Chapter 10
Renaissance and Discovery
I. The Renaissance in Italy (1375-1527)
Described as the “prototype of the modern world”
-new secular and scientific values began to supplant traditional religious beliefs

Burckhardt’s critics especially stress the still strongly Christian character of
Renaissance humanism.
-revival of ancient classics, interest in the Latin language and Greek science,
and an appreciation of the worth and creativity of individuals

Most scholars agree that the Renaissance was a time of transition from the
medieval to the modern world.
Medieval Europe (before the 12th century) has been a fragmented feudal
society w/ an agricultural economy; thought and culture were largely
dominated by the church
Renaissance Europe (after the 14th century) was characterized by growing
national consciousness and political centralization, an urban economy based
on organized commerce and capitalism, and ever-greater lay & secular
control of thought and culture- religion.

Two events concided w. the beginning of this period:
1. Death of Petrach “father of humanism” in 1374
2. Death of Giovanni Boccaccio, author of “Decameron” in 1375
Also, in 1375, Coluccio Salutati succeeded to the Florentine chancellorship and
leadership of the mature humanist movement; culture spread throughout Italy &
into northern Europe.
-reached an abrubt end in 1527, Spanish soldiers torched Rome

At this time, Francis I (French king) and Charles V (H. Roman Emperor) were
warring in Italy over their dynastic claims to Burgundy and Italian lands.

Pope Clement VIII incurred the emperor’s wrath by joining the French.

Sack of Rome in 1527- result of papal loyalty
Marked the end of the cultured Renaissance:
Anger and boredom of Spanish-imperial soldiers who had not been properly paid
and provisioned by the emperor- savagery of earlier centuries
II. The Italian City-State

Italy had always had a cultural advantage over the rest of Europe b/c its
geography made it the natural gateway between east & west.
-Venice, Genoa & Pisa traded uninterruptedly w. the Near East throughout
the Mid. Ages and maintained urban societies.
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When commerce revived on a large scale in the 11th century:
1. Italian merchants mastered the business skills of
-organization, bookkeeping, scouting new markets, securing monopolies
2. 13-14th centuries: trade rich cities expanded to become powerful city-states,
dominating the political & economic life of the countryside
3. Italian cities had become the bankers for much of Europe- 15th century
Growth of City-States: assisted by the warfare between the emperor and the
pope and the Guelf (propapal) & Ghibelline (proimperial)

Italian cities were left free to expand- became independent states
5 competitive states in Italy:
-the duchy of Milan
-the republics of Florence and Venice
-the Papal states
-the kingdom of Naples
Social strife & competition for political power were so intense, most had evolved
into despotisms (tyranny) by the 15th century.
-Venice was an exception- was ruled by merchant oligarchy w. power located
in a patrician senate of 300 members- the Council of Ten
-New social classes & divisions fueled chronic, near anarchic conflict
Social Class and Conflict:
Florence was most striking- four social groups:
1. old rich or grandi, the nobles and merchants who ruled the city
2. emergent rich merchant class- capitalists & bankers known as the popolo grosso,
or “fat people”
3. middle-burgher ranks of guild masters, shop owners, and professionals
4. popolo minuto or the “little people”, lower economic classes

In 1457, 1/3 of the population were listed as paupers, having no wealth
at all
In 1378, there was a great revolt of the poor known as the Ciompi Revolt- resulted
from combination of 3 factors that made life unbearable for the poor
-feuding between the old & the new rich, the social anarchy that had resulted from
the Black Death, the collapse of the banking houses of Bardi and Peruzzi.
-successful revolt est. a four-year reign of power by the lower classes
-true stability returned when Cosimo de Medici came to power in 1434
Despotism and Diplomacy:
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
Florence was governed by a council, first of 6 and later of 8 members, known
and the Signoria- these men were chosen from the powerful guilds (those
representing the major clothing industries (cloth, wool, fur, & silk) & such other
groups as bankers, judges, & doctors.

Cosimo was able to keep councillors loyal to him, as head of the Office of Public
Debt, he was able to favor congenial factions.
-His grandson, Lorenzo the Magnificent ruled Florence during the last of 15th
century; the assassination of his brother made him a cautious ruler.

To prevent social conflict and foreign intrigue, the dominant groups cooperated
to install a hired strongman, known as a podesta, his purpose was to maintain
law & order. They operated though mercenary armies, which they obtained
through military brokers- condottieri.

