to its
drought tolerance and its abilities to withstand periods of high temperatures and water logging.
It is well suited to the semi-arid and sub-tropical climatic conditions of much of Africa where
intense rainfall often occurs in short periods (Doggett 1988). Cultivation in Africa is
predominantly part of subsistence agriculture systems as opposed to the industrialised
production methods used in most other regions of the world. Africa produces about one third
of the world’s sorghum but has the lowest yields per hectare (FAO 1995; Taylor 2003).
Worldwide over 50% of the sorghum produced is used for animal feed, however in some
regions, particularly sub-Saharan Africa, the vast majority of sorghum production is for human
food use (ICRISAT & FAO 1996).
Sorghum grains are prepared for a variety of food products including use as a boiled food
similar to rice; roasting or popping like maize; threshing and grinding into flour to make breads,
porridges, pancake, muffins, dumplings, breakfast cereals or couscous, as well as preparation
of alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages (Purseglove 1972; Taylor 2003; CGIAR 2015;
ICRISAT 2015; FAO 2015). The stalks of sweet sorghum varieties with high sugar content are
used to make sugar and syrup (CGIAR 2015).
There is increasing interest in developing the potential of sorghum for uses in human foods and
beverages in western countries, in particular as a source of gluten-free food (O'Hara et al.,
2013, Norwood 2015). Human food uses in Australia are minor and include in gluten-free beer,
breakfast cereals and baked products.
2.9.3 Feed
Both sorghum grain and plant biomass (leaves and stalks) are used as animal feed. It is a cheap
alternative to maize and requires less water to produce similar yields due to its adaptability to
dry conditions (FAO 2015). In Australia and other western countries, sorghum grain is
17
primarily used as feed in the beef, dairy, pig and poultry industries (CGIAR 2015). Sorghum
forage cultivars while inclusive of grain sorghum, are often distinct and include Sudangrass
hybrids, sorghum x Sudangrass hybrids, sweet sorghum hybrids (Sorghum bicolor), open
pollinated sweet sorghum and dual purpose sorghum grain hybrids (Cameron 2006). These are
almost exclusively cultivated as forage and fodder crop. In Africa and Asia sorghum stalks are
used as animal feed and are an important summer fodder (CGIAR 2015; ICRISAT 2015).
2.9.4 Biofuel
Biofuels are being developed to replace fossil sources of transport fuels in response to concerns
about climate change. The biofuel industry produces ethanol from the sugars accumulated in
the stalks of sweet sorghum varieties and from the starch in the seeds of grain sorghum
(Almodares & Hadi 2009; O'Hara et al., 2013). In Australia, sorghum grain is the main source
for bioethanol production in the Dalby Bio-refinery, one of the three ethanol producing plants
in Australia (Biofuels Association of Australia 2012). That refinery buys around 200,000
tonnes of sorghum grain each year from local growers, from which it produces 76 million litres
of fuel-grade ethanol (Dalby Bio-refinery 2011). The high starch content of sorghum grain
(70% per grain weight) and the ability of sorghum to withstand hot dry cultivation conditions
makes it suitable as a feedstock for ethanol production (Wylie 2008; Almodares & Hadi 2009).
The ethanol production process from sorghum also generates two co-products, the ‘Wet cake’
and syrup that are high-protein, high value animal feed (RIRDC 2013).
2.9.4 Overview on Sorghum
Africa is the largest contributor to world sorghum production, with a production quantity of
approximately 29.7 million tonnes (FAO, 2020). Sorghum grains are a widely adaptable
species and mostly cultivated in tropical, subtropical and temperate regions (Visarada, et al.,
2019). As a drought tolerant and a climate-smart crop under the prevailing realities of climate
18
change, its utilization is spread across diverse industries, including for animal feeds, biofuels,
forage, ethanol production and fodder preservation (Wrigley, et al., 2017). It remains one of
the most versatile food crops in Africa. Sorghum belongs to the Andropogoneae tribe and
Poaceae family and is a known C4 crop (i.e., it uses the C4 carbon fixation pathway to increase
its photosynthetic efficiency), particularly adapted to hot, drought-prone and semi-arid tropical
environments with less rainfall. It is said to have originated from the Northeast quadrant of
Africa (Rooney, et al., 2003). Millet, barley, teff and wheat are also members of the Poaceae
family (Grayboasch, et al., 2016), and are likewise known for their ecological dominance in
many ecosystems, as well as their capacity to grow in low rainfall and harsh environmental
extremes conditions (Linder, et al., 2017). As indicated by Ratnavathi and Komala (Ratnavathi,
et al., 2016), over 20 sorghum species are known.
Sorghum is a food crop that is widely produced and commonly consumed in northern Nigeria.
Locally most varieties of sorghum are usually differentiated by their natural colours. In Nigeria,
sorghum is consumed in different forms. Generally, it is consumed as whole grain or processed
in to powdered form (flour) from which different local traditional Nigerian meals are prepared.
Sorghum has been rated globally as the fifth most important staple food crop after rice, wheat,
maize and barley (FAO, 2016). Sorghum consumption in developing countries was projected
to increase from 26 million to over 30 million tons from 1992 – 2005 (Leder, 2004) and the
consumption rate has increased very much in recent years. Sorghum has different varieties and
most of these varieties are been cultivated in the northern parts of Nigeria.
In terms of production quantity, sorghum is the fifth most important cereal crop in the world
after rice, wheat, maize and barley, and the most grown cereal in Sub-Saharan Africa, after
maize (Mabhaudhi, et al., 2015). It remains one of the most versatile cereal crops on the
continent, serving as a staple and main meal for millions of people (Adebo, et al., 2018). It is
an important source of calories, variety of nutrients and beneficial food components
19
(Odunmbaku, et al., 2018). With the increasing world population, decrease in water supply and
the effects of climate change, this drought resistant food crop is vital for human utilization and
will be an important crop for the future.
20
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Description of the study area
Mubi South Local Government Area is situated at the lower contour of Mandara mountains,
which separates Nigeria from Cameroon with Gella as its Headquarter at the Southern part of
Mubi town, Adamawa State and located at latitude 10°15’ 98.34’’ N and longitude 13° 29’
97.65’’ E (Google Earth, 2017) It is the headquarters of Mubi South Local Government Area,
Adamawa State, Nigeria.
