1. Gross Anatomy vs. Microscopic Anatomy
a. Gross Anatomy:
i. Involves examining fairly large structures.
ii. Can be conducted without using a microscope and can involve the study of
anatomy by dissecting a cadaver.
b. Microscopic Anatomy:
i. Deals with structures we cannot see without magnification.
ii. The boundaries of microscopic anatomy are set by the limits of the
equipment we use.
2. Levels of Organization
a. The chemical level
i. Atoms are the smallest stable units of matter. They can combine to form
molecules with complex shapes.
b. The cellular level
i. Cells are the smallest living units in the body. Complex molecules can
form various types of larger structures called organelles.
c. The tissue level
i. A tissue is a group of cells working together to perform one or more
specific functions.
d. The organ level
i. Organs are made up of two or more tissues working together to perform
specific functions.
e. The organism level
i. An individual life form is an organism.
ii. Chemical-Cellular-Tissue-Organ-Organ System-Organism
3. Functions of each organ system
a. Integumentary System
i. Major Organs:
1. Hair
2. Skin
3. Nails
4. Sweat Glands
ii. Functions:
1. Protects against environmental hazards.
2. Helps regulate body temperature.
3. Provides sensory information.
b. Skeletal System
i. Major Organs:
1. Bones
2. Cartilage
3. Associated Ligaments
4. Bone Marrow
ii. Functions:
1. Provides support and protection for other tissues.
2. Stores calcium and other minerals.
3. Forms blood cells.
c. Muscular System
i. Major Organs:
1. Skeletal muscle and associated tendons
ii. Functions:
1. Provides movement.
2. Provides protection and support for other tissues.
3. Generates heat that maintains body temperature.
d. Nervous System
i. Major Organs:
1. Brain
2. Spinal Cord
3. Peripheral Nerves
4. Sensory Organs
ii. Functions:
1. Directs immediate responses to stimuli.
2. Coordinates or moderates activities of other organ systems.
3. Provides and interprets sensory information about external
conditions.
e. Endocrine System
i. Major Organs:
1. Pituitary gland
2. Thyroid gland
3. Pancreas
4. Adrenal glands
5. Gonads
6. Endocrine tissues in other systems
ii. Functions:
1. Directs long-term changes in the activities of other organ systems.
2. Adjusts metabolic activity and energy use by the body.
3. Controls many structural and functional changes during
development.
f. Cardiovascular System
i. Major Organs:
1. Heart
2. Blood
3. Blood Vessels
ii. Functions:
1. Distributes blood cells, water, and dissolved materials including
nutrients, waste products, oxygen, and carbon dioxide.
2. Distributes heat and assists in control of body temperature.
g. Lymphatic System
i. Major Organs:
1. Spleen
2. Thymus
3. Lymphatic Vessels
4. Tonsils
h.
i.
j.
k.
ii. Functions:
1. Defends against infection and disease.
2. Returns tissue fluids to the bloodstream.
Respiratory System
i. Major Organs:
1. Nasal Cavities
2. Sinuses
3. Larynx
4. Bronchi
5. Lungs
6. Alveoli
ii. Functions:
1. Delivers air to alveoli.
2. Provides oxygen to bloodstream.
3. Removes carbon dioxide from bloodstream.
4. Produces sounds for communication.
Digestive System
i. Major Organs:
1. Teeth
2. Tongue
3. Pharynx
4. Esophagus
5. Stomach
6. Small Intestine
7. Large Intestine
8. Liver
9. Gallbladder
10. Pancreas
ii. Functions:
1. Processes and digests food.
2. Absorbs and conserves water.
3. Absorbs nutrients.
4. Stores energy reserves.
Urinary System
i. Major Organs:
1. Kidneys
2. Ureters
3. Urinary Bladder
4. Urethra
ii. Functions:
1. Excretes waster products from the blood.
2. Controls water balance by regulating volume of urine produced.
3. Store urine prior to voluntary elimination.
4. Regulates blood in concentrations and pH.
Male Reproductive System
i. Major Organs:
1. Testes
2. Epididymis
3. Ductus Deferentia
4. Prostate Gland
5. Penis
6. Scrotum
ii. Functions:
1. Produces male sex cells (sperm), seminal fluids, and hormones.
2. Sexual intercourse
l. Female Reproductive System
i. Major Organs:
1. Ovaries
2. Uterine tubes
3. Uterus
4. Vagina
5. Labia
6. Clitoris
7. Mammary glands
ii. Functions:
1. Produces female sex cells (oocytes) and hormones.
2. Supports developing embryo from conception to delivery.
3. Provides milk to nourish newborn infant.
4. Sexual intercourse
4. Homeostasis
a. Refers to the existence of a stable internal environment.
b. Homeostatic Regulation: The adjustment of physiological systems to preserve
homeostasis.
i. Involves two general mechanisms:
1. Autoregulation: A process that occurs when a cell, tissue, organ, or
organ system adjusts in response to some environmental change.
a. Example: When the oxygen level decreases in a tissue, the
cells release chemical that widen, or dilate, blood vessels.