Political turbulence and warfare gave birth to diplomacy. Most city-states est.
resident embassies in the 15th century.
o
–Italian Reniassance culture was promoted as vigorously by despots as by
republicans and as enthusiastically by secularized popes as by the more
spiritually minded; such widespread support occurred b/c the main
requirement for patronage of the arts and letters as the one thing Italian
cities had in abundance: great wealth
III. Humanism:
those who see the Italian Renaissance as the birth of modernity, characterized by
an un-Christian philosophy that stressed the dignity of humankind and championed
individualism & secular values.
Views on Humanism:
-Argue that humanists were the very champions of authentic Catholic Christianity
-Others see humanism as a form of scholarship consciously designed to promote a
sense of civic responsibility & political liberty.
-Paul O. Kristeller: educational program that concentrated on rhetoric & sound
scholarship for their own sake.

Scholarly study of the Latin & Greek classics and of the ancient Church fathers
-advocated the studia humanitatis, a liberal arts program of study that
embraced grammar, poetry, history, politics, & moral philosophy; preparing
people for a life of virtuous action

First humanists were orators and poets; they wrote orig. literature in both the
classical & the vernacular lang. inspired by and modeled on works of ancients.
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
Unlike their Scholastic rivals, humanists went directly to the original sources
themselves and their most respected sources were classical & biblical, not the
medieval philosophers & theologians
o
–mastery of Latin & Greek was the surgeon’s tool of the humanist
Petrach, Dante, and Boccaccio:
Francesco Petrach was the “father of humanism.”
-left the legal profession to pursue letters & poetry
-life spent in & around Avignon
-involved in Cola di Rienzo’s popupar revolt & 2-year reign of the Roman people
-served the Visconti family in Milan in his later years
-celebrated ancient Rome in his Letters to the Ancient Dead
-wrote a Latin epic poem; most famous work was a collection of highly introspective
love sonnets to a certain Laura, a married woman he admired romantically.
-Classical & Christian values coexist, not always harmoniously, an uneasy
coexistence that is seen later in many humanists.
-was far more secular in orienatation than Dante Aligheri whose Vita Nuova &
Divine Comedy form, w/ Petrach’s sonnects, the conerner-stones of Italian lit.

Petrach’s student/friend Giovanni Boccaccio was also a pioneer of humanist
studies:
-Decameron (100 bawdy tales told by 3 men & 7 women in a country retreat from
the plague that ravaged Flornce in 1348) is both a commentary & sympathetic look
at human behavior.
-Also assembled an encyclopedia of Greek & Roman mythology.
Educational Reforms and Goals:
Humanists delighted in going directly to primary sources & refused to be slaves to
tradition; made them innovative educators and kept them in search of new info.
Goal: be wise and speak eloquently to know what is good and to practice virtue
“It is better to will the good than to know the truth”-Petrach had taught
Pietro Paolo Vergerio: author of On the Morals That Befit a Free Man

Quintilian’s Education of the Orator, became the basic classical guide for the
humanist revision of the traditional curriculum.

Vittorino da Feltre not only had his students read the works of Pliny, Ptolemy,
Terence, Plautus, Livy, Plutarch, but subjected them to vigorous physical
exercise & games.
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
Guarino da Verona (rector of the new U. of Ferrara & student of the age’s most
renowned Greek scholar, Manuel Chrysoloras), streamlined the study of classical
languages & gave it systematic form.

Baldassare Castiglione wrote Book of the Courtier and it is written as a guide for
the nobility at the court of Urbino, embodies the highest ideals of humanism.

Christine de Pisan received as fine an education at the French court as anyone
could have; became expert in classical French & Italian lang. & lit. Famous work:
The Treasure of the City of Ladies

The thinkers of the Renaissance were interested in every variety of ancient
wisdom, they were attracted to the Platonic trad. & to those Church Fathers who
tried to synthesizr Plationic philosophy w. Christian teaching

The appeal of Platonism lay in its flattering view of human nature. Human
reason was believed to belong to the former- to have preexisted in this pristine
world & to continue to commune w. it.
o
–strong platonic influence: Oration on the Dignity of Man; drew on
Platonic teaching to depict humans as the only creatures in the world who
possessed the freedom to be whatever they chose.
Critical Work of the Humanists: Lorenzo Valla:

Elegances of the Latin Language reveals the explosive character of the new
learning.