3.2 Climatic Condition
Generally, Mubi region has a tropical wet and dry season which according to Koppen’s
classification is coded as “Equatorial Savannah with dry winter” (Aw) ( Kottek et al., 2006) or
tropical rainy ( de Sá Júnior et al., 2011). The temperature of Mubi region warm to hot
relatively evenly distributed across the year. The temperature ranges from 12.7°C (in January)
to 24.7°C (in April) which could be attributed to altitude of the region; situated in hill ranges
(Adebayo, 2004) The rain fall in Mubi is generally controlled by inter tropical discontinuity
(ITD) movement which determines the beginning and cessation of rains at a particular time of
the year( Ayoade et al., 1982) From the months of November to March, there is hardly any
rain. The period of transition between dry and wet season is April in which the scanty rains
around 10 mm. The months of May to September marks the wet season in Mubi. There is fast
diminution of rain from September to October due to the fast ITD retreat southwards providing
rains around 70 – 80 mm. The area has relatively low seasonal humidity which rises from April
to August at the peak of raining season. The mean annual rain fall ranges from 900 mm to 1050
mm in the region .
21
3.2 Methods
The inorganic fertilizer or mineral fertilizer (NPK and Urea) were bought from Mubi market
and the organic fertilizer or animal dungs were collected from Adamawa state university
animal farms.The experiment were conducted during the rainy season of 2021 at Adamawa
stste University Mubi. Teaching and research farm Gidan madara Mubi South Local
Government Area of Adamawa state to determine the performance of sorghum to different
blends of organic and inorganic fertilizer.
3.3 Seed Collection and Preparation.
Sorghum (Okapi) seed was collected from Farmers in Mubi Adamawa State Northeast Nigeria.
Seed were sought out and the sorghum (Okapi) was ready for sowing.
3.4 Experimental Design and Treatment Allocation
Organic fertilizers such as cow dung and poultry droppings and inorganic fertilizer such as
NPK 15:15:15, NPK 20:10:10 and the control (C) with no fertilizer treatment were applied in
a completely randomized block design (RCBD). The treatments of various fertilizer were laid
out in individual plots measuring 2 m 2 m with 1.5 m alleys in between. The different
treatments were
applied to the plants. When planting at an application rate of Seeds of
sorghum variety were sown manually at a depth of about 3 cm below the soil surface at a
spacing of 75 cm by 25 cm to 5 seeds sown per hole . Two different types of fertilizer organic
and inorganic or mineral fertilizer were used for treatment allocation. Mineral fertilizer NPK
15:15:15 were applied 1st and 2nd , NPK 20:10:10 were also be applied in 1st and 2nd
application. The experiment were run during 2021 raining season planting were done around
July 2021 and harvesting were around November 2021 . The experimental plots were kept
free of weed using a hand hoe.
22
3.5 Land Preparation and Layout
Sorghum requires a well-prepared seed bed for good establishment and well-drained fertile
land that has been left fallow for two or more years or preferably cropped with legumes in the
previous season. It is recommended that farm yard manure (FYM) at the rate of 2-5 t/h be
incorporated into the soil at ploughing. 1 t/ha annually is good enough to help improve soil
structure, moisture retention, and nutrient content. Land preparation depends on the system of
sowing. In conventional tillage, plough/harrow and make ridges at 75 cm row spacing.
Minimum tillage has been found to be suitable for good yields in drier areas, aiding moisture
conservation and reducing production cost.
3.6 Planting and Spacing
Seed was planted into sub plot at a spacing of 75cm X 50 cm between and within row
respectively at the seed rate of 5 per stand which will later be formed to 2 per stand at two
weeks after sowing when all the seed have fully emerged.
Sorghum (Okarpi) was planted manually with hoe. The sorghum seed was sown at an interrow (between rows) spacing of 75cm and intra-row (within rows) spacing of 25cm. a planting
of 2 cm is ideal with sufficient moisture.
3.7 Cultural Practices
Grasses was controlled using hoe weeding where ever they emerged
Selection of seeds
Good quality of sorghum seeds was collected from disease and pest-free fields.
3.8 Data Collection
Plant height
Number of leaves and total grain yield were used as an indicator parameters of the performance
of different treatments. Plant height and number of leaves were measured at Harvest. The
measurement process was as follows. Within each plot, four plants along the two diagonals
23
were randomly selected and their number of leaves and heights measured. The height was
measured as the distance from the soil surface to the topmost leaf tip or tassel using a linear
tape measure. Grains were threshed manually to avoid grain loss after which the grains were
weighed to obtain grain yield from each plot. Grain yields were recorded in kilograms with
the weight being obtained using a GLOBE digital weighing scale model 821–018 (Adam
Equipment Inc., Oxford, UK)
3.9 Stem Girth
The stem girth was measured using tread to determine the thickness of the stem on the meter
rule to various treatment of organic and inorganic fertilizer and it is usually measured in
centimeter (cm).
3.10 Statistical Analysis
Data were analysed using ANOVA model, with SPSE software version 16 significant mean
will be separated using DMRT at P <0.05
24
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS
4.1 RESULTS
4.1 Effect of fertilizer blend on stem girth, Number of leaves and plant height.
The analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed significant different P≤ 0.05 for stem girths with
highest growth of stem at 300 kg/ha-1 NPK and the control has low growth, while T7
combination of 150 kg/ha-1 NPK + 250 kg/ha-1 of cowdung has the highest number of leaves
and 500 kg/ha-1 of cow dung has the lowest number of leaves at harvest and there is no
significant different while at plant height the best combination 150 kg/ha-1 NPK + 250 kg/ha1
cowdung has the best effect of fertilizer and T7 control has the best effect of fertilizer and T7
has the lowest plant height and their no significant different. (As shown in Table 1)
25
Table 1: Effect of fertilizer blend on stem girth, Number of leaves at harvest and plant
height.