This dilation increases the blood flow and provides more
oxygen to the region.
2. Extrinsic Regulation: A process that results from the activities of
the nervous system or endocrine system.
a. Example: When you exercise, your nervous system issues
commands that increase your heart rate so that blood will
circulate faster. Your nervous system also causes blood
flow to be reduced to less active organs, such as the
digestive tract. The oxygen in circulating blood is then
available to active muscles, which need it most.
c. Negative Feedback
i. An effector activated by the control center opposes, or negates, the
original stimulus. Tends to minimize change.
d. Positive Feedback
5.
6.
7.
8.
i. Tends to enhance or increase the change that triggered it.
e. Negative feedback examples:
i. Body temperature
ii. Blood pressure
f. Positive feedback examples:
i. Blood clotting after massive blood loss
ii. Childbirth
Anatomical Position, Prone, and Supine
a. Anatomical Position: When the body is in this position, the hands are at the sides
with the palms facing forward, and feet are together.
b. Supine: When a person is lying down, face up.
c. Prone: When a person is lying down, face down.
Directional Terms
a. Superior: Above; at a higher level (toward the head).
i. Example: The head is superior to the chest.
b. Proximal: Toward the point of attachment of a limb to the trunk.
i. Example: The shoulder is proximal to the wrist.
c. Lateral: Away from the midline.
d. Medial: Toward the midline.
e. Distal: Away from the point of attachment of a limb to the trunk.
i. Example: The fingers are distal to the wrist.
f. Superficial: At, near, or relatively close to the body surface.
i. Example: The skin is superficial to underlying structures.
g. Deep: Toward the interior of the body; farther from the surface.
i. Example: The bone of the thigh is deep to the surrounding skeletal
muscles.
h. Inferior: Below; at a lower level; toward the feet.
i. Example: The knee is inferior to the hip.
i. Cranial or Cephalic: Toward the head.
j. Caudal: Toward the tail.
Planes of the body
a. Frontal plane (Coronal): A vertical plane that divides the body or organ into
anterior and posterior portions.
b. Sagittal plane: A vertical plane that divides the body into left and right portions.
i. Midsagittal plane: Lies in the middle.
ii. Parasagittal plane: Offset from the middle.
c. Transverse plane: Divides the body into superior and inferior portions.
Organs in the thoracic cavity vs. organs of abdominal and pelvic cavities
a. Thoracic cavity contains:
i. Lungs
1. Divided into right and left pleural cavities
ii. Heart
iii. Associated organs of the respiratory, cardiovascular, and lymphatic
system.
iv. Inferior portions of the esophagus.
v. Thymus
vi. Lungs are separated by the mediastinum
1. Mediastinum also contains the pericardial cavity, which is a small
chamber that surrounds the heart.
b. Abdominal cavity contains (Abdominal Pelvic Cavity):
i. Liver
ii. Stomach
iii. Spleen
iv. Small intestine
v. Most of the large intestine
vi. Kidneys
vii. Pancreas
1. Kidneys and pancreas are retroperitoneal, which means they sit
behind the peritoneal cavity.
c. Pelvic cavity contains (Abdominal Pelvic Cavity):
i. Urinary bladder
ii. Various reproductive organs
1. Male Reproductive Organs
a. Prostate gland
b. Seminal glands (seminal vesicles)
2. Female Reproductive Organs
a. Ovaries
b. Uterine tubes
c. Uterus
iii. Distal portion of the large intestine.
9. Ventral Body Cavity vs. Dorsal Body Cavity
a. Ventral (Anterior)
i. The front surface
1. Example: The navel is on the anterior surface of the trunk.
b. Dorsal (Posterior)
i. The back surface
1. Example: The scapula is located posterior to the rib cage.
10. 4 Tissue Categories
a. Epithelial tissue
b. Connective tissue
c. Muscle tissue
d. Nervous tissue
11.