Valla became a hero to later Protestants especially from his expose of the
Donation of Constantine
Civic Humanism:
Most striking: three humanists served as chancellors: Collucoo Salutati, Leonardo
Bruni, and Poggio Bracciolini; each used his rhetorical skills to rally the people of
Florence against the aggression of Naples & Milan.

Humanist historians Niccolo Machiavelli & Francesco Guicciardini adopted
the verncular & made contemporary history their primary source.
IV. Renaissance Art
Men and women began again to appreciate & glorify the secular world, secular
learning, & purely human pursuits as ends in themselves. In the late 15th and early
16th cen., Renaissance art reached its full maturity.
-Artists tried to give their works a rational order-a symmetry &
proportionality that reflected pictorially their deeply held belief in the
harmony of the universe.
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-In addition to having oil paints, two special techniques were perfected:
using shading to enchance naturalness (chiararoscurro) & adjusting the size
of figures to give a feeling of continuity (linear perspective).

Famous artists:
-Giotto (father of Renaissance painting)
-Masaccio, a painter & Donatello, a sculptor continued to portray the world around
them more literally & naturally.
-The heights were reached by great masters, Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and
Michelangelo Bunoarroti.

Leonardo D.V. exhibited the Renaissance ideal of the universal person, his great
skill in conveying inner moods through complex facial features can be seen in
the most famous of his paintings, the Mona Lisa.

Raphael is most famous for his tender madonnas, the best known of which
graced the monastery of San Sisto in Piacencza and is now in Dresden. Art
historians praise his fresco The School of Athens- perfect ex. of Renaissance
technique.

Michelangelo is the artist of his 18 foot sculpture David, perfect ex. of the
artist’s devotion to harmony, symmetry, & proportion, as well as the glorification
of human form. Most famous of these works that popes commissioned are the
frescoes for the Sistine Chapel (10,000 sq.ft. & 343 figures, 10 ft in height)
o
–his later works mark the advent of a new style known as mannerism,
permitted to express his/her feelings/perceptions, to paint, compose, or
write in a “mannered” or “affected” way.
V. Slavery in the Renaissance

A western slave market (12th cen.) existed when the Spanish sold Muslim slaves
to wealthy Italians and other interested buyers.

Widespread household/domestic slavery, collective plantation slavery
-gangs of slaves worked sugarcane plantations in Sudan and islands of Crete
& Cyprus

After the Black Death, the demand for slaves soared. Slaves began to be
imported from Africa, the Balkans, Constantinople, Cyprus, Crete, and lands
surrounding the Black Sea.
-consisted of many races: Tatars, Circassians, Greeks, Russians, Georgians,
Iranians, Asians, Africans (Tatars & Africans= worst treated)
-a strong, young, healthy slave cost the same of the wages paid a free
servant over several years.
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-it was clearly in the interest of their owners to keep slaves healthy & happy
Italy’s Political Decline: The French Invasions (1494-1527)
VI. The Treaty of Lodi
As a land of autonomous city-states, Italy had always relied on internal cooperation
for its peace and safety from foreign invasion.

The terms of the treaty brought Milan & Naples into alliance w. Florence, they
stood together for decades against Venice (frequently joined by Papal states)
When a foreign enemy threatened Italy, the 5 formed a united front.

French kings had ruled Naples from 1266-1435, before they were driven out by
Duke Alfonso of Sicily. Ludovico il Moro (Milanese despot) invited the French to
reenter Italy & revive their dynastic claim to Naples.
o –He did not recognize that France had claims to Milan & foresaw the
French appetite for Italian territory once French armies had crossed Alps.
VII. Charles VIII’s March Through Italy

Louis XI (French king) had resisted the temptation to invade Italy while keeping
French claims in Italy alive. His successor Charles VIII had crossed the Alps and
raced as conqueror through Florence & Papal States into Naples.