Treatment Treatments
code
STG(cm)
NLC
PLH(cm)
Control (no fertilizer added)
5.17c
7.33a
135.63a
T1
300kg/ha-1 NPK
7.47a
8.43a
156.67a
T2
500kg/ha-1 Cow dung
6.83ab
7.30a
136.53a
T3
300kg/ha-1 Chicken
dropping
6.83ab
8.20a
159.93a
T4
150kg/ha-1 NPK + 250kg/ha- 7.03a
9.03a
167.63a
1
Cow dung
T5
150kg/ha-1 NPK+ 150kg/ha1
+ chicken dropping
7.30a
8.70a
162.60a
T6
NPK + Cow dung + chicken
dropping 75kg/ha-1 +
125kg/ha-1 + 75kg/ha-1
7.30a
8.70a
162.60a
Significant
*
N.S
N.S
Significant at P≤0.05; ** Significant at P≤0.01; ***Significant at P≤0.01, NS= not significant
mean forward by the same superscript within the same column are not significant different at
P≤0.05 (DMRT). NPK= ±SEM= positive/negative standard error of a mean.
Key:
STG = stem girth
NOL = Number of leaves at harvest
PLH = plant height,
NPK = Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium
26
4.2 Effect of fertilizer blend on seed yield per plot, seed yield in kg/ha treatment seed yield
per plant.
The analysis of variance revealed significant different among the seed yield in kg/ha-1 at P≤
0.05 with the plant yield T5 150 kg/ha-1 NPK + 150 kg/ha-1 Chicken dropping produced the
highest number of seed yield in kg/ha-1 and the control produced the least number of seed yield
in kg/ha-1 seed yield per plant varies not significantly among the various treatment with plant
raised containing the 150 kg/ha-1 of NPK and 150 kg/ha-1 of Chicken dropping produced the
highest yield per plant followed by 300 kg/ha-1 of NPK and the least yield per plant was
produced by the control(T). Seed yield per plot varies significantly different among the seed
yield per plot at P≤ 0.05 with plant raised containing the 150 kg/ha-1 NPK and 150 kg/ha-1
chicken dropping produced the highest yield per plot followed by 500 kg/ha-1 Cow dung and
the least yield per plot was produced by the control (T7). (as shown in Table 2).
27
Table 2: Effect of fertilizer blend on seed yield per plot, seed yield in kg/ha treatment seed
yield per plant.
Treatment Treatment
code
SEYP(kg)
SYKgha-
SYPP(Kg)
1
Control (no fertilizer added)
0.10b
270.0c
0.12cc
T1
300kg/ha-1 NPK
0.15ab
453.3bc
0.17bc
T2
500kg/ha-1 Cow dung
0.21ab
1325ab
0.53a
T3
300kg/ha-1 Chicken dropping
0.14ab
375c
0.15c
T4
150kg/ha-1 NPK + 250kg/ha-1 Cow dung
0.11b
375.0c
0.15c
T5
150kg/ha-1 NPK + 150kg/ha-1 chicken 0.39a
dropping
1900a
0.76a
T6
75kg/ha-1 NPK+ 125kg/ha-1 Cow dung + 0.20b
75kg/ha-1 chicken dropping
912.1ab
0.46ab
±SEM
0.08
218.81
0.14
Significant
NS
*
**
*=Significant at P≤0.05; **= Significant at P≤0.01; *** Significant at P≤0.01 NS = not
significant mean followed by the same superscript within the same column at not
significantly different at P≤0.05 (DMRT)
Key:
NPK= Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium, SYPP = seed yield per plot
SYKgha-1 = seed yield in kg/ha , SEYPlant = seed yield per plant
28
4.3 Effect of fertilizer mixture on days at 50% plant panicle, panicle girth and panicle
length.
Days of 50% height does not differ among the various treatment this implies that days of 50%
height in the sorghum is not influence by different treatment combination. Panicle girth does
not differ too among the various treatment this implies that panicle girth in the sorghum is not
influence by different treatment combination in the table. The same goes to panicle length does
not differs among the various treatment this implies that panicle length in the sorghum is not
influence by different combination in the table.
29
Table 3: Effect of fertilizer mixture on days at 50% plant panicle, panicle circumference
and panicle length.
Treat
Treatments
DFPP
PG(cm)
PL (cm)
Control (no fertilizer added)
72.33a
10.30b
15.10ab
NPK 300kg/ha
72.67a
12.00ab
16.60ab
T2
Cow dung 500kg/ha
69.33a
11.33ab
17.73ab
T3
Chicken dropping 300kg/ha
69.00a
13.90a
14.90b
T4
NPK + Cow dung 150kg/ha + 250kg/ha
74.00a
10.30b
15.03ab
T5
NPK + chicken dropping 150kg/ha + 150kg/ha
65.00a
12.43ab
18.57ab
T6
NPK + Cow dung + chicken dropping 75kg/ha +
66.67a
14.03a
18.90a
±SEM
7.08
1.60
1.84
Significant
NS
NS
NS
ment
code
T1
125kg/ha + 75kg/ha
*=Significant at P≤0.05; **= Significant at P≤0.01; *** Significant at P≤0.01 NS = not
significant mean followed by the same superscript within the same column at not significantly
different at P≤0.05 (DMRT)
Key:
DFPP= Days of 50% panicle
PG= Panicle girth
PL= panicle lenght
30
4.4: Pearson Correlations between seed Yield and other related Character.
Table 4 shows the Character such as number of leaves, panicle growth, plant height showed
positive correlation with yield indicating that improvement in these character will enhance the
yield of Sorghum orkapi.
31
Table 4: Pearson Correlations for Growth and Yield Character of Sorghum.
