DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
UNIT 4
Descriptive research design is a research method that describes the
characteristics or behavior of the subjects or phenomenon that is being studied. It
involves overall overview of the variables without influencing or manipulating it in any
way. This design does not attempt to answer “why” and is not used to discover
inferences, make predictions or establish causal relationships (Bhat, 2012).
PROBABILITY
SAMPLING
Act 1: ______
Act 2: ______
Act 1: ______
Act 2: ______
EXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH
DESIGN
RESEARCH
DESIGN
Act 1: ______
Act 2: ______
Act 1: ______
Act 2: ______
NONPROBABILITY
SAMPLING
DESIGNING
THE
INSTRUMENT
ESTABLISHING
VALIDITY
DATA
COLLECTION
PROCEDURE
Act 1: ______
Act 2: ______
Act 1: ______
Act 2: ______
Act 1: ______
Act 2: ______
Act 1: ______
Act 2: ______
QUNATITATIVE
DATA
ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTIVE
DATA
ANALYSIS
INFERENTIAL
DATA
ANALYSIS
HYPOTHESIS
TESTING
Act 1: ______
Act 2: ______
Act 1: ______
Act 2: ______
Act 1: ______
Act 2: ______
Act 1: ______
Act 2: ______
Strand/Yr/Section: _________
Date: ___________________
Correlational Research Study. This design is used when the researcher
wishes to find out the extent of which different variables are related to one
another. In this design, you will have two or more quantitative variables in the
same group of subjects. It is design to find the similarities of the variables, not
a difference between their means. Correlational does not mean causation. It
does not follow that one variable causes to other.
Example: Finding the correlation between mental ability and grade in math;
gender and math performance; and advertising cost and sales.
3.
Descriptive Evaluative Studies. This study focuses on judging the “goodness
of a criterion measure”. It can be done in short or long period of time.
Longitudinal Studies. It is a study that establish changes in criterion
measure over a long period of time. Example, the researchers want to
study the changes in IQ of 9-10 years old kids over a five-year period,
the researchers must test the same group of subject over the five-year
period.
Cross-sectional Studies. It is a study designed to evaluate changes
over time by comparing at the same point of time, but different subject
representing different stages. Example, the researchers test children
IQ simultaneously, 9-10, 11-12, 13-14, 15-16, 17-18 years old to see
changes in criterion.
4.
Assessment/ Evaluation Study. It is undertaken to assess the worth, success,
effectiveness, or efficiency of a certain policy, or practices when applied to a
group of subject. Assessment studies imply measurement of certain key
indicators without attaching any judgement to them, however evaluation implies
putting judgment and valuing too the measurements obtained. Assessment and
evaluation always go together for one cannot go together without basis for such.
1
DESCRIPTION
OF SAMPLE
DESCRIPTIVE
Descriptive Normative Survey. This type attempts to establish norms based
on a large number of survey data. It is used to describe trends in a large
population of individuals. The survey data may be demographic data or data on
average perception of a set of respondents.
Example: A group of researchers wants to know the profile of all principals of
public and private schools in the Philippines, they may include in their
instruments variables like age, sex, educational attainment, IQ, languages
spoken, civil status, average family size, and others.
2.
SUMMARY OF SCORES
Student’s Name: ______________________
Parent’s Signature: ____________________
1.
Page
UNDERSTANDING DATA AND
WAYS TO SYSTEMATICALLY
COLLECT DATA
Types of Descriptive Research Design
Example: A research on measuring the effectiveness of K-12 program six years
from today on the basis of such factors such as cost, efficiency and impact on
quality.
5.
Descriptive Comparative Studies. This is a study design to establish a formal
procedure to compare and conclude that one variable is better than the other if
significant difference exists. It endeavors to find the significant differences
between two or more groups of subjects on the basis of a criterion measure.
Example: gender (male vs. female), preschool attendance vs. no preschool
attendance, or children with working mom and without working mom.
OUR BRAIN NEEDS EXERCISES. DO THIS!
LET’S TEST YOUR BRAIN! REMEMBER THIS IS RECORDED BY
YOUR TEACHER… OOOPS NO PRESSURE!
Name: _______________________________ Date: ___________________________
Section: _____________________________ Score: __________________________
Identify the type of descriptive research design best use in each of the
following situation. Choose the letter of your answer from the choices inside the box.
a.
b.
c.
Descriptive Normative Survey
Correlational Study
Longitudinal Study
d. Cross-sectional Study
e. Descriptive Comparative
f. Evaluation Study
____ 1. A group of students wishes to correlate the performance of the STEM students
between Science and mathematics.
____ 2. Seron wants to know the efficiency of digital devices to the learning of the ICT
True or False. Write T if the statement is correct and F if the statement is
incorrect. Write your answer on the space provided before each number.
students.
____ 3. Mr. Gahit wants to know if the percentage of women diagnosed with breast
cancer increases with age. He gathers three groups of women with different age and
conducts a survey at same point of time.
____ 4. The teacher wants to know if there is a significant difference between the
performance of children living with their parents and living with their relatives.
____ 5. Researchers would want to observe participants from childhood to adulthood to
understand how growing up in different environment influences traits, habits, and
personality.
____ 6. Some researchers want to compare the effectiveness of three groups of
managers A, B and C and determine if there is significant difference between their
management strategy.
____ 7. Rita and her friends conduct a study involving the demographic profile of the
respondents.
____ 8. Mrs. Soles conducts a research study on the English Proficiency of the Grade
10 students and compare the result to the standards of DepEd.
____ 9. Allison wants to determine the effectiveness of school portal to the students and
parents in accessing school news and information.
student’s anxiety in math on their class performance in math class.
Parent’s Signature: ________________________ Date: ____________________
2
____ 10. Gaby conduct a study to know if there is a significant relationship exist in
Page
_______ 1. Descriptive research design focuses more on the “what” of the research
subject rather than the “why” of the research subject.
_______ 2. Assessment/evaluation study is a study which focuses on judging the
“goodness of a criterion measure”.
_______ 3. Correlational research attempts to find out how one variable causes changes
to other variable.
_______ 4. Descriptive comparative desired to determine significant difference between
two or more variables.
_______ 5. Correlational research study determines similarities between variables.
_______ 6. Survey is one data collection method used in descriptive normative study.
_______ 7. Descriptive research involves correlational, observational and experimental.
_______ 8. Cross-sectional study takes a long period of time to be done.
_______ 9. Descriptive normative survey involves a wide class of data when establishing
norms or standard on it.
_______ 10. Descriptive Evaluative determines the degree of the relationship of two
variables.
Types of Experimental Research Design
1.
Pre-test/ Post-test Controlled Group. This designs requires two groups in
equal standing: one is controlled group; and the other is experimental group.
Both groups will be given pre-test. During the experimental period, only the
experimental group will receive the treatment. After the experimental period,
both group will be given post-test. Then the researcher may now compare the
result of the post-test of both groups.
Take note: This design is threatened by certain factors: maturation; testwiseness; and natural attrition.
Group
Pre-test
Treatment
Post-test
Experimental
O
O
O
Controlled
O
X
O
Factors Affecting Experimental Plan
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
2.
3.
Single Group Pre-test/ Post-test Design. It is used when there is a limited
number of respondents in the study. The single group will be given a pre-test
followed by the usual practices then post-test will be administered. Afterwards,
same group will be given a pre-test followed by treatment and then post-test.
Take note: This design is threatened by certain factors: maturation; testwiseness; and natural attrition.
Group
Pre-test
Treatment
Post-test
Group A
O
X
O
Group A
O
O
O
Solomon Four Group Design. It makes use of four group in equal standing
(two experimental group and two controlled group). The first two group followed
the pretest post-test controlled group. The third group is given no pre-test but
has treatment and post-test. The last group given no pre-test and treatment but
has post-test.
Group
Pre-test
Treatment
Post-test
Experimental A
O
O
O
Controlled A
O
X
O
Experimental B
X
O
O
Controlled B
X
X
O
9.
History. Unexpected events that occur during first and second measurement
during experimental period that affect the results of the experiment.
Maturation. It is the process of maturing of the participants either biological or
psychological during the course of experiment regardless of the event may
affect the result of the study. For example, if the project lasts a few years, most
participants may improve their performance regardless of treatment.
Testing. The subject may be aware of the contents of post-test because of the
same contents in pre-test. So the subject learns from pre-test rather than the
treatment.
Mortality. The loss of the subject from comparison group could greatly affect
the results of the study. The subject may drop out of the experimental plan or
suddenly disappeared during the course of the study.
Interaction Effect. It means that the result of the study was affected by the
extraneous factors such setting, time and condition of the experimental set-up.
Measuring Instrument. Changes in calibration of instrument, observers, and
scorers may cause changes in the measurements of the variables.
Statistical Regression. It is when the pre-test of the subjects is extremely far
from their score in post-test. This threat is caused by the selection of subjects
on the basis of extreme scores or characteristics.
Differential Selection. Selection of individuals with different previous
knowledge or ability which would affect the final measurement of the study.
John Henry Effect. Henry outperformed a machine under an experimental
setting because he was fully aware that his performance was compared with
that of a machine. The subject in the controlled group is aware of their
disadvantage, thus working harder to outperform the experimental group.
YOUR BRAIN NEEDS EXERCISES. DO THIS!
Identify the word/s being described in each statement. Write your answer on the
space provided.
_______________1. A factor that affects experimental plan due to the loss of the subject.
_______________2. An experimental research design that requires a large number of
subjects.
_______________3. It is a design used when there is a limited number of respondents.
_______________4. A group in experimental research that does not receive treatment.
_______________5. A factor that affects the experimental plan when the subject from
controlled group outperform the subjects from experimental group.
_______________6. Experimental design that requires one controlled group and one
experimental group.
3
Experimental research is used to investigate cause and effect relationship
between the variables. It also known as intervention because you do more than just
observe the subject. This design manipulates one variable (dependent variables) to see
if it has an effect to the other variable (dependent variables). A factor treatment is
introduced into the research investigation and the researcher attempt to isolate the
effects of such treatment by means of control.
Page
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
DESCRIPTION OF SAMPLE
_______________7. A factor that affects experimental plan due to the effects of taking
a test on the outcomes of taking a second test.
_______________8. A factor that affects experimental plan due to the biases which may
result in selection of comparison groups.
_______________ 9. A group of subject that receives treatment during the experimental
plan.
_______________10. A scientific method that establishes the cause and effect
relationship between the variables.
Before you proceed to this lesson, take note of the following terms first:



Sample. An individual that represent the entire population of a target
respondents of the study. This is the subgroup of the population
Population. A group of individuals that the researcher is interested in studying
that usually has common or similar characteristics.
Sampling frame. A complete list of all cases in the population from which the
sample will be drawn.
LET’S TEST YOUR BRAIN! REMEMBER THIS IS RECORDED BY YOUR
_______1. Experimental research seeks to test and answer hypothesis.
_______2. Mortality is when a subject suddenly disappeared during the experimental
plan.
_______3. In experimental study, the group that receives treatment is called controlled
group.
_______4. A super typhoon occurred during the experimental plan where in the result
of the study is affected. This factor is called history.
_______5. Testing happens when the subject is aware of the contents of post-test in
the form of pre-test.
_______6. The subject in experimental study needs to be different before and after the
experiment
_______7. Interviewers are very careful to their first numbers of interviewees, but
eventually got tired after 10th interviewee which affect their scoring. This is example of
measuring instrument



Using sample saves time compared to complete census
Using sample saves money because it is less costly
It allows more particular attention to be given to a number of elements
than doing a census

Less sampling error in survey
Slovin’s Formula
Slovin’s formula is a statistical formula used to obtain an accurate sample size
(n) given the population (N) and margin of error (e). Margin of error (e) is the allowable
error margin in research. Slovin's Formula calculates the number of samples required
when the population is too large to directly sample every member.
The sample size can be obtained using the formula
n=
𝑁
1+𝑁𝑒 2
where n = sample size; N = total population; e= margin of error
Example 1: A researcher wants to conduct a survey. The population of a big school where
the researcher wishes to get his respondents is 11,000. Find the sample size if the margin
is 5%.
Step 1. Using the Slovin’s formula, substitute the given data.
_______8. Single group pre-test/post-test design eliminates Howthorne effect, effect of
maturation and attrition but requiring a large number of respondents.
_______9. Differential selection is the selection of individuals with different previous
knowledge or ability which would affect the final measurement of the study.
_______10. Mortality is a factor that affects experimental plan when the participants in
controlled group outperform the experimental group.
Parent’s Signature: _________________________ Date: ____________________
n=
11,000
1+(11,0000)(0.05)2
Take note: Change percent number to decimal number
5% 
5
 0.05
Step 2. Solve the denominator part first. Follow PEMDAS.
n=
11,000
1+(11,0000)(0.0025)
 n=
11,000
1+27.5
 n=
11,000
28.5
4
Modified True or False. Write TRUE if the statement is correct, if false, change
the underlined word/s to make the statement correct.
It is important that the researchers know the sample size of their study. It is a waste
of resources if the researchers include all the elements in their target population. The
following are some reasons for the use of samples:
Page
TEACHER… OOOPS NO PRESSURE!
LET’S TEST YOUR BRAIN! REMEMBER THIS IS RECORDED
BY YOUR TEACHER… OOOPS NO PRESSURE!
Step 3. Divide the data to get the sample size
n=
11,000
28.5

n= 385.96 or 386
A. Based on the given problem, supply the needed information in the box below.
Then the sample size that the researchers need is 386.
YOUR BRAIN NEEDS EXERCISES. DO THIS!
A.
Mr. X conducts his study on Brgy. Caniogan, Pasig City. The total number of
residence b is 3,800 according to the residence list in barangay. Mr. X uses five percent
margin of error to come up with the total number of participants of his study which is 367.
Put O if the statement is correct and X if not. Write your answer on the space
provided before each item
Sample:
_____ 1. Sample is a subgroup of population.
Sampling Frame:
Population:
Margin of error:
Formula to be used:
_____ 2. Selecting sample from population is called sampling.
_____ 3. An accurate sample size means getting the equal half of the total
population.
_____ 4. Slovin’s formula is used to determine sample size.
_____ 5. Using sample is costly and timely.
Solve the sample size of given problem. Show your complete solution (5 pts
each).
Suppose that you have a group of 1,000 city government employees
and you want to survey them to find out which tools are best suited to their jobs.
Find the sample size using 2% margin of error.
Solution:
For instance, in your research, your population is 10,000 and the margin of
error you allow is 5%, what is your representative sample?
Solution:
5
2.
Parent’s Signature: ___________________________ Date: ____________________
Page
B.
B. Solve for the sample size of given problem. Show your complete solution (5 pts
each).
1. In your study, the size of your population is 27,150. What is the size of your
sample if you allow 5% margin of error?
Solution:
PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
4.
Cluster Sampling. The largest scale surveys used cluster sampling method. It
is used when the target respondents in a research study is spread across a
GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION. In this method, the population is group into what
we called CLUSTER. Simple random sampling is used in selecting the cluster
5.
Multi- Stage Sampling. Refers to the procedure as in cluster sampling which
moves through a series of stages.
The selection of components of the sample that will give a representative view of the
whole is known as sampling technique. Selecting sample can be biased or unbiased.
This lesson focuses on selecting sample unbiasedly. This is called probability sampling.
Probability Sampling refers to a sampling technique in which samples are
obtained using some objective chance mechanism, thus involving randomization. Please
take note that (1) If your population is LESS THAN 50, go away from probability sampling
and (2) your sample size should be AT LEAST 30.
After determining the sample frame and solving for sample size, it is time to for
deciding on how to select the sample of the study. There are different types of selecting
respondents under probability sampling. These are:
Simple Random Sampling. The basic probability sampling design in which the
chance of selection is the same for every member of the population.
A. Identify the word/s being described in each statement. Write your answer on the space
provided.
Two ways of selecting samples:
_____________ 1. A sampling technique that use fish bowl method.