Charles entered Florence and struck terror in non-Italian hearts. Ferdinand of
Aragon took the initiative to create a counteralliance (the League of Venice)
formed in March 1495. The alliance set the state for a conflict between France &
Spain that would not end until 1559.
o
–Ludovico il Moro joined the League of Venice and this alliance was able
to send Charlies into retreat by May (remained there until his death 1498)
VIII. Pope Alexander VI and the Borgia Family
The French returned to Italy under Charles’s successor, Louis XII.
-assisted by a new Italian ally, the Borgia pope, Alexander VI (corrupt pope)
-In Romagna, several principalities had fallen away from the church during
the Avignon papacy. Alexander took steps to secure French favor
-Alexander agreed to abandon the League of Venice making the league too
weak to resist a French reconquest of Milan

Louis successfully invaded Milan in 1499. Ludovico who had originally opened
Pandora’s ox of French invasion, spent his last years languishing in a French
prison
o
-1500: Louis and Ferdinand divided Naples between them and the pope &
Cesare Borgia conquered cities of Romagna without opposition.
Alexander’s son was the “duke of Romagna”
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IX. Pope Julius II

Suppressed the Borgias and placed their newly conquered lands in Romagna
under papal jurisdiction; came to be known as the “warrior pope”

Succeeded in driving the Venetians out of Romagna in 1509
o
–ended Venetian claims in the region & fully secured the Papal States.
o
–Julius, Ferdinand of Aragon, and Venice formed a second Holy League in
October 1511, & then Emperor Maximilian I & the Swiss joined.
o
–By 112, the league had the French in full retreat and they were defeated
by the Swiss in 1513 at Novara.

French were persistent- invaded Italy a 3rd time under Francis I (Louis’s
successor); French armies massacred Swiss soldiers of the Holy League
avenging the early defeat at Marignano.
o
–victory won the Concordat of Bologna from the people in 1516; gave the
French king control over the French clergy in exchange for French
recognition
X. Niccolo Machiavelli

One who watched as French, Spanish, and German armies wreaked havoc on
Italy was Niccolo Machiavelli.
o
–convinced he became that Italian political unity and independence were
ends that justified any means
o
–impressed by the way Roman rulers & citizens had then defeated their
homeland, possessed virtu (ability to act heroically for the good of their
country)

He held deep republican ideals, which he did not want to see vanish from Italy.
He scolded the Italian people for the self-destruction and wanted an end to that
behavior above all, so a reunited Italy could drive all armies out.
o
–argued that The Prince is a cynical satire on the way rulers actually did
behave and not as a serious recommendation of unprincipled rule.

Whatever his hopes may have been, the Medici’s were not destined to be Italy’s
delivers. The 2nd Medici pope, Clement VII watched helplessly as Rome was
sacked by the army of Emp. Charles V in 1527, also the year Machiavelli died.
Revival of Monarchy in Northern Europe:
After 1450, sovereign rulers emerged

The increasingly important towns began to ally with the king. Loyal, businesswise townspeople, not the nobility and the clergy, increasingly staffed the royal
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offices and became the king’s lawyers, bookkeepers, military tacticians, and
foreign diplomats.
o
–this new alliance between king & town broke the bonds of feudal society
& made possible the rise of sovereign states.

In a sovereign state, the powers of taxation, war making, and law enforcement
are concentrated in the monarch & exercised by his or her chosen agents.
o
–taxes, wars, & laws become national rather than regional matters

The French Estates General did not meet at all from 1484-1560.

They appointed civil servants whose vision was no longer merely local or
regional. In Castile they were the corregidores, in England the justices of the
peace, and in France bailiffs operating through lieutenants.

Monarchies also began to create standing national armies in the 15th century
o
–Mercenary soldiers were recruited from Switzerland & Germany to form
the major part of the “king’s army”
o
–the growing cost of warfare in the 15th and 16th cen. increased the need
of monarchs

The monarchs had several options when it came to raising money:
1. As feudal lords, they could collect rents from their royal domains
2. Levy national taxes on basic food and clothing, such as the salt tax (gabelle) in
France and the 10% sales tax (alcabala) on commercial transactions, in Spain
3. Levy direct taxes on the peasantry (they did through agreeable representative
assemblies of the privileged classes in which the peasantry did not sit.
-The taille was suspended in 1484.
-Rulers didn’t levy taxes on the powerful nobility, they borrowed from rich
nobles and the great bankers of Italy & Germany
-the privileged classes remained as the king’s competitors & creditors
XI. France