D50%H NOL
NOLH
-0.7803
P-VALUE 0.0000
PACL
-0.0949 0.4188
0.6825 0.0588
PALG
0.0345 0.1222
0.8818 0.5977
PHAH
-0.0927 0.4260
0.6895 0.0542
SEYP
0.0299 0.1292
0.8975
0.5767
SPPK
-0.2246 0.2332
0.3277
0.3089
STGH
-0.3513
0.4596
0.1184
0.0361
SYKH
-0.2360 0.4301*
-0.3031
0.0516
STGH
SYKH
0.3950
P-VALUE 0.0763
PG
0.3270
0.1480
0.5003
0.0209
0.4988
0.0213
0.2004
0.3838
0.4400
0.0459
0.8574*
0.0000
PL
PLH
SEYP
0.5481
0.0101
0.6001 0.4264
0.0040 0.0539
0.5583 0.4137
0.0085 0.0623
0.3927 0.2193
0.0783 0.3395
0.3016 0.4742*
0.1840 0.0299
KEYS
D50%H= Days of 50% Heading
NOL= Number of Leaves
PG= Panicle Girth
PL= Panicle Length
PLH= Plant Height
SEYP= Seed Yield Per Plant
SYPP= Seed Yield Per Plot
SYKH= seed yield kg/h-
32
0.3653
0.1035
0.3735
0.0954
0.4243
0.0553
SYPPplot
0.2295
0.3169
0.2281
0.3200
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 DISCUSSION.
the significant different observed for stem girth at the end of the growth if sorghum at the
harvest in this study maybe an indication that fertilizer treatment has contributed significant at
the end of the growth of sorghum, the fastest growth was noticed in T1 the NPK and the lowest
stem girth plant is recorded in the control T7 this clearly suggest that to initiate faster vegetative
in girth, is NPK in the ratio.
There is also no significant different in the number of leaves produced by the different fertilizer
treatment but the only treatment that has the highest number of leaves is combination of NPK
+ Cow dung compared with the other treatment and other treatment and the control. The
important of leaves to plant cannot be over emphasized, as it’s the photosynthetic organs of the
plant.
There is no significant different at plant height produced by the different fertilizer treatment
but only treatment that has the highest plant height is the combination of NPK + Cow dung
compared with the other treatment and has the lowest plant height.
The most important character in any research aim at improving yield is the yield in kg/hac -1
seed yield in kg/hac-1 varies widely across the different treatment on the sorghum yield
containing combination of NPK + Chicken dropping has produced highest yield in kg/hac-1 and
the lowest yield was produced by the control T7. This is an indication that all the fertilizer
combination has contributed significantly in the increase yield contributed significantly in
increase yield of sorghum when compared with the control
The significant difference observed in the seed yield per plot across the yield per plot has been
effective by the different fertilizer treatment is an indication that the seed yield per plot has
been effective by the different fertilizer treatment with the combination of NPK+ Chicken
dropping produced the highest means seed yield per plot the least was seed per plot was
produced by the control this clearly suggested that to enhance the yield of a sorghum the
combination of NPK +chicken dropping is the best fertilizer.
Variation in the day at 50% panicle across the different treatment indicated that fertilizer has
affected the days at which the sorghum began heading with plant raised in NPK fertilizer at the
33
rate of 300 kg/hac-1 heading earlier compared with the other treatment and there is no
significant different.
5.2 CONCLUSION
The mixture of NPK + Chicken dropping is the best fertilizer combination that will enhance
the yield of sorghum character like seed yield per plot, seed yield in kg/hac-1 and the plant
height that enhance the growth of sorghum the best fertilizer is NPK (Nitrogen, Phosphorus
and Potassium) and the important character to consider when planning breeding program the
seed yield in kg/hac -1 of a sorghum, so as to improve the yield of sorghum
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
Application of 300kg/hac-1 of NPK can be recommended for sorghum cultivation.
The combination of 150kg/hac
-1
NPK +150kg/hac-1 chicken dropping burst the yield and
growth of sorghum. Therefore, the use of organic manure on growth of sorghum plant is highly
recommended.
Further study should be carried out on the response of different blends of organic and inorganic
fertilizer to different plants.
34
REFERENCES
Abayomi, A.O.; Adebayo, O.J. Effect of fertilizer types on the growth and yield of Amaranthus
caudatus in Ilorin, Southern Guinea, Savanna Zone of Nigeria. Adv. Agric. 2014,
2014, 947062.
Adebayo AA. Climate. In: A.A. Adebayo, editor. Mubi Region, a Geographical
Ajakaiye DE, Hall DH, Muller TW. Interpretation of aeromagnetic data across the central
crystalline shield area of Nigeria. In: C. A. Kogbe, Editor. Geology of Nigeria. 2 nd
Revised Edition. Rockview Nigeria Limited, Jos, Nigeria; 1989.
Ajeigbe, Hakeem A., Ignatius I. Angarawai, Daniel A. Aba, Folorunso Akinseye, Abubakar H.
Inuwa, Ayuba Kunihya and George O. Opara. (2018). Improved Agronomic Practices
of Sorghum in Nigeria. 24 pp.
Ajibade AC, Woakes M. Proterozoic crustal development in the Pan-African regime of Nigeria.
In: C. A. Kogbe, editor. Geology of Nigeria. 2nd Rev Ed. Rockview Nigeria Limited,
Jos, Nigeria; 1989.
Almodares, A., Hadi, M.R. (2009) Production of bioethanol from sweet sorghum: A review.
African Journal of Agricultural Research 4: 772-780.
Ayoade JO. Climate I. In: Barbour, K.M. Editors. Nigeria in Maps. Hadder- Stoughton,
London; 1982.
Badi, W. H. I. (2004). Effect of processing on anti nutritional factors and mineral
bioavailability of sorghum. P. H.D. Thesis- U of K. Sudan.
Batey, I. The diversity of uses for cereal grains. In Cereal Grains; Wrigley, C., Batey, I.,
Miskelly, D., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2011; pp. 41–53.
Beta, T.; Corke, H.; Taylor, J.R.N. Starch properties of Barnard red, a South African red
sorghum variety of significance in traditional African brewing. Starch 2000, 52, 467–
470.
Biofuels Association of Australia (2012) Ethanol Plants in Australia. Biofuels Association of
Australia. 52 CGIAR (Accessed:30-7-2015) Sorghum. CGIAR.
35
Bosede AJ (2010) Economic assessment of fertilizer use and integrated
Bremner J (2012) Population and food security: Africa’s challenge.
Burdette, A.; Garner, P.L.; Mayer, E.P.; Hargrove, J.L.; Hartle, D.K.; Greenspan, P. Antiinflammatory activity of select sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) brans. Journal of
Medicinal Foods 2010,
13, 879–887.