by means of a TABLE OF RANDOM NUMBERS

by using the LOTTERY TECHNIQUES
Systematic Random Sampling. A sampling that follows regular intervals from
a list. It has a specific steps and procedures in doing the random selection of
the samples.
_____________ 2. It includes a series of stages before arriving to the final samples.
Steps to follow:
Divide population to the desired sample size (population ÷ sample
size= kth)
b.
Choose one number from 1 to value you obtain from letter a
c.
Start counting from the number you choose in letter b, you take
every kth of the number counts.
Sample size= 100
_____________ 3. In cluster sampling, the population is divided into groups called __.
_____________ 4. The sampling technique use when the target population is scattered
in different geographical area.
_____________ 5. The process of selecting sample that represents the total population.
a.
Example: Population= 500
500 ÷ 100 = 5 (I will count every 5th in the list)
For instance, I choose 4 from 1-5. Therefore, my sample will be the
student number 4, 9, 14, 19, 24… until it reaches the maximum number which
is 500.
3.
YOUR BRAIN NEEDS EXERCISES. DO THIS!
Stratified Random Sampling. The population is divided into groups (strata)
then simple random sampling is applied in selecting samples from each group.
Example: The target population is 1200 junior high school with the desired sample
size of 300. The researcher will get the number of students per level. Divide each
number of students per level by the total population of 1200 and then multiply by the
desired sample size of 300.
1st year = 350/1200 X 300 = 88
JHS
Population
=1200
Sample Size
= 300
2nd year = 300/1200 X300 = 75
1st year
2nd year
3rd year
4th year
350
300
280
270
88
75
70
67
_____________ 6. In stratified random sampling, the population is divided into groups
called __.
B. In each of the following situation, identify the sampling method being used then
explain your answer (2 pts each).
1. A group of volunteers has a list of the 100 senators. They decided to survey every
10th senator on the list about their position on farm subsidies.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________
2. The president of a college randomly selects two students from each department to
serve on a board.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________
6
2.
randomly select sample from the selected
cluster
Page
1.
Population  group into cluster  randomly select one cluster
A. Matching Type. Match statement in Column A to its correct terms in Column B.
COLUMN A
__1. A type of probability sampling where
the chance of selection is the same for
every member of the population.
__2. A type of probability sampling when
you choose every “nth” individual to be a
part of the sample.
COLUMN B
a.
b.
c.
d.
Simple random
Stratified random
Systematic random
Cluster sampling
__3. A sampling technique that divides the
population in group and randomly select
samples from each group.
There is a time where a researcher encounters some hindrances on his
research where it is not possible to draw random probability sampling due to lack of time
or budget. This is where the non-probability sampling can be useful.
If probability sampling gives equal chance of selection to all members of the
population, non-probability sampling is a sampling technique that does not give all the
samples in the population equal chances of being selected. The selection of sample is
based on the subjective judgement of the researchers.
Types of Non-Probability Sampling
1. Convenience Sampling. This is a method of selecting samples that are
conveniently available to participate to the researchers’ study. This method is
also called availability sampling.
Example: The researchers conducted survey on public area like mall and park
to quickly obtain public opinion on an issue about election of public officials.
2.
Purposive Sampling. This is also called judgmental or subjective sampling. In
this method, the researcher chooses only those respondents that he thinks
suitable to the study.
Example: The researchers conducted a study on why Grade 11 chooses TVL
tracks over Academic tracks. They find samples by asking first the question “Are
you planning to go to the university?”, Those who will say “No” would not be
included in the study.
3.
Quota Sampling. A sampling technique wherein the researcher makes sure of
equal or proportionate representation of subjects depending on which trait is
considered as basis of the quota. The bases of the quota are usually age,
gender, education, race, religion and socioeconomic status.
Example: If basis of the quota is college year level and the researcher needs
equal representation, with a sample size of 100, he must select 25 1st year
students, another 25 2nd year students, 25 3rd year and 25 4th year students.
4.
Snowball Sampling. A sampling technique wherein the researcher looks for a
respondent to participate in the study then ask that respondent to refer another
respondent who can participate in the study. This is used when researcher finds
it difficult to locate special numbers of a population.
Example: The researcher conduct research involving eight ethnic group called
Mangyans maybe 8,000 according to official records. But it is difficult to locate
those subject because of distance and some have little contact with outside
world.
__4. A type of probability sampling where
the respondents are divided into groups and
in each group the research selects samples.
B. In each of the following situations, identify the sampling method being used then
explain your answer (2 pts each).
1. Peter decided to divide the private company in NCR into five groups. He randomly
picks two company and interview all the workers of that company.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. The girl decided to make a study about the effectiveness of APK application to the
productivity of the employees. She randomly picks name of participants from the full list
of the workers in SMX Company.
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
3. The secretary of Education randomly selects 10 school in NCR for testing and 40
student names are randomly selected from a student list in 10 selected schools.
___________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________
Parent’s Signature: __________________________ Date: ____________________
7
Name: ______________________________ Date: ___________________________
Section: _____________________________ Score: __________________________
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
Page
LET’S TEST YOUR BRAIN! REMEMBER THIS IS RECORDED BY
YOUR TEACHER… OOOPS NO PRESSURE!
YOUR BRAIN NEEDS EXERCISES. DO THIS!
Identify what is being described in each item. Choose the letter of your answer on the
box.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Non- Probability Sampling
Biased
Judgmental Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Snowball Sampling
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
Quota Sampling
Randomization
Subjective
Quota
Qualitative Research
_____________ 1. The type of research which commonly uses non-probability sampling
_____________ 2. Probability sampling is to objective; non-probability sampling is to __
_____________ 3. The selection of sample in non-probability sampling
_____________ 4. The kind of sampling where in the researcher select samples based
on researcher’s knowledge and credibility.
_____________ 5. A type of sampling technique that does not give all members of
population equal chances of selection.
_____________ 6. Also known as availability sampling
_____________ 7. The limitation that researchers set in quota sampling
_____________ 8. The non-probability sampling is different from probability sampling
because it does not follow ___
_____________ 9. The sampling that use referral method because the researcher asks
respondents to refer another possible respondent.
____________ 10. A type of non-probability sampling where the researcher divides the
population into group with the basis of quota.
LET’S TEST YOUR BRAIN! REMEMBER THIS IS RECORDED
BY YOUR TEACHER… OOOPS NO PRESSURE!
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. The researcher wanted to investigate a certain issue regarding same sex marriage.
He then asks someone who is suitable to his study, then ask that respondent to give him
someone else who can also participate in his study. ___________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. A group of NGO volunteers are conducting a research regarding good lifestyle of
people. They conducted their study on a certain mall and ask people who dress good
and look healthy. _______________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
4. A group of researchers wants to study the career goal of the grade 11 to 12 on their
school with a total of 6,000 students. They found out that 60% of this are grade 11 and
40% are grade 12. Their target sample is 500. The researchers get the 60 and 40 percent
of 500 to come up with to their sample size. __________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
5. Mr. Yu makes a study about the environmental engineers but can only name 5. He
asks these engineers if they knew any others. They give him some others who in return
make additional contacts. In this way, Mr.Yu manages to contact 50 other environmental
engineers._____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Parent’s Signature: ____________________________ Date: ___________________
Page
1. A group of students wishes to conduct a study on a certain university with 5000
students. Their target respondents are 100. They simply stand at the main gate of the
school and ask 100 persons that pass by on that area. __________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
8
A. In each of the following situation, identify the sampling method being used then
explain your answer (2 pts each).
DESIGNING THE INSTRUMENT
One of the important part of research study is the instrument because the quality
of the research findings depends on the quality of research instrument. In research,
instrument is the general term use by the researcher for measuring device such as
surveys, questionnaire, test, and etc. On the other hand, instrumentation is the action
which is the process of developing, testing and using the instrument. Take note that
instrument is the device while instrumentation is course of action (Prieto, Naval, & Carey,
2017).

Choose type of questions in developing the statement. It can be:

Dichotomous questions. A question with only two choices such as
“Yes/No” or “Like/Dislike”.