The French developed a strong economy, diplomatic corps, and national
administration during the reign of Charles VII. (made France a great
power)
Two cornerstones of French nation building in the 15th century:
1. Collapse of the Eng. Emp. In France following the Hundred Years’ War.
2. Defeat of Charles the Bold and his duchy of Burgungy.
 When Charles the Bold died in defeat, the dream of Burgungy died w him
 Louis XI harnessed the nobility, expanded the trade and industry, created a silk
industry at Lyons.
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XII. Spain

Spain became a strong country in the late 15th century

The union of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon changed Spain; they
married and although the marriage dynastically united the two kingdoms, they
remained constitutionally separated.
-Each retained its respective gov. agencies- separate laws, armies, coinage,
and taxation- and cultural traditions
-They were able to- subdue their realms, secure their borders, venture
abroad militarily, and Christianize the whole of Spain

They conquered the Moors in Granada and Naples became a Spanish possession
in 1504. They won the alliegance of the Hermandad, a powerful league of cities
& towns that served them against stubborn landowners.

Spain had three religions- Islam, Judaism, and Christianity

The latter run by Tomas de Torquemada was est. to monitor the activity of
converted Jews (conversos) & Muslims (Moriscos); in 1492, Jews were exiled
-Spain remained a loyal catholic country (16th cen.) and provided a base of
operation for the Euro. Counter Reformation

The failure of Catherine of Aragon (2nd daughter) and King Henry VIII’s marriage
was the key factor in the emergence of the Anglican church & English
Reformation.

The patronage of Christopher Columbus led to the creation of the Spanish
Empire in Mexico & Peru
-Gold & silver mines helped make Spain Europe’s dominant power (16th cen.)
XIII. England

After the Hundred Years’ War, England had internal warfare between 2 rival
branches: the House of York & the House of Lancaster (Wars of the Roses b/c
York’s symbol was a white rose and Lancaster’s a red rose)
-England in turmoil from 1455-1485

Edward IV effectively increased the power and finances of the monarchy
o
–His brother, Richard III unsurped the throne from Edward’s son
o
-After Richard’s death, the new Tudor dynasty portrayed him as a villain
who had also murdered Edward’s son in the Tower of London to secure his
hold on the throne.

Henry Tudor ruled as Henry VII, he married Elizabeth of York to make his
offspring to the throne uncontestable
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
In the Court of Star Chamber, the king’s councillors sat as judges and the result
was a more equitable court system; used English law to further the ends of
monarchy

Henry confiscated lands and fortunes of nobles w. success that he was able to
govern w.o dependence on Parliament for royal funds
XIV. The Holy Roman Empire

The emperor and the major German territorial rulers reached an agreement in
1356, the Golden Bull; est. a 7 member electoral college

The rights of the many (the princes) were always balanced against the power of
the one (the emperor)

To control incessant feuding by the creation of an imperial diet known as the
Reichstag.
o
–assembly of the 7 electors, the nonelectoral princes, and representatives
from the 65 imperial free cities
o
–the latter was only grudgingly conceded by the emperor b/c it gave the
princes a share in executive power
XV. The Northern Renaissance
Northern humanism was stimulated by the importation of Italian learning through
such varied intermediaries as students who had studied in Italy, merchants who
traded there, and the Brothers of the Common Life.

Invention of printing w. movable type- became possible for humanists to
convey their educational ideals to laypeople & clerics alike

Gave new influence to elites in both church & state
XVI. The Printing Press


The invention of this helped make books economical and broaden their content
Johann Guteberg invented the printing w. movable type in the mid 15th cen. in
the German city of Mainz (the center of printing for the whole of w. Europe