Case, S.D.C.; Oelofse, M.; Hou, Y.; Oenema, O.; Jensen, L.S. Farmer perceptions and use of
organic waste products as fertilizers—A survey study of potential benefits and
barriers. Agric. Syst. 2017, 151, 84–95. Agronomy 2019, 9, 776 13 of 15
Celarier, R. P. (1958) Cytotaxonomy of the Andropogoneae. III. Sub-tribe Sorgheae, genus
Sorghum. Cytologia 23: 395-418.
Ciceri, D.; Allanore, A. Local fertilizers to achieve food self-su_ciency in Africa. Sci. Total
Environ. 2019, 648, 669–680.
Clayton, W.D., Renvoize, S.A. (1986) Genera Graminum: Grasses of the World. Kew Bulletin
Additional Series, XIII, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Her Majesty's Stationery
Office, London.
Committee on Climate Change (CCC). Factsheet: Waste and F-Gases. 2016. Available online:
https:
//www.theccc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/Waste-and-F-gases-
factsheet-2015 v1.1.pdf (accessed on 19 May 2019).
Conley SP, Steven WG and Dunn DD. (2005). Grain sorghum responds to row spacing, plant
density and planter skips. Crop management, 5, 56- 59
Croppenstedt A, Demeke M, Meschi M (2003) Technology adoption in Cycle Agroecosystem
76:137–151. doi:10.1007/s10705-006-9049-3
Davis, D.R. Declining fruit and vegetable nutrient composition: What is the evidence?
HortScience 2009, 44, 15–19.
De Medeiros, E.V.; Silva, A.O.; Duda, G.P.; dos Santos, U.J.; de Souza Junior, A.J. The
combination of Arachispintoi green manure and natural phosphate improves maize
36
growth, soil microbial community structure and enzymatic activities. Plant Soil 2019,
435, 175–185.
De Sá Júnior A, de Carvalho LG, da Silva FF, da Carvalho Alves M. Application of the Kӧppen
classification for climatic zoning in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil. Theor Appl
Climatol; 2011. DOI: 10.1007/s00704-011-0507-8
DEFRA. British Survey of Fertilizer Practice Fertilizer Use on Farm Crops for the 2018 Crop
Year; Crown: London, UK, 2019; pp. 1–116.
DEFRA. British Survey of Fertilizer Practice. Fertilizer Use on Farm for the 2017 Crop Year;
Crown: York, UK, 2018; pp. 1–112.
DEFRA. Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Practices—England Farm Practices Survey 2018; Crown:
London, UK, 2019.
Deosthale, Y. G. and Blevady, B. (1978). Mineral and trace element composition of sorghum
grain: effect of variety, location and application of nitrogen fertilizer, Indian Journal
Nutrition dietetics 15: 302- 308.
Diacono, M.; Montemurro, F. Long-term e_ects of organic amendments on soil fertility—A
review. Agron. Sustain. Dev. 2010, 30, 401–422.
Dillon, S.L., Lawrence, P.K., Henry, R.J., Price, H.J. (2007a) Sorghum resolved as a distinct
genus based on combined ITSI, ndhF and Adh1 analyses. Plant Systematics and
Evolution 268: 29-43.
Dillon, S.L., Shapter, F.M., Henry, R.J., Cordeiro, G., Izquierdo, L., Lee, L.S. (2007b)
Domestication to crop improvement: Genetic resources for Sorghum and Saccharum
(Andropogoneae). Annals of Botany 100: 975-989.
Doggett, H. (1988) Sorghum., 2nd Edition. Longman Scientific and Technical, Essex, UK.
Doggett, H. (1988) Sorghum., 2nd Edition. Longman Scientific and Technical, Essex, UK.
37
Duxbury, J.M.; Smith, M.S.; Doran, J.M. Soil Organic Matter as a Source and a Sink of Plant
Nutrients. In Dynamics of Soil Organic Matter in Tropical Ecosystems; University of
Hawaii: Honolulu, HI, USA, 1989; Volume 2, pp. 33–67.
Edmeades, D.C. The long-term e_ects of manures and fertilizers on soil productivity and
quality: A review. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosys 2003, 66, 165–180 .
Edmeades, D.C. The magnesium requirements of pastures in New Zealand: A review. N. Z. J.
Agric. Res. 2004, 47, 363–380.
European Environment Agency (EEA). Managing Municipal Solid Waste—A Review of
Achievements
in
32
European
Countries.
online:https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/managing
2013.
Available
municipalsolid-
waste
(accessed on 21 May2019).
Eurostat.
Municipal
Waste
Statistics.
2019.
Available
online:
https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statisticsexplained
/index.php?title=File:Municipal_waste_landfilled,_incinerated,_recycled_and_comp
osted_in_ the_EU-28,_1995_to_2017.png (accessed on 23 May 2019).
f Adebayo AA, Dayya SV. Geology, relief and drainage. In: A.A. Adebayo, Editor. Mubi
Region, a Geographical Synthesi irective 1999/31/EC. 1999. Available online:
https://eur
lex.europa.eu/legal-content/
EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A31999L0031
(accessed on 23 May 2019).
Fan, M.-S.; Zhao, F.-J.; Fairweather-Tait, S.S.; Poulton, P.R.; Dunham, S.J.; McGrath, S.P.
Evidence of decreasing mineral density in wheat grain over the last 160 years. J. Trace
Elem. Med. Biol. 2008, 22, 315–324.
FAO. (1995). Sorghum and millet in human nutrition. FAO. Food and nutrition series No. 27.
Rome. Italy. P. 55-60.
38
FAO. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. In FAOSTAT Statistical
Database; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2017.
FAOSTAT
Food
and
Agriculture
Organization
Statistics.
Available
online:
http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/ #data/QC (accessed on 31 March 2020).
Ficco, D.B.M.; Riefolo, C.; Nicastro, G.; De Simone, V.; Di Gesu, A.M.; Beleggia, R.;
Platani, C.; Cattivelli, L.; De Vita, P. Phytate and mineral elements concentration in a
collection of Italian durum wheat cultivars. Field Crops Res. 2009, 111, 235–242.