Open-ended questions. A question that normally answers the
question “why”.
Example: What do you like most about your school?
_______________________________________________

Background
Do a basic research on the chosen variables or construct of the research study.
Choose a construct that you can use to craft the objective of the questionnaire. Construct
means the characteristics that you wish to measure or evaluate (e.g. weight, academic
performance, etc.). After identifying the construct, it is easily to state the purpose or
objective of the questionnaire and the research questions as well. There are five types
of variables: dependent variables; independent variables; control variables; continuous
variables; and discrete variables.
Questionnaire Conceptualization

Choose response scale where the respondents answer the question in your
study.
Example of scales are:

Yes / No

Yes / No / Neither

Likert Scale. It is used to measure behavior quantitatively.
Here is some example of Likert Scale
Frequency of Use
Agreement
Frequency of Occurrence
Always
Strongly Agree
Very Frequently
Often
Agree
Frequently
Sometimes
Undecided
Occasionally
Rarely
Disagree
Rarely
Never
Strongly Disagree
Very Rarely
Closed questions. It is also called multiple-choice questions. It
consists of three or more choices.
Example: What is the highest education of your mother?
___ elementary ___ high school ___ college

Rank- order Scale questions. A type of question that ask for ranking
the given choices or items.
Example: Rank the following base on their importance in work as SHS
student. (3= highest and 1=lowest)
__ doing homeroom activities
__ going to library
__ using computer

Rating Scale questions. It is the Likert scale form.
Example:
Statement
I feel lazy doing homework
I am motivated to learn because of interesting
learning tools
3
2
1
YOUR BRAIN NEEDS EXERCISES. DO THIS!
Identify the word/s being described in each statement. Write your answer on the space
provided.
____________ 1. A type of question answerable by yes or no.
____________ 2. It is used to measure behavior of each respondent quantitatively.
____________ 3. It refers to the traits of that is being measured in the study.
____________ 4. A variable that causes change to the dependent variables.
____________ 5. A type of question that allows the respondents to share their thoughts.
____________ 6. Type of question that has three or more choices.
9
Generate questions based on the objectives of the research study. These are
the guidelines in developing questions for your questionnaire:

The questions should be clear, concise and simple. Avoid lengthy and
confusing questions

Classify question under each statement based on your problem
statement

Questions should be consistent within the needs of study

Avoid sensitive and debatable question

Avoid jargon or unfamiliar words
Page

3.
____________ 7. Type of question that asks the respondents to rate answers based on
their own perspective.
____________ 8. A type of question with two choices only.
Please rate your level of satisfaction in the quality of student
services provided by your school.
5= Very Satisfied
4= Somewhat Satisfied
3= Neither
Satisfied nor Dissatisfied
2= Somewhat Dissatisfied
1= Very Dissatisfied
____________ 9. It is the process of developing, testing, and using the instrument.
A. Modified True or False. Write TRUE if the statement is correct, if not, change the
underlined word/s to make the statement correct.
____________ 1. Avoid making lengthy and confusing questions in your survey
questionnaire.
____________ 2. Open-ended questions usually answer the question “what”.
____________ 3. The quality of the research findings depends on the quality of the
research instrument used.
____________ 4. Dichotomous questions are questions where three or more choices
are provided.
____________ 5. Likert scale is use in measuring the perspective or behavior of the
respondents qualitatively.
B. Based on the sample research instrument below, identify the type of research
questions used.
STUDENT SATISFACTION ON STUDENT SERVICES IN A PRIVATE
SECONDARY SCHOOL
Dear student, thank you for being a respondent for this survey. Please
help us improve our services by completing this survey.
Gender: ___ Female
Age:
___ 15-16 y/o
___ Male
___ 17-18 y/o
___19-20 y/o
___21 & above
1. What is your overall satisfaction rating with our school services?
___ Very Satisfied
___ Somewhat Satisfied
___ Neither Satisfied nor Dissatisfied
___ Somewhat Dissatisfied
___ Very Dissatisfied
2. Please explain your answer.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
4
3
2
1
4. Please rate the following personal goals to Senior High School (SHS) in
order of importance from 1 to 6 with 1 indicating most important goal, 2 second
most important goal and so on.
_______ To pursue college education
_______ To be employed after graduation
_______ To enhance my self-esteem
_______ To become a useful citizen
_______ To develop good attitudes
_______ To be socially and intellectually mature
CHOICES:

Dichotomous Question

Open - ended Question

Close- ended Questions

Rating Scale Question

Rank-order Scale Question
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Gender ________________________________________
Age
________________________________________
Question #1 _____________________________________
Question #2 _____________________________________
Question #3 _____________________________________
Question #4 _____________________________________
10
LET’S TEST YOUR BRAIN! REMEMBER THIS IS RECORDED BY
YOUR TEACHER… OOOPS NO PRESSURE!
5
Registrar’s Office
Canteen
Student Information System (SIS)
Comfort Rooms
Classroom Ventilation
Cashier’s Office
College/ Department staff
Parent’s Signature: __________________________ Date: ___________________
Page
____________ 10. Type of question that asks the respondents to rank the items on each
statement.
ESTABLISHING VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF THE INSTRUMENT
Establishing the reliability of the questionnaire
Reliability refers to how accurate and precise the measuring instrument. It yields
for consistent responses over repeated measurements. In order to have a reliable
instrument, you need to have questions that yields consistent scores when asked
repeatedly.
Establishing the validity of the questionnaire
Here are ways to assess the validity of a set of measurement:




Face Validity. A subjective type of assessment. This is the simplest and easiest
type of validity where in the validator skim the surface of the instrument in order
to form an opinion. Moreover, it is often criticized as the weakest form of validity
(Stephanie, 2015).
Content Validity. It refers to the appropriateness of the content of an
instrument. A type of validity that most often includes expert or people familiar
with the construct being measured. The expert make judgement about the
degree to which the items in the questionnaire match the objective of the study.
Criterion Validity. This type of validity measures how well the relationship
between a measure and an outcome. It can be measured in three ways:

Convergent validity. Shows instrument is highly correlated with
instruments measuring similar variables. (e.g. geriatric suicide
correlated to depression)

Divergent validity. Shows the instrument is poorly correlated to
instruments that measure different variables. (e.g. correlation is low in
instrument measuring motivation and instrument measuring selfefficacy)

Predictive validity. The instrument that has correlation with future
criterion. (e.g. score of high efficacy test related to preforming task
should predict the likelihood of completing task)
Construct Validity. Defines how well a test measures what it claims to
measure. It is used to know whether the operational definition of a construct
align to the true theoretical meaning of a concept. There are three types of
construct validity:

Homogeneity. This means that the instrument measures one construct
only.

Convergence. The instrument measures construct similar to other
instrument.

Theory evidence. This is when behavior is similar to theoretical
propositions of the construct measured in the instrument.
Here are ways to assess the reliability of an instrument:



Stability or Test-retest reliability. This is the simplest type of reliability where
in the same questionnaire is administered twice and correlation between two
set of score is computed.
Split-half method. Also called equivalent or parallel forms. This is done by
administering two different set of questionnaire but with same topic and
correlation between two set of score is computed.
Internal consistency. This is when the instrument measures a specific
concept. It is estimate based on a single form of test administered on a single
occasion.
Pilot testing of the questionnaire
Once you have done assessing the validity and reliability of instrument, the next
step to take is to pilot test the questionnaire before distributing it to the target respondents
of the study. Pilot testing is like pre-testing the instrument. You may find 10-15 people to
answer the questionnaire. In this process, participants could put remarks on some
questions. This could help you to enhance your questions.
Revise the questionnaire
After identifying some problem in your questionnaire, revise the questionnaire
based on the feedback of the participants during pilot testing. However, do not forget that
the questionnaire should match the research objective.
YOUR BRAIN NEEDS EXERCISES. DO THIS!
Identify the word/s being described in each statement. Choose the letter of your
answer in the box. Write the letter on the space provided above each number.
i. Validity
T1. Test-retest Reliability
m. Construct validity
e. Reliability
n2. Content validity
u. Face validity
r. Questionnaire
s. Pilot testing
n1. Criterion related validity
t2. Split-half method
11
Validity refers to a degree to which the instrument measures what it intends to
measure. It involves collecting and analyzing data to assess the accuracy of an
instrument.
Page
In the previous lesson, you learned how to conceptualized a questionnaire.
The next step is establishing the validity and reliability of the questionnaire or instrument.
This lesson discusses the general criteria of good research instrument which are the
validity and reliability.
1. It is a degree to which a test measure what it intends to measure.
____7. The degree to which a test predicts another variable it should predict, such as
2. It measures the relationship between measure and outcome.
the National Assessment score predicting success in a specialized field of the student.
3. The process of pre-testing the instrument before distributing to the target respondents.
____8. This refers to the extent to which a measure is related to other measure as
specified in a theory.
4. Testing reliability by giving the test twice and correlating two set of score.
____9. An instructor distribute a set of test to his class, a few days after, he distributes
5. A series of questions where the respondents provide their responses.
another set of test but on same topic as the first set of test. This method of assessing
6. The subjective form of validating instrument.
reliability is called ___.
7. It refers to whether the operational definition of a variable actually reflects the true
theoretical meaning of a concept
____10. This type of validity measures how well the relationship between a measure
and an outcome.
8. It refers to how accurate and precise the measuring instrument.
Parent’s Signature: _________________________ Date: ____________________
9. A process of validating with the help of experts.
10. Also called equivalent or parallel forms.
____
1
____
2
____
3
____
4
____
5
____
6
____
7
____
8
____
9
LET’S TEST YOUR BRAIN! REMEMBER THIS IS RECORDED
BY YOUR TEACHER… OOOPS NO PRESSURE!
Match the definitions/examples with the correct type of reliability or validity.
Technically there may be more than one correct answer for each definition/example,
but each term is intended to be used only once.
a. Split- half method
b. Stability
c. Content Validity
d. Construct Validity
e. Reliability
The following are the definitions and examples:
DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE
____
10
f. Predictive Validity
g. Validity
h. Pilot Testing
i. Criterion Validity
j. Convergent Validity
____1. The Psychological Scale have a high correlation with self-esteem.
____2. Ten people write their comments on the questionnaire regarding of the
questions that they don’t understand.
____3. The degree to which a test actually measures what it intends to.
Data collection refers to the process of gathering information. In quantitative
research, data collection method relies on random sampling and data collection
instruments that fit various experiences into predetermined responses categories that
produce results that are easy to summarize, compare and generalize.
Sources of data