Books were rapidly and handsomely produced on topics both profound and
practical

By 1500 printing presses operated in at least 60 German cities and in more than
200 cities throughout Europe
o
–literacy deeply affected people, nurturing self-esteem, and a critical
frame of mind; the print revolution made anyone who could read an
instant authority
o
–Rulers in church & state now had to deal w. a less credulous and less
docile laity
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o
–Print was a powerful tool for political and religious propaganda, kings
could now indoctrinate people as never before & clergymen found
themselves able to mass-produce both indulgences & pamphlets
XVII. Erasmus
Desiderius Erasmus was the most famous of northern humanists, known as the
“prince of the humanists” His life and work made clear that many loyal Catholics
wanted major reforms long before the reformation made them a reality
Works: Colloquies & Adages; “Where there is smoke, there is fire”
-aspired to unite the classical ideals of humanity and civic virtue w. Christian ideals
of love & piety
-summarized his own believes w the phrase philosophia Christi, imitation of Christ
-at one point all of his works were placed on the Index of Forbidden Books because
they did not please church authorities
XVIII. Humanism and Reform
-Germany, England, France, & Spain humanism stirred educational/religious reform
Germany:
Ulrich von Hutten illustrates the union of humanism, German nationalism, and
Luther’s religious reform.
-the Reuchlin affair brought von Hutten onto the historical stage and unified reformminded German humanists
-When Martin Luther came under attack in 1517, many German humanists saw a
repetition of the scholastic attack on Reuchlin and rushed to his side
England:
Lectures by William Grocyn and Thomas Linacre and those of Erasmus marked the
scholarly maturation of English humanism; John Colet promoted relig. Reform as
well
-Thomas Moore is the best known English humanist- Utopia (imag. Society based
on reason & tolerance)
-Humanism played an important role in preparing the way for the English
Reformation
France:
Guillaume Bude and Jacques Lefevre d’Etaples were the leaders of French
humanism
-Guillaume Briconnet and Marguerite d’Angouleme cultivated a generation of young
reform-minded humanists; the future protestant reformer John Calvin was a
product of this native reform circle.
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Spain:
Humanism entered the service of the Catholic Church
-Francisco Jimenez de Cisneros had a position that allowed him to enforce the
strictest religious orthodoxy; founded the University of Alcala and printed a Greek
edition of the New Testament

translated many religious tracts designed to reform clerical life and better
direct lay piety; greatest achievement: Complutensiam Polygot Bible (6
volume work that placed the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin versions of the
Bible) ; made sure to keep Spain Catholic throughout Age of Reformation
XVIIII. Voyages of Discovery and the New Empire in the West
The 15th century saw the beginning of Europe’s global expansion and the
transference of commercial supremacy from the Med. & Baltic to the Atlantic.
XVV. Gold and Spices
Henry the Navigator sponsored the Portuguese exploration of the African Coast.
-Antwerp became the financial center of Europe; the rush for gold quickly expanded
into a rush for the spice markets of India
-Spices especially pepper and cloves, were in great demand, both to preserve and
enhance the taste of food.
-Bartholomeu Dias opened the Portugese emp. and Vasco da Gama reached the
coast of India; while the Portuguese concentrated on the Indian O., the Spanish set
sail across the Atlantic. Rather than beating the Portugese, Chris. Columbus came
upon the Americas.
-Amerigo Vespucci & Ferdinand Magellan showed that these new lands were not the
outermost territory of the Far East, as Columbus died believing.
XVVI. The Spanish Empire in the New World

The gold and silver extracted from its American possessions financed Spain’s
major role in the religious and political conflicts of the age and contributed to
European inflation
XVVII. The Church in Spanish America
They believed they could foster Erasmus’s concept of the “philosophy of Christ”
Bartolome de Las Casas contented that the conquest was not necessary for
conversion; emergence of “Black Legend”
3 major components in the colonial economy of Latin America: mining, agriculture,
and shipping. Each of them involved labor, servitude, or a relationship of the New
World economy on that of Spain.
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Mining the early conquistadores “conquerors” were interested in gold. Great mining
centers: Potosi in Peru and some in northern Mexico; Agriculture: the major rural
and agricultural institution of the Spanish colonies was the hacienda, a large landed
estate owned by persons originally born in Spain (peninsulares)
persons of a Spanish decent born in America (creoles)
-haciendas produced foodstuffs for mining and leather goods; the labor of black
slaves in the West Indies produced sugar to supply a demand in Europe
Labor Servitude:
first of these was the ecomienda, a formal grant of the right to the labor of a
specific number of Indians, led to a new arrangement of labor servitude- the
repatimineto; required adult male Indians to devote several number of days of
labor ; known as the mita
Form of exploitation known as debt peonage continued in L. America
The Impact on Europe:
The new supply of bullion from the Americas joined w enlarged Europea production
to increase greatly the amount of coinage in circulation anf this increase in turn fed
inflation.
-The new wealth enabled governments and private entrepreneurs to sponsor basic
research and expansion in the printing, shipping, mining, and textile industries.
-the new wealth and industrial expansion also raised the expectations of the poor
and the ambitious and heightened the reactionary tendencies of the wealthy.
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