Foereid, B.; Hogh-Jensen, H. Carbon sequestration potential of organic agriculture in northern
Europe—A modelling approach. Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosys 2004, 68, 13–24.
Food and Agricultural Organization FAO (2016). Database of Agricultural Production. FAO
Statistical Databases (FAOSTAT).
Gambara P, Mechemedze T and Mewenye D. (2002). Soil fertility project, annual report 19981999 unpublished report AGRITEX, Marondera Zimbabwe
Geiger climate classification updated. Meteorologishe Zeitschrift. 2006;15(3):259- 263.
German
Girard, A.L.; Awika, J.M. Sorghum polyphenols and other bioactive components as
functional and health promoting food ingredients. Journal Cereal Science
2018, 84, 112–124.
Goel, G.; Puniya, A.K.; Aguliar, C.N.; Singh, K. Interaction of gut microflora with tannins in
feeds. Naturwissenschaften 2005, 92, 497–503.
Google Earth Pro 6.2 (beta). Gella 10 09 06.33 N, 13 18 10.53 E. Digital Globe; 2017.
Available:http.www.google.com/earth/index .htm (Accessed 14 April 2017)
Growth and production of sorghum and millets P.V. Vara Prasad and Scott A. Staggenborg
Department of Agronomy, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506 ARC-Grain
Crops Institute Private Bag X1251 Potchefstroom 2520 Tel. (018) 299 6100
Gruter, R.; Costerousse, B.; Bertoni, A.; Mayer, J.; Thonar, C.; Frossard, E.; Schulin, R.;
Tandy, S. Green manure and long-term fertilization effects on soil zinc and cadmium
39
availability and uptake by wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) at different growth stages. Sci.
Total Environ. 2017, 599–600, 1330–1343.
Gutser, R.; Ebertseder ThWeber, A.; Schram, M.; Schmidhalter, U. Short-term and residual
availability of nitrogen after long-term application of organic fertilizers on arable land.
J. Plant Nutr. Soil Sci. 2005, 168, 439–446.
Hadayat, N.; De Oliveira, L.M.; Da Silva, E.; Han, L.; Hussain, M.; Liu, X.; Ma, L.Q.
Assessment of trace metals in five most-consumed vegetables in the US: Conventional
vs. organic. Environ. Pollut. 2018, 243, 292–300.
Handbook on improved agronomic practices of sorghum production in north east nigeria
Hakeem A. Ajeigbe, Ignatius I. Angarawai, Folorunso Akinseye, Abubakar H. Inuwa,
Tukur AbdulAzeez and Michael B. Vabi 2020 Feed the future nigeria integrated
agriculture activity
Hattab, S.; Bougattass, I.; Hassine, R.; Dridi-Al-Mohandes, B. Metals and micronutrients in
some edible crops and their cultivation soils in eastern-central region of Tunisia: A
comparison between organic and conventional farming. Food Chem. 2019, 270, 193–
298.
Holloway G, Barrett C, Ehui S (2005) The double-hurdle model in the
Ibrahim SH, Moamed AB, Osman HN and Hashim M. (2002). Fertilizing with urea and FYM
for higher cotton yield and better soil condition in Gezira. Crop husbandry committee
meeting, 2002, ARC, wad medanisudan.
ICRISAT (Accessed:31-7-2015) Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench). International Crops
Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics.
ICRISAT and FAO (1996) The world sorghum and millet economies. Facts, trends and
outlook. International Crops Research Institute for the Semi Arid Tropics/Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
in Sudan savannah zone, Nigeria. African Journal Agricultural Research 5:338–343
40
Kalil, J. K.; Sawaya, W. N.; Safi, W. J. and Al- Mohammed, H. M. (1984). Chemical
composition and nutritional quality of sorghum flour and bread. Quality Plant
Foods Human Nutrition 34: 141- 150.
Klopfenstein, C. F. and Hoseny, R. C. (1996). Nutritional properties of sorghum and millets.
In sorghum and millets: chemistry and Technology. Dendy, D. A. V (Ed)
.A.A.C.C.,
USA.
Klopfenstein, C. F.; Varriano-Marston, E. and Hoseny, R. C. (1981). Cholesterol lowering
effect of sorghum diet in Guinea. Pigs. International journal of nutrition 24:
621- 627.
Kottek M, Grieser J, Beck C, Rudolf B, Rubel F. World map of the KӧppenLafarge TA and Hamma GA. (2002). Tillering in grain sorghum over a wide range of
population densities. Modeling dynamic of tiller density. Bot., Journal of Agronomy,
6(9), 99-110[21]
Leder, I (2004). Sorghum and Millets in Cultivated Plants, Primarily as Food Sources.
In:GyorgyFuleky (ed) Encyclopedia of Life Support System (EOLSS),
Developed
Under the
Auspices of the UNESCO, Eolss Publishers, Oxford,
UK.
Linder, H.P.; Lehmann, C.E.R.; Archibald, S.; Osborne, C.P.; Richardson, D.M. Global grass
(Poaceae) success underpinned by traits facilitating colonization, persistence
and
habitat transformation. Biological Review 2017, 93, 1125–1144.
Liu, E.; Yan, C.; Mei, X.; He, W.; Bing, S.H.; Ding, L.; Liu, Q.; Liu, S.; Fan, T. Long-term
effect of chemical fertilizer, straw, and manure on soil chemical and biological
properties in northwest China. Geoderma 2010, 158, 173–180.
MAAIF. Fertilizer Consumption and Fertilizer Use by Crop in Uganda. Available online:
https://africafertilizer.
org/wp-content/uploads/.../FUBC-Uganda-final-report-
2015.pdf (accessed on 12 May 2018).
Mabhaudhi, T.; O’Reilly, P.; Walker, S.; Mwale, S. Opportunities for underutilised crops in
Southern Africa’s post-2015 development agenda. Sustainability 2016, 8, 302.