Primary sources. Are known as raw data which can be collected from original
source like experimental test results, questionnaire survey, and observation.
Secondary sources. Data that has already been collected by someone else
such as books, reports, journals, magazines, and others.
There are various methods in collecting data that will be discussed in this
lesson, along with its advantage and disadvantage.
1.
Interview
This method of collecting data involves presentation of verbal reply from the
respondents. This is done by asking questions to the respondents verbally. This method
assumes that the participant’s point of view is more meaningful and their perspectives
affect the success of the project.
____4. The consistency of results across repeated measurement.
____6. An English class takes an EPT then take it again after a week so the instructor
can assess the ___ of the test.

Structured Interviews. The researcher asks a standard set of questions and
nothing more. The researcher follows a specific format with the same line of
questioning. This is to ensure that each interview is delivered in the same format
Page
subject. What type of validity is this?
12
Here are the types of interviews that could be used by the researchers:
____5. A high score in math anxiety truly reflects the high degree of math anxiety of the

Disadvantage:
- Time consuming and
expensive
Face-to-face interviews. This is the most frequently used in quantitative
research method and it can be done anywhere where.
Advantages:
- Establish rapport between researcher and
participants
- Chance to clarify ambiguous questions to
the respondents

Advantage:
Less time consuming and less
expensive

Advantages:
Save researchers in bringing hundreds of
questionnaires
- Save time in processing data
Disadvantages:
-
Expensive to set up
Required the interviewer to
have laptop
2.
Questionnaire
Its main purpose is to extract data from the respondents. It serves a standard
guide of the researchers in asking information from the respondents. There are normally
four sections in a questionnaire namely:
1.
2.
3.
4.


Respondents identification data. It includes the profile of the respondents.
Introduction. It may include the researcher’s request for help, and purpose of
study.
Instruction. The respondent’s direction on how to move through the
questionnaire.
Information. The series of questions and statements that seek response.
Disadvantage:
- Some of the respondents do
not return the questionnaire
Web-page questionnaire. It is an internet based research where in the
respondents will receive an email which contain an address that would take
them to a secure web-site to fill in the questionnaire.
Advantage:
- Much quicker than pencil-paper
method
Disadvantages:
- Biased to those with telephone only
- Little time given to the respondents
- Bias information may be more
Computer-Assisted Personal Interviewing. A form of personal interview where
in the interviewer bring along laptop and directly enter the information or
response of the participant to the database.
-
Advantage:
- Respondents are truthful to their response
because their responses are anonymous
Disadvantages:
Time consuming and expensive
Impractical when large samples
involved
Telephone Interviews. It is used when the researchers have no time to meet the
respondents personally. However, the response rate of the respondents is not
as high as the face-to-face interview.
Paper-pencil questionnaire. This method is commonly used by the researchers.
It can be sent to large number of respondents and save researcher’s time and
money.
Disadvantages:
- Exclusion of people who do not have
computer
- Not sure of the accuracy of respondent’s
responses
Self-administered questionnaire. Usually distributed through mail, filled out and
administered by respondents where they return this to the researchers via
email. It can be used to elicit detailed information from respondents who might
not be accessible.
Questionnaires usually make use of checklist and rating scale to help
researchers simplify and quantify respondents’ behaviors and attitude.
3.
Observations
This is way of collecting data by watching behavior, events or noting physical
characteristics in natural setting. This method is usually used in in the situation where
the subjects are unwilling or unable to provide the needed data through survey or
interview. Observation can be as follows:




Overt Observation. An observation where the respondents are aware that they
are being observed.
Covert Observation. An observation where the respondents are unaware that
they are being observed.
Direct Observation. The observation occurs during the interaction.
Indirect Observation. The observation occurs on the result of the interaction.
Observation can make use of recording sheet and checklist which is the
standardized way of collecting data. Field notes are least standardized way of collecting
observation data.
13
Advantages:
- The information at greater depth
- Chance to clarify questions to the
respondents

Page
and same order to every respondent. It usually performs by well-experienced
researchers.



Norm-referenced test. Provides information on how the subject performs
against a normative group.
Criterion-referenced test. Determine whether or not the subjects have attained
mastery of skills.
Proficiency test. Provides an assessment against level of skills attainment, but
includes standards for performance at varying levels of proficiency.
YOUR BRAIN NEEDS EXERCISES. DO THIS!
Identify the word/s being described in each statement. Write your answer on the space
provided.
____________ 1. It is a method usually used by observing the subject of the study.
____________ 2. A method used to assess the knowledge of the subject.
____________ 3. A type of interview that requires laptop to the researcher during data
collection.
____________ 4. The section in questionnaire where you can find the series of questions
and statements.
____________ 5. It refers to the process of collecting data.
____________ 6. This is the type of interview that includes list of names from telephone
directory.
____________ 7. A type of test that determine if a certain skill is achieved or not.
____________ 8. A type of questions with two choices only.
____________ 9. An observation where the respondents are not aware that they are
being observed.
____________ 10. This method of collecting data involves presentation of verbal
responses from the respondents.
LET’S TEST YOUR BRAIN! REMEMBER THIS IS RECORDED BY
YOUR TEACHER… OOOPS NO PRESSURE!
Identify the kind of quantitative being described in each of the following scenarios.
Choose the letter of your answer from the choices inside the box, then explain your
answer. (2 pts each)
Criterion Reference Test
Face-to-face Interview
Covert Observation
Paper-pencil Questionnaire
Web-based questionnaire
Computer-Assisted Personal Interview
Telephone Interview
Overt Observation
1. A representative from Department of Education watched ten random classes through
video recording to observe if teachers teaching strategy meet the objectives of curriculum
competencies. ___________________________
Explanation:___________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. A researcher wishes to identify the mastery skill level of the Technical-Vocational
students in Rizal High School. He administered an assessment to the target subject of
the research to gather data. ___________________________
Explanation:___________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. A company conducts a quick interview based on the list of people on their landline
directory. ___________________________
Explanation:___________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
4. A group of researchers conduct study on the effectiveness of Audio-Visual Learning
to the academic performance of Senior High Students in Rizal High School. They
distributed a copy of questionnaire to the students that are involved to their study.
___________________________
Explanation:___________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
5. A researcher does a house visit to conduct interview regarding the lifestyle of a
teenage mom. He directly encodes information from his interviewee to his electronic
device. ___________________________
Explanation:___________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Parent’s Signature: ___________________________ Date: ____________________
14
Tests
This method provides a way to assess subject’s knowledge and capacity to
apply knowledge to new situations. There are various forms of test depending on the
needs of the researchers in their study.
Page
4.
QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
After collecting the data needed for the study, it’s now time to organize then and
get ready for the data analysis. A researcher should always ensure that the data are
complete, accurate, and valid and has been organized properly. Quantitative data
analysis is a systematic approach of investigations during which numerical data are
collected and the researchers transform what are collected into numerical data.


Purpose of Data Analysis Plan





Describe data sets;
Determine the degree of relationship of variables;
Determine the differences between variables;
Predict outcomes; and
Compare variables.
Data Analysis Strategies



Exploratory Data Analysis. This is used when it is not clear what to expect from
the data. It makes use of numerical and visual representation such as graphs.
Since the research interest is new, it is possible to find some inconsistencies.
Descriptive Data Analysis. This is used to describe or summarize data in a
meaningful way leading to a simple interpretation of data.
The commonly used descriptive statistics are those that analyze
distribution of data such as: frequency, percentage, measure of central
tendency (mean, median, mode), and dispersion (range, average deviation,
standard deviation).
Inferential Data Analysis. This is used to test hypotheses about a set of data to
reach conclusions and generalizations beyond merely describing the data.
The commonly used inferential statistics includes test of significance
of difference such as t-test, and ANOVA. Also the test of relationship such as
Product Moment Coefficient or Correlation or Pearson r, Spearman rho,
regression, and Chi-square test.

Ordinal Scale. It assigned order on items on the characteristics being
measured. Numerical value or quantity has no value except its ability to
establish ranking among set of data. However, the difference in order between
the rank are not specified.
Example: order in honor roll (first honor, second honor, third honor)
Interval Scale. It has equal units of measurement, thereby, making it possible
to interpret the order of scale scores and the distance between them. However,
interval scale does not have a “true zero”. Variables can be added and
subtracted, but cannot multiplied and divided.
Ratio Scale. It is considered as the highest level of measurement. It has
characteristics of an interval scale but it has a “zero point”. All descriptive and
inferential statistics can be applied on ration scales. Variables can be added,
subtracted, multiplied, and divided.
YOUR BRAIN NEEDS EXERCISES. DO THIS!
True or False. Write T if the statement is true and F if not. Write your answer on the space
provided before each number.
___ 1. Ordinal scale is a measurement scale that ranks the variables.
___ 2. Data analysis plan refers to describing how the data will be cleaned, transformed,
and analyzed.
___ 3. The weakest level of measurement scale is ratio scale.
___ 4. Percentage is categorized as descriptive statistic.
___ 5. Descriptive analysis includes t-test and ANOVA.
___ 6. Exploratory data analysis is used when it is not clear what to expect from the data.
___ 7. Inferential data analysis is used when there is testing of hypothesis.
___ 8. Interval scale is also called categorical variables.
Quantitative Analysis in Evaluation
___ 9. Inferential statistics includes the mean, median, and mode.
It is important to determine the level of measurement of quantitative data before
proceeding with analysis of data.
___ 10. The highest level of measurement scale is the ratio scale.
Nominal Scale. It is used for labeling variables. It also called categorical
variables. The number assigned to the variables have no quantitative values.
Example: If you want to categorize respondents based on gender, you
could use 1 for male and 2 for female.
Page

15
The following are the levels of measurement scales:
LET’S TEST YOUR BRAIN! REMEMBER THIS IS RECORDED
BY YOUR TEACHER… OOOPS NO PRESSURE!
A. Determine what type of data analysis are statistical tools given in each item. Choose
the letter of your choice below.
DESCRIPTIVE DATA ANALYSIS
Descriptive data analysis provides simple summaries about the sample and
the measures. Different statistical measures are used to analyze data and draw
conclusions under descriptive data analysis (Trochim, 2006).
A. Descriptive Data Analysis
B. Inferential Data Analysis
For the present study, the following statistical measures of descriptive analysis
were used to compute further statistical testing:
_____1. Chi-square
_____6. Pearson r
1. Measures of Central Tendency.
_____2. Mean
_____7. Mode
_____3. Range
_____8. Standard Deviation
Central tendency is sometimes called ‘measures of location’, ‘central location’,
or just ‘center’. It is a way to describe what’s typical for a set of data. There are three
major ways to show central tendency: mean, mode and median.
_____4. T-test
_____9. Spearman rho
_____5. ANOVA
_____10. Percentage
B. Indicate which level of measurement is being used in the given scenario. Choose the
letter of your choice below.
A.
B.
Nominal Scale
C. Interval Scale
Ordinal Scale
D. Ratio Scale
1.1 Mean. The mean is the average of a set of numbers. It is the most widely used and
simplest measure of central tendency. It is frequently used for interval or ratio
variables. The mean is calculated by getting the summation of all observation divided
by the number of observation.
Formulas:
Ungrouped Data X =
∑𝒙
𝒏
Grouped Data
____ 1. Mr. Abalos enlists the top 10 greatest movie of all time.
Weighted Mean X =
____ 2. The nurse records the gender of each patient.
____ 3. A veterinary clinic keeps record of the weight of their patient dogs.
____ 4. The organizer of the basketball lists down the jersey number of all players.
____ 5. A PAGASA officer record the temperature in degree Celsius for the month of
September.
____ 6. Meteorologist lists the temperature in degrees Kelvin for the month of August.
____ 7. The teacher of a class of tenth graders records the letter grade for mathematics
for each student.
____ 8. The teller keeps track the amount of his client’s saving account.
X=
∑ 𝒇𝒙
𝒏

∑ 𝒇𝒙𝒎
𝒏

mean =

mean =
mean =
𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒙 𝒎𝒊𝒅𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒔𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒇𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒙 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
1.2 Median. The median is the middle value of a given set of measurements, provided
that the values are arranged in increasing or decreasing order. It is also the most
appropriate measure of central tendency for ordinal data.
For Ungrouped Data
The median may be calculated from ungrouped data by doing the following
steps:
1. Arrange the items or scores from lowest to highest.
2. Count to the middle value. If there are two middle numbers, average the
two.
____ 9. The researcher records the family income of his subject for two consecutive
months.
____ 10. A car magazine lists the most expensive hotels in United States.
For Grouped data
If the data are grouped into classes, the median will fall into one of the classes
𝑛
and the ( )th value.
Parent’s Signature: _________________________ Date: ____________________
median (
)=L+i (
n
−𝐹𝑐
2
𝑓𝑚
)
Where: L = exact lower limit of the class containing the median class
i = interval size
Page
Formula:
16
2
n = total number of items/observation
Fc = cumulative frequency in the class preceding the median class
fm = frequency of the median class
x is the mean
n is the number of values
YOUR BRAIN NEEDS EXERCISES. DO THIS!
1.3 Mode. The mode is the most appropriate measure of central tendency when data
are on nominal scale. It is also the quick approximation of average but the weakest
measure of central tendency.
In cases where there is more than one observation which is the highest
but with equal frequency, the distribution is bimodal (with 2 highest
observations) or multimodal with more than two highest observations. In cases
where every item has equal number of observations, there is no mode.
Identify the word/s being described in each statement. Write your answer on the space
provided.
____________ 1. It is also called measure of variability.
____________ 2. It refers to measures of spread of data about the mean.
____________ 3. A mode that has two observations.
2. Measures of Dispersion
____________ 4. It refers to the midpoint of distribution.
Dispersion in statistics is a way of describing how spread out a set of data is. It
is important for describing the spread of the data, or its variation around a central value.
It is also called measure of variability.
The measures to be considered are the range, average or mean deviation,
standard deviation and the variance.
____________ 5. A statistical symbol that disregard the negative values of a data.
2.1. The Range. The range is the difference between the largest and the smallest values
in a set of data. However, it only gives us knowledge of the spread of data but it does not
tell us about the disperse of values from central tendency.
____________ 8. It is the sum of all observed data divided by the number of observation.
____________ 6. The absolute deviation of a dataset is the average distance between
each data point and the mean
____________ 7. It refers to the most frequently occurred value in a set of data.
____________ 9. It is sometimes called measure of central location.
____________ 10. It refers to the difference between the highest value and lowest value.
2.2. Average (Mean) Deviation. The mean absolute deviation of a dataset is the average
distance between each data point and the mean. It gives us an idea about the variability
in a dataset. Absolute value is used to disregard the positive or negative value of data.
Formula for Ungrouped Data
where;
Absolute Value
AD = ∑
| 𝑥− 𝑥 |
LET’S TEST YOUR BRAIN! REMEMBER THIS IS RECORDED
BY YOUR TEACHER… OOOPS NO PRESSURE!
𝑛
Σ is Sigma, which means to sum up ; | | (the vertical bars) mean
A. Modified True or False. Indicate whether the statement is true or false. If false,
change the underlined word or phrase to make the statement correct.
n is the number of values
2.3. Standard Deviation. The standard deviation (SD) is a measure of spread or
variation of data about the mean. SD computed by calculating the average distance that
the average value is from the mean. It is used to measure the confidence in statistical
conclusion.
Formula for Ungrouped Data
where;
x is each value
________________ 1. Range is used to know how much data can vary.
________________ 2. To understand the dispersion of data from a measure of central
tendency, we can use mean deviation.
________________ 3. Measures of dispersion is also called measures of location.
________________ 4. In order to know the most appearing data in a set, researcher
must use mean.
________________ 5. Standard deviation is used when the researchers wish to know
the measure of confidence in statistical conclusion.
∑( 𝑥− 𝑥 )2
SD = √
𝑛−1
B. Indicate the appropriate descriptive statistical treatment to use in a given scenario.
Explain your answer.
Page
x is the mean
17
x is each value
o
For independent samples (when respondents consist two different
groups)
Case 1: 𝛿1 𝛿2 unknown or n1 ≥ and n2 30
z=
a. How did the teacher get 85? Explain. (3pts)
(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )−(𝜇1 − 𝜇2 )
𝛿2
1
𝑛1
√
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Case 2:
o
𝑠2
√ 𝑝
𝑛1
Between Means.
(𝑛1 −1)𝑠2 + (𝑛2 −1)𝑠2
1
2
𝑛1 + 𝑛2 −2
(df = n-1)
𝑠𝑑 √𝑛
(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )−(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 ))
𝑝𝑞
𝑝𝑞
1
2
o
For correlated/ dependent samples
𝐷−𝐴
√𝐴 + 𝐷
or
z=
𝑝1 −𝑝2
√
𝑎+𝑑
𝑁
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
This is used when significance of difference of means of two or more
groups are to be determined at one time. ANOVA relies on the F-ration to test
the hypothesis that the two variances are equal; that is, the subgroups are from
the same population. “Between groups” refers to the variation between each
group mean and the grand or overall mean.
o One-Way ANOVA. A one-way ANOVA has just one independent
variable. Example:
1. A difference in IQ can be assessed by Country, and County can
have 2, 20, or more different categories to compare.
Sample Table:
18