41
Mafongoya PL, Bationo A, Kihara J and Swaswa B. (2006). Appropriate technologies to
replenish soil fertility in southern Africa. Nutrition cycle agroecogyst, 76, 137 151.[19]
Mafongoya PL, Bationo A, Kihara J, Waswa BS (2006) Appropriate
Masso, C.; Baijukya, F.; Ebanyat, P.; Bouaziz, S.;Wendt, J.; Bekunda, M.; Vanlauwe, B.
Dilemma of nitrogen management for future food security in sub-Saharan Africa—A
review. Soil Res. 2017, 55, 425–434. Agronomy 2020, 10, 69 13 of 15
McArthur, J.W.; McCord, G.C. Fertilizing growth: Agricultural inputs and their effects in
economic development. J. Dev. Econ. 2017, 127, 133–152.
Murty, D. S. and Renard, C. (2001). Sorghum. In: crop in tropical Africa. Raemaekers, R. H.
(Ed). Pp: 86- 96. Brussels. Belgium.
Nayak DR, Jagadeesh Y, Babub, Adhya TK (2007)( Long-term application of compost
influences microbial biomass and enzyme activities in a tropical Aeric Endoaquept
planted to rice under flooded condition). Soil Biology and Biochemistry 39(2007):
1897-1906.
Neucer, N. J. and Sumrell, G. (1980). Chemical composition of difference varieties of grain
sorghum. Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry 28: 19- 21.
Odunmbaku, L.A.; Sobowale, S.S.; Adenekan, M.K.; Oloyede, T.; Adebiyi, J.A.; Adebo, O.A.
Influence of steeping duration, drying temperature, and duration on the chemical
composition of sorghum starch. Food Sciennce Nutrition 2018, 6, 348–355.
Ogbonna AC. (2007). Sorghum: environmentally friendly food and industrial grain in Nigeria.
Nigerian food journal, 5(1), 25-35
O'Hara, I., Kent, G., Alberston, P., Harrison, M., Hobson, P., McKenzie, N. et al. (2013) Sweet
sorghum: Opportunities for a new, renewable fuel and food industry in Australia.
Report No: RIRDC Publication N. 13/087, RIRDC Project No. PRJ-005254, Rural
Industries Research and Development Corporation.
Ojha, P.; Adhikari, R.; Karki, R.; Mishra, A.; Subedi, U.; Karki, B.K. Malting and
fermentation
characteristics of
effects
on
antinutritional
components
and
functional
sorghum flour. Food Science Nutrition 2018, 6, 47–53.
42
Package of Practices for Sorghum Production. (2009). Prepared by USAID-MARKETS.
Paltridge, N.G.; Palmer, L.J.; Milham, P.J.; Guild, G.E.; Stangoulis, J.C.R. Energy-dispersive
X-ray fluorescence analysis of zinc and iron concentration in rice and pearl millet
grain. Plant Soil 2012, 361, 251–260.
Peigne, J.; Ball, B.C.; Roger-Estrade, J.; David, C. Is conservation tillage suitable for organic
farming? A review. Soil Use Manag. 2007, 23, 129–144.
Pinto, R.; Brito, L.M.; Coutinho, J. Organic production of horticultural crops with green
manure, composted farmyard manure and organic fertilizer. Biol. Agric. Hortic. 2017,
33, 269 284.
Poulton, P.; Johnston, J.; Macdonald, A.; White, R.; Powlson, D. Major limitations to achieving
“4 per 1000” increases in soil organic carbon stock in temperate regions: Evidence
from long-term experiments at Rothamsted Research, United Kingdom. Glob. Chang.
Biol. 2017, 24, 2563–2584.
Price, H. J., Dillon, S. L., Hodnett, G., Rooney, W. L., Ross, L., and Johnston, J. S. (2005a)
Genome evolution in the genus Sorghum (Poaceae). Annals of Botany 95: 219-227.
Purseglove, J.W. (1972) Sorghum. In: Tropical Crops: Monocotyledons, Volume 1 Longman
Scientific and Technical New York. 259-287.
Rao, B.D.; Bharti, N.; Srinivas, K. Reinventing the commercialization of sorghum as health
and convenient foods: Issues and challenges. Indian Journal of
Economic
Development 2017, 13, 1–10.
Ratnavathi, C.V.; Komala, V.V. Sorghum grain quality. In Sorghum Biochemistry: An
Industrial Perspective; Ratnavathi, C.V., Patil, J.V.,: Amsterdam, The
Netherlands, 2016; pp. 1–61. Chavan, U.D., Eds.; Elsevier Review Development
Economics 7:58–70
Rooney, L.W.; Serna-Sladiver, S.O. Sorghum. In Encyclopedia of Food Science and Nutrition;
Caballero, B., Ed.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2003; pp. 5370–5375.
43
Rosenzweig, P. H. and Volpe, S. I. (1999). Iron, thermoregulation and metabolic rate. CCR.
Review Food Science Nutrition 39(2): 131.
Rothamsted Research. Electronic Rothamsted Archive. Hoosfield Continuous Spring Barley
Experiment
Soils.
2017.
Available
online:
http://www.era.rothamsted.ac.uk/Hoos/hfsoils#SEC4 (accessed on 4 May 2019).
Rothamsted Research. Electronic Rothamsted Archive. Hoosfield Spring Barley Mean LongTerm Yields. 2017. Available online: https://doiorg/1023637/KeyRefOAHByields
(accessed on 6 April 2019).
Sekumade, A.B. Economic Effect of Organic and Inorganic Fertilizers on the Yield of Maize
in Oyo State, Nigeria. Int. J. Agric. Econ. 2017, 2, 63–68.
Serna- Saldivar and Rooney, L.W. (1995). Structure and chemistry of sorghum and millet. In
sorghum and millet: Chemistry and Technology. (D.A. Dendy, Ed). American
Association of Cereal Chemists. St. Paul. Minnesota. USA.
Shoup, F. K.; Deyoe, C. W.; Stock. L.; Shomsuddin, M.; Bathurst, J.; Miller, G. D.; Murphy,
L. S. and Parrish, D. B. (1970). Amino acid composition and cereal chemistry. 47:
266- 273.
Shuaibu YM, Bala RA, Kawure S and Shuaibu Z. (2018). Effect of organic and inorganic
fertilizer on the growth and yield of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) in
Bauchi state, Nigeri systems of sub-Saharan Africa. A review. Agronomy Sustainable
Development
Singh, B., A. Virk, and Y. Singh. 2004. (Nitrogen mineralization potential of rice–wheat soils
amended with organic manures and crop residues. In New directions for a diverse
planet: Proceedings for the Fourth International Crop Science Congress. Brisbane,
Australia: New Directions for a Diverse Planet).
Steiner, C.; Teixeira,W.G.; Lehmann, J.; Nehls, T.; Vasconcelos de Macedo, J.L.; Blum,W.;
Zech,W. Long term e_ects of manure, charcoal and mineral fertilization on crop
production and fertility on a highly weathered Central Amazonian upland soil. Plant
Soil 2007, 291, 275–290.
Synthesis. 1st ed. Paraclete Publishers Yola, Nigeria; 2004.
44
Taylor, J.R.N. (2003) Overview: Importance of sorghum in Africa. In AFRIPRO Workshop on
the proteins of sorghum and millets: enhancing nutritional and functional properties
for Africa. Pretioria, South Africa, 2-4 April 2003, Belton, P.S. and Taylor, J.R.N. eds.
Taylor, J.R.N.; Belton, P.S.; Beta, T.; Duodu, K.G. Increasing the utilization of sorghum,
millets and pseudocereals: Developments in the science of their phenolic
phytochemicals, biofortification and protein functionality. Journal of Cereal
Science 2014, 59, 257–
275.
Taylor, J.R.N.; Emmambux, M.N. Gluten-free cereal products and beverages. In Gluten-Free
Foods and Beverages from Millets; Arendt, E.K., Bello, F.D., Eds.; Elsevier:
Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2018; pp. 119–148.
Van Rensburg, S.J. Epidemiological and dietary evidence for a specific nutritional disposition
to esophageal cancer. Journal of National Cancer Institue 1981, 67, 243–251.
VanDokhum, W. (1989). The significance of speciation for predicting mineral bioavailability.
In nutrient availability: Chemical and biological aspects (D. Southgate, I. Jons
and G.
R.
Fenwick. Eds.). Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge. Pp: 89.
Visarada, K.B.R.S.; Aruna, C. Sorghum: A Bundle of Opportunities in the 21st Century. In
Breeding Sorghum for Diverse End Uses; Aruna, C., Visarada, K.B.R.S., Bhat,
B.V., Tonapi, V.A., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam,The Netherlands, 2019; pp. 1–14.
Wakil S. Isolation and screening of antimicrobial producing lactic acid. University of Ibadan,
Nigeria; 2004.
Warrand, J. Healthy polysaccharides the next chapter in food products. Food Technology
Biotechnology 2006, 44, 355–370.
WCSP (Accessed:4-8-2015) World Checklist of Selected Plant Families (WCSP). Facilitated
by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
White, P.J.; Broadley, M.R. Historical variation in the mineral composition of edible
horticultural products. J. Hortic. Sci. Biotechnol. 2005, 80, 660–667.
Wiersema, J.H., Dahlberg, J. (2007) The nomenclature of Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench
(Gramineae). Taxon 56: 941-946.
45
Wong, J.H.; Ho, C.S.; Mansor, N.N.A.; Lee, C.T. Mitigation of Greenhouse Gases Emission
through Food Waste Composting and Replacement of Chemical Fertilizer. Chem. Eng.
Trans. 2017, 56, 367–372.
Wrigley, C. The cereal grains: Providing our food, feed and fuel needs. In Cereal Grains;
Wrigley, C., Batey, I., Miskelly, D., Eds.;Elsevier: Amsterdam, The
Netherlands, 2017; pp. 27–40.
Wylie, P. (2008) Managing sorghum for high yields: A blueprint for doubling sorghum
production. Grains Research and Development Corporation.
46
APENDICES
Appendix I: Experimental Field Layout
S/N
RI
R2
R3
1
T5
T1
T7
2
T6
T2
T3
3
T3
T5
T2
4
T1
T4
T5
5
T4
T3
T6
6
T2
T7
T1
7
T7
T6
T4
Appendix ii: Analysis of Variance Table for Days at 50% heading
Source DF
TRE
6
SS
MS
F
P
175.62 29.2698 0.39 0.8738
Error 14 1052.67 75.1905
Total
20 1228.29
Appendix iii: Analysis of Variance Table for Number of leaves
Source DF
TRE
6
SS
MS
F
P
8.6914 1.44857 0.76 0.6101
Error 14 26.5467 1.89619
Total
20 35.2381
47
Appendix iv: Analysis of Variance Table for Panicle girth
Source DF
TRE
SS
MS
F
P
6 42.4314 7.07190 1.83 0.1639
Error 14 53.9800 3.85571
Total
20 96.4114
Appendix v: Analysis of Variance Table for Panicle length
Source DF
TRE
6
Error 14
Total
SS
MS
F
P
53.938 8.98968 1.77 0.1781
71.220 5.08714
20 125.158
Appendix vi: Analysis of Variance Table for Plant height
Source DF
TRE
6
Error 14
Total
SS
MS
F
P
2880.4 480.072 0.68 0.6658
9827.8 701.989
20 12708.3
Appendix vii: Analysis of Variance Table for Seed yield per plant
Source DF
TRE
SS
MS
F
P
6 0.11863 0.01977 2.13 0.1137
Error 14 0.12967 0.00926
Total
20 0.24830
48
Appendix viii: Analysis of Variance Table for Seed yield per plot
Source DF
TRE
SS
MS
F
P
6 1.11833 0.18639 6.32 0.0022
Error 14 0.41313 0.02951
Total
20 1.53147
Appendix ix: Analysis of Variance Table for Stem girth
Source DF
TRE
SS
MS
F
P
6 15.5162 2.58603 3.12 0.0373
Error 14 11.6133 0.82952
Total
20 27.1295
Appendix x: Analysis of Variance Table for Seed yield kg/hSource DF
TRE
SS
F
P
6 1729200 288200 4.01 0.0151
Error 14 1005459
Total
MS
71818
20 2734658
49