𝑑− 𝜇𝑑
√𝑛 + 𝑛

𝑠𝑝2 =
For correlated/ dependent samples (when the same set of
respondents or paired sets of respondents are involved)
z=
A t-test is a type of inferential statistic used to determine if there is a significant
difference between the means of two groups, which may be related in certain features
(Kenton, 2019).
𝑛2
where:
𝑠2
𝑝
+
𝑛2
z=
INFERENTIAL DATA ANALYSIS
df = smaller of n1 - 1 and n2 – 1
𝑠2
2
Between Proportions or Percentages
o For independent samples
Parent’s Signature: ________________________ Date: ____________________
1. Test of Significance of Difference (T-test)
+
(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )−(𝜇1 − 𝜇2 )
t=

𝑠2
1
𝑛1
𝛿1 = 𝛿2 unknown or n1 < 30 and n2 < 30
t=
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Inferential data analysis is used to determine if there is a relationship between
an intervention and an outcome as well as the strength of that relationship. Inferential
Statistics refers to statistical measures and techniques that allow us to use samples to
make inference and generalizations about the population from which the samples were
drawn. Below are the common statistical measures to measure significant differences
and relationships between variables:
(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )−(𝜇1 − 𝜇2 )
√
Case 3:
𝛿2
2
𝑛2
𝛿1 ≠ 𝛿2 unknown or n1 < 30 and n2 < 30
t=
b. What is the statistical treatment that the teacher used in the set of scores (mean,
median, mode, range)? (2pts)
+
Page
1. The teacher collected the scores of her students in their remedial test. Data showed
that three students scored 82, five students scored 90, four students scored 85, and one
student scored 81. Using statistical tools, the teacher come up with the answer 85.
YOUR BRAIN NEEDS EXERCISES. DO THIS!
True or False. Write T if the statement is true and F if not. Write your answer on the space
provided before each number.
_____ 1. Inferential statistics is used when the researchers want to test hypothesis.
Two-Way ANOVA. Also known as factorial ANOVA. It refers to an
ANOVA using two independent variables. Two-way ANOVA can be
used to examine the interaction between the two independent
variables. Interactions indicate that differences are not uniform across
all categories of the independent variables.
Example:
1. Examining differences in IQ scores (the dependent variable) by
Country (independent variable 1) and Gender (independent
variable 2).
2. Females may have higher anxiety scores overall compared to
males, but this difference could be greater (or less) in western
countries compared to northern countries.
2. Test of Relationship
Spearman Rank-Order Correlation or Spearman Rho. It is used when data
available are expressed in ranks (ordinal variables).
𝜌 =1−


𝑁 (𝑁2 −1)
𝐸
[ 𝑑𝑓 = ( 𝑟 − 1 )(𝑐 − 1)]
Product – Moment Coefficient of Correlation or Pearson r. This is used when
data are expressed in terms of scores such as weights and heights or score in
test (ratio and interval variables).
o Case 1. When deviation from the mean are used.
r=
o
_____ 5. Spearman rho is used when the data are in ordinal scale.
_____ 6. T-test is also used to determine the significance of relationship in Pearson r.
_____ 7. Chi-square is used when data are in interval scale.
_____ 8. Both ratio and interval variables are applicable in Pearson r.
_____ 9. Inferential data analysis is used to determine if there is a relationship between
an intervention and an outcome.
_____ 10. ANOVA is used when finding significant difference between two or more
groups at one time.
B. The researchers want to determine the relationship of the Educational attainment of
the Parents to their socioeconomic status. What statistical test is best to use in this study?
Explain
your
answer.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
∑(𝑥−𝑥)(𝑦−𝑦)
[∑(𝑥−𝑥)]2 [∑(𝑦−𝑦)]2
Case 2. When raw score from original observation are used.
r=

(0−𝐸)2
_____ 4. Z-test is used to determine the significance of relationship between variables.
6 ∑ 𝐷2
Chi-Square Test for Independence. It is used when data expressed in terms of
frequencies or percentage (nominal variables).
x2 = ∑
_____ 3. Pearson r is a statistical tool for determining relationship between variables.
𝑛 ∑ 𝑥𝑦−(∑𝑥)(∑𝑦)
√[𝑛 ∑ 𝑥 2 −(∑𝑥)2 ] [[𝑛 ∑ 𝑦 2 −(∑𝑦)2 ]
T-test to test the significance of Pearson r. This is used to determine if the
value of computed Pearson r is significant.
t=r√
𝑛−2
1− 𝑟 2
19

_____ 2. T-test is used to determine the relationship of two variables.
Page
o
LET’S TEST YOUR BRAIN! REMEMBER THIS IS RECORDED
BY YOUR TEACHER… OOOPS NO PRESSURE!
A.
Analogy. Choose the answer from the box. Choose the letter of your answer
in the box.
1. Pearson r
:
___________
2. Chi- square
:
___________
3. Spearman rho :
___________
4. T-test
:
___________
5. ANOVA
:
___________
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Nominal Scales
Significant Difference between
two groups
Ordinal Scales
Interval Scales
Ratio Scales
Significant Difference between
two or more groups
B. Indicate the appropriate descriptive statistical treatment to use for each of
the given scenarios. Explain your answer. (5 pts each)
1. The researcher aims to know the relationship of females’ height to their age. What
statistical treatment is best to use in this problem?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. The CEO of a certain mobile application has a successful app which runs on the two
common operating systems. He wants to decide in which operating system to build new
app by determining which system has users that spend more money. He randomly picks
sample users from each operating system and measures how much money they spent
on the app in the past month. What statistical treatment should he use in this study?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
HYPOTHESIS TESTING
Hypothesis testing is a process in statistics by testing an assumption
regarding a population parameter. The methodology used depends on the nature of
data used and reason for analysis (Majaski, 2019). The goal of hypothesis testing is
whether to reject or accept the hypothesis that the researcher formulated in the study. It
is used when data needs inferential analysis.
Population and Sample

Parameter a measure based on a population (population mean and denoted by
𝜇)

Statistics a measure based on a sample (sample mean and denoted by x)
Inferential statistics requires that sample be drawn by random sampling
because bias sampling have a tendency to give wrong inferences. Testing statistical
significance is very important to determine if the inference is valid.
Statistical Significance

Statistical Significance refers to the relationship of variables caused by
something.

Significance means probably true (not due to chance).

Level of significance means that there is a chance that finding is true.

Statistical hypothesis testing is used to determine whether the result of a data
set is statistically significant.
Hypothesis

Hypothesis is a preconceived idea, assumed to be true and has to be tested for
its truth or falsity.

Inferential statistics could be a test for relationship or test for difference.

Hypothesis has two types namely: null hypothesis; and alternative hypothesis.

Null hypothesis is the one that is always tested by researcher. It always
indicates the there is no significant relationship or difference between the group
means.

Alternative hypothesis indicates that there is a true relationship or difference
between the group means.

Results will show that:
1. There is a meaningful relationship or difference between two groups, thus
reject the null hypothesis
Parent’s Signature: _________________________ Date: ____________________
Page
to conclude that the groups are different or correlated thus you fail to reject
null hypothesis.
20
2. The difference or relationship between the two group is not large enough
YOUR BRAIN NEEDS EXERCISES. DO THIS!
Type I and Type II Errors

Type I error is committed when researcher rejected null hypothesis when in fact
it is true.

Type II error is committed when the data produce a results that fail to reject the
null hypothesis when in fact the null hypothesis is false and need to be rejected.
Parametric and Nonparametric Statistics

Parametric test is used for interval and ratio scales of measurement. It requires
that the samples are drawn from normally distributed population and the
selection of each case should be independent of the other. Population should
have equal variances.

Nonparametric test does not specify normally distributed population and
similarity of variance. It is used for nominal and ordinal data.
2.
3.
4.
5.
____ 1. Parametric test uses interval and nominal scales.
____ 2. Hypothesis testing is done in inferential data analysis.
____ 3. Null hypothesis denotes that there is no significant relationship between the
variables.
____ 4. Hypothesis is a pre-assumption of the researchers that does not need to be
tested.
____ 5. Parameter is measured based on the population.
B. Complete the table by supplying the information needed.
Research Data:
Steps in hypothesis testing
1.
A. True or False. Write T if the statement is true and F if not. Write your answer on the
space provided before each number.
State the hypothesis.
Null hypothesis (H0)
X=Y
Alternative hypothesis (Ha) X>Y/ X<Y
Choose the statistical test and perform the calculation.
A researcher must determine the measurement scale, the type of
variable, the type of data gathered, and the number of groups.
State the level of significance for the statistical test.
Alpha (∝) is a symbol used to denoted significance. The level most
frequently use are .05, .01 and .001
Compute the calculated value.
Used appropriate formula (lesson 5) for the significance test.
Determine the critical value that the test statistics must attain to be significant.
Look for critical value in appropriate table for the distribution. Critical
value defines the region of rejection from acceptance of null
hypothesis. Example of distribution using ∝=.05
School Administration wants to know the beneficial effect of computerization in
TVL class. A sample is taken to 200 sample students. Data results: z-test = -1.46, ∝=
0.01, Critical value = 2.58
Step 1. State the hypothesis
H0=
Ha=
Step 2. Define the following:
-
Measurement scale:
-
Statistical test to perform:
Step 3. State the level of significance for statistical test:
Rejection region
Make a decision.
If the calculated value is greater than critical value, reject the null
hypothesis. If critical value is larger, you failed to reject the null
hypothesis.
Step 4. Computed data results:
21
6.
acceptance region
Step 5. Determine the critical value:
Page
Rejection region
Research Data:
A researcher conducts an experiment to know if a caffeine drug has an effect to
the spider. After series of test, he knew that the mean response time for spider not
injected by caffeine drugs is 1.2 seconds (𝜇=1.2s) and the mean score for 100 injected
spider is 1.05s. Results shows that SD= 0.05, z=3, ∝= 0.05
Step 6. Make a decision (reject or accept the hypothesis):
Step 1. State the hypothesis
H0=
Ha=
Step 2. Define the following:
LET’S TEST YOUR BRAIN! REMEMBER THIS IS RECORDED
BY YOUR TEACHER… OOOPS NO PRESSURE!
-
Measurement scale:
-
Statistical test to perform:
A. Modified True or False. Write T if the statement is true and if not, change the
underlined word/s to make the statement correct.
Step 3. State the level of significance for statistical test:
___ 1. Critical value defines the region of rejection from acceptance of alternate
hypothesis.
Step 4. Computed data results:
___ 2. Null hypothesis is the one that is always tested by the researchers.
___ 3. Inferential statistics requires biased selection of sample.
___ 4. Type I error is happened when researcher rejected null hypothesis when in fact it
is true.
___ 5. Nonparametric test needs to use normally distributed population and similarity of
variance.
Step 5. Determine the critical value: Shade the rejected region.
B. Complete the table by supplying the information needed.
Parent’s Signature: _____________________________ Date: __________________
Page
22
Step 6. Make a decision (reject or accept the hypothesis):
GUIDELINES IN WRITING METHODOLOGY
4. Evaluate and justify your methodological choices. Justification is more
needed if your approach used is not based on standard knowledge. Discuss
why the methods were suitable for your objectives, and show that this approach
might contribute to the body of knowledge.
Part of the research paper is discussing the methods you used in accomplishing
your study. It discusses the type of research you used, your process of collecting and
analyzing the data, the materials you used, and your rationale for doing those methods.
Here are the guidelines in writing quantitative research methodology
(McCombes, 2019):
Take note of the following (Faltado, Bombita, & Boholano, 2017):

1. Explain your methodological approach. Begin with discussing the research

problem you are investigating, and the kind of data you need to answer it. In
experimental research, it requires a carefully designed study that can be
replicated by other researchers.

2. Describe your methods of data collection. Give full details of the tools,
procedures and materials used to gather data, and the standard used to select
participants or sources for study.
Surveys. Describe where, when and how the survey was conducted. The
following question might be helpful:

YOUR BRAIN NEEDS EXERCISES. DO THIS!
How did you find and select participants?
Did you conduct surveys by phone, mail, online or in person, and how
long did participants have to respond?
What was the sample size and response rate?
You might include the survey questionnaire in the appendix part so the
reader can see how was the data collected.
Experiments. Give full details of the tools, techniques and procedures you
used to conduct the experiment. It is especially important to give enough detail
for another researcher to reproduce your results.
3. Describe your method of analysis. Discussed the process of analyzing data.
However, avoid discussing any of the result of the study. In quantitative
research, analysis of data is based on numbers. It might include the software
you used to analyze the data (e.g. SPSS) and the statistical methods you
used (e.g. regression analysis).
A. True or False. Write T if the statement is true and F if not. Write your answer on the
space provided before each number.
_____ 1. Methodology discusses the design used in the study.
_____ 2. Methodology includes the procedure on how the data was collected.
_____ 3. Methodology should be written in present tense.
_____ 4. Methodology discusses the related literature in the study.
_____ 5. Methodology discusses the statistical treatment used in data.
B. The following is some of the information that may be included in the methodology
chapter. Check the blank that are included in methodology.
___ Sampling procedure used
___ Materials used
___ Background of the measures
___ The limitation of the study
___ Statistical data used
___ Period of investigation
23

How did you design your instrument (e.g. Likert Scale)?


Page





Design. Explain if your study is within or between group design. Include the
variables included and approach you used in the study.
Participants. Describe the participants in your study including their total
number and the process of selecting them.
Procedures. Properly explained your procedure. It includes the procedure you
have done before, during and after gathering data.
Always write your methods in past tense.
Provide enough details when doing experimental research. It is for the other
researchers to replicate your work.
Used proper APA format.
Take a rough draft of your work with your research teacher for additional
assistance.
Always proofread your paper.
LET’S TEST YOUR BRAIN! REMEMBER THIS IS RECORDED BY
YOUR TEACHER… OOOPS NO PRESSURE!
A. Fill in the blanks. Fill the broken statement with correct word to complete the idea in
each item. Choose your answer in the box below.
instrument
teacher
participants
past
APA
procedure
design
appendix
aims
experimental
irrelevant
proofread
1.
2.
3.
Methodology should be written in __________ tense.
Use proper __________ format in writing your methods.
Always seek assistance with your research __________ to help improve your
work.
4. Place your full questionnaire in ___________ part so the reader can see how
you collect your data.
5. Always ___________ your works to check your grammars and spelling error.
6. Make sure to provide enough details when doing ___________ research so
that the other researchers can replicate your work.
7. Discuss the ____________ of your study including their total number and the
process of selecting them.
8. The methods must be appropriate to fulfilling the overall __________ of the
study.
9. Avoid including ___________ information your methods.
10. Explain how your ___________ were made and validated.
Parent’s Signature: __________________________ Date: __________________
Page
Research Design
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Participants
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Procedures
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Statistical Treatment
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
24
B. Discuss briefly the following: