NATIONAL ECONOMICS UNIVERSITY
World Civilization History
Group 6
Topic: The recovery and growth of European society in the
high middle ages; The age of the Renaissance
Group’s members :
Lê Tự Quang Minh
Nguyễn Nữ Minh Nguyệt
Nguyễn Chí Thanh
Tăng Thị Minh Anh
Nguyễn Ngọc Hải
Phan Quốc Bảo
Nguyễn Nam Anh
1) Europe in the High Middle Ages
1.1)Land and People
In the early Middle Ages, Europe had a small population, but by the High
Middle Ages, it had nearly doubled, from 38 to 74 million people. What was the
cause of such a large increase? For one thing, after the invasions of the Early Middle
Ages ended, Europe was in a more stable and peaceful state. Furthermore,
agricultural output improved considerably after the year 1000.
The New Agriculture
Throughout the High Middle Ages, Europeans began to farm in unique ways.
The expansion of cultivated or arable land, which was accomplished by clearing
woody areas, was a key factor in increasing food supply. During the eleventh and
twelfth centuries, people cut down trees and drained marshes. Technological
improvements also benefited agricultural development. During the Middle Ages,
there was a surge in labor-saving devices, many of which were made from iron
mined in different parts of Europe. Iron was used to make agriculture implements
like scythes, axes, and hoes, as well as construction tools like saws, hammers, and
nails.The carruca, a giant wheeled plow with an iron plowshare that could turn over
the hard clay soil found north of the Alps and was powered by teams of horses,
required a lot of iron. In addition to harnessing the power of horses, the High Middle
Ages used water and wind to do activities that had previously been performed by
humans or animals. Alongside streams, water-powered mills were used to grind
grains and make flour. Europeans invented windmills to harness the power of the
wind when rivers were scarce or difficult to dam. The switch from a two-field to a
three-field arrangement also aided in increasing food production. Early Middle Ages
peasants planted one field while leaving another of equal size uncultivated to restore
its fertility. The United States was divided into three divisions. In the autumn, winter
crops like rye and wheat were planted in one field, while spring grains like oats or
barley, as well as vegetables like peas and beans, were planted in the other. The third
was left on its own to fend for itself. Only one-third of the land is remained fallow
at any given time due to the rotation of their use. Crop rotation also allowed for
additional crops to be planted because the soil was not drained as quickly.
The Nobility of the Middle Ages
During the High Middle Ages, European civilisation, like that of Japan at the
time, was ruled by people whose major concern was battle. They were all fighters
who were pulled together by the institution of chivalry. They did, however, have
societal divisions based on extremes of wealth and landholdings. Despite the fact
that aristocratic women were legally entitled to hold property, the majority of women
were still subject to the authority of men—first their fathers, then their spouses.
Despite this, these women were given numerous chances to play important roles.
Because the lord was usually away at war or at court, the lady of the castle had to
oversee the estate. Because homes may have a large number of officials and servants,
this was a significant responsibility. Despite the idea that women should be
submissive to their husbands, many prominent women advised and even ruled them.
Perhaps the most famous was Eleanor of Aquitaine. Eleanor was married to King
Louis VII of France and went on a Crusade with him, but their marriage was broken
due to Eleanor's alleged infidelity with her uncle while on the Crusade. Eleanor
married Henry, Duke of Normandy and Count of Anjou, ultimately King Henry II
of England, in 1154. She was politically active and even assisted her sons in their
rebellions against Henry in 1173 and 1174.
1.2. THE NEW WORLD OF TRADE AND CITIES
General
Europe in the Medieval was a society prioritizing in agriculture, which is the
main source of their income. In this period, European people divided into many small
groups living in different villages. However, the appearance of several elements,
such as: trade recovery, professional artisans and the development of some cities are
the reasons developing the economy of European civilization.
The revival of Trade
During the Early Middle Ages, Europe had witnessed a significant fall in
large-scale trade. However, the prioritization of Europeans in skills and products
then led to the revival of commercial activities. Cities in the North of Italy took the
lead in this economic recovery. While the Northern Italian focused on
Mediterranean, the towns of Flanders traded mainly in Northern Europe. Flander
was widely known for its high-quality woolen cloth. This area is located along the
coast of present-day Belgium and North of France, which is an ideal location for
Northern European traders to visit. This is a reason why a number of merchants from
England, France, Germany and Scandinavia visiting this town to trade their goods
for woolen cloth, leading to its prosperous in 11th and 12th centuries. In addition to
Flanders, Italy was also another major center of trade in northern and southern
Europe. Due to the growth of economy, some precious metals like gold or silver
were used to be the exchange of goods. This than resulted in the emergence of
banking companies and enterprises with the aim of controlling the exchange of
goods. Consequently, commercial capitalism became the system of economic
operation, where profits of almost people come from investing in trade and goods
Trade outside Europe
In the High Middle Ages, merchants coming from Italy located their trading
posts in Cairo, Damacus in addition to various ports in Black Sea, where they bought
a significant number of goods such as jewelry, silks, … from Asian merchants,
especially Chinese, Indian and Southeast Asian people. The revolution of Mongol
Empire in 13th century provides a chance to Italian merchants to approach to the
markets of Central Asia, India and China. The Mongols kept the safety for foreign
merchants who regularly move through their land to trade with settled communities.
Niccolo` and Maffeo Polo, two Venetian, are the first merchants travel in Mongol
Empire in 1260. Moreover, Italian merchants gained a large variety of benefits from
crusader states creation of Palestine and Syria in 12th and 13th centuries. They were
given trading concessions in Syria and Palestine since they took the crusaders to the
east. Taking Venice is an specific example, it was highly profited from a quarter
being given by crusaders, which located in the coastal area of what is now Lebanon
The growth of cities
During the Early Middle Ages, Old Roman cities witnessed a decrease in both
size and population. However, the revival of trade resulted in the growing number
of merchants and artisans living in old cities. In the beginning of 19th century, a
wide variety of cities and towns were found, especially in the north of Europe.
Merchants regularly established a settlement where near to fortified stronghold,
especially castles since they were generally located beside trade routes. Because of
mobility that townspeople need to trade, they asked the government for their unique
rules and were also willing to pay for them. The government decided to sell the
liberties that townspeople were demanding in some certains, such as: right to
bequeath goods and sell property, freedom from military and written urban laws that
guaranteed that freedom. In some European towns, they acquired the right to choose
the authority by themselves and could administer their courts of law. Only men being
born in the city or having lived there for a long period could be considered citizens.
These people had the right to elect the city council. In comparison with modern and
ancient cities, those of High Middle Ages were smaller. For example, a large trading
city consisted about 5,000 people. By 1200, London was the largest city in England
with population of about 30,000 inhabitants. In the north of Alps, Bruges and Ghent
had a population of approximately 40,000 people. Comparing with Italy, Italian
cities seemed quite larger with Venice, Florence, Naples, Milan and Genoa.
However, the largest European city was still smaller than Arab cities.
Daily life in the Medieval City.
Because of the expensive price to build the surrounded stone walls, European
inhabitants value the space within. That is the reason why a large number of
European cities have a structural style of narrowed streets and crowded houses.
Before 14th century, houses were widely built by wood and candles were used for
light, which is a threat that could burn extensively once a fire started. Both merchants
and craftspeople had their own sections in the city. The merchants’ places are
warehouses, inns and taverns, however, we could see artisans appearing mainly in
along craftslines. After 12th century, these people were divided into small groups.
In 13th century, there were various guilds and each of them had their own streets.
Due to the development of towns, many causes were resulted in, such as water
pollution,…Besides household chores, the European women had to purchase foods,
prepare meals, raise the children and manage family finances.
1.3) Evolution of the European Kingdoms
England in the High Middle Ages
On October 14, 1066, William of Normandy's army of strongly equipped
knights landed on the English shore and defeated King Harold with his Anglo-Saxon
soldiers. After this winning, William became King of England, and he integrated
Anglo-Saxon and Norman institutions to form a new England. William of Normandy
built a powerful, consolidated kingdom in Normandy.
During Henry II's reign in the twelfth century, the English monarchy's power
was substantially expanded. Additionally, after the royal courts were now
established across England, they set a body of common law taking the place of the
numerous law codes that varied from place to place.
However, the nobility of England was not satisfied with the expansion of the
king’s power and growth in rebellion during the reign of King John (1199--1216).
In 1215, King John was obliged to accept Magna Carta ( called the Great Charter )
at Runnymede. Magna Carta shows the Feudal custom recognizing the relationship
between king and vassals on the basis of mutual rights and obligations.
The first English Parliament was set up in 1295 ( the reign of Edward I ). After
that, the English Parliament was established by two burgesses from every borough
and two knights from each countries, Then the House of Lords as well as the House
of Commons was created by church lords and barons. The law of the kingdoms was
not made up not only by the King and also by the representative from different
groups.
The growth of the French Kingdoms
After the death of the final Caralingian, Hugh Capet was picked up to become
the new King of France. Although Hugh was the king of France in that period of
time, the nobilities in the western of France had mainly the power and also controlled
the royal area ( Iˆle-de-France). In particular, numerous of the dukes like Normandy,
Brittany have more significant power than the Capetian kings.
The development of the French monarchy turned to the important point in the
reign of King Phillip II Augustus ( 1180 -1223 ). They succeeded in the war with the
King of England - Plantagenet and took control the most of the territories such as
Normandy, Maine, etc. The King Phillips II also expanded his power of the French
monarchy.
During the reign of Phillip IV the Fair ( 1285 - 1314 ), the French monarchy
was expanded more effectively. In 1302, he brought a French parliament into by
being asking the representative of each estate ( the clergy, the nobles and the
townspeople ) . France became the wealthiest, largest and best-governed
monarchical state on Europe in the end of 13th century
The Land of the Holy Roman Empire :
The German kings's intention was to dominate both Italian as well as German
lands. In particular,the reigns of Frederick I Barbarossa ( 1152 - 1190 ) and Frederick
II ( 1212 - 1250) were two the kings wanting to form a new type of empire. But his
intention was failed because the alliance of the northern Italy and the pope defeated
Frederick army in the year 1176. In the reign of the king Frederick II, his army also
was defeated in the war although winning many battles before in the northern of
Italy.
The Holy Roman Empire were damaged because of the trouble between popes
and emperors. The German Holy Roman Emperor did not hold the power in
Germany and Italy because they spent times for fighting. The German monarchy
became weak and could not grow a centralized monarchical state. Italy and Germany
included several small , independent state, then it changed little in the nineteenth
century .
The Slavic Peoples of Central and Eastern Europe
The Bohemian and Polish kingdoms were eventually founded from the
western Slavs. By the eleventh century, the Slavs as well as the Czechs in Polland
and Bohemia had been converted by German Christian missionaries. After the
Magyars's defeat and settle down in the year 955 , they also converted to Christianity
from the non-Slavic kingdom of Hungar . Wesrern Christianity or even Catholic
were converted by Czechs, Poles and Hungarians, becoming inextricably linked to
the Roman Catholic Church also its Latin culture.
In the year 863, Cryril and Methoudius ( missionary brothers in Byzantine)
started to convert the Slavic people of Moravia to the Byzantine Empire's Orthdox
Chiristianity. Croats, Serbs, and Bulgarians were among the southern Slavic peoples.
They, too, embraced Eastern Orthodoxy for the most part, while the Croats
eventually accepted the Roman Catholic Church. Serbs and Bulgarians' embrace of
Eastern Orthodoxy connected their cultural lives to the Byzantine state.
The areas of Unkraine and Europe at the present had been established by
Eastern Slavic peoples. They began to encounter Swedish Vikings there in the late
eighth century, as they traveled down the great network of rivers into the territories
of the eastern Slavs in search of booty and new trading routes . These Vikings
established trading towns and eventually dominated the indigenous peoples, who
dubbed them "the Rus," which is how Russia got its name.
The development of Russia :
At the beginning of the tenth century, Oleg ( 873-913) created the Rus state
of Kiev. After that, his successors expanded the control in the Slavic and also the
territory of Kiev. Then, the ruling classes of Vikings were assimilated into the Slavic
society when they married the Slavic wives.
In 987, Vladimir - the ruler of Rus state, married the Byzantine emperor’s
sister. Then he accepted Christianity, which became the model in Russia in religious
life by the end of the tenth century.
In the first 50 years of the eleventh century, the principality of Kiev was
collapsed due to the invasions of the armies from Asia and civil war. In 1969, the
first state of Russian was ended. That state was very close to tie to the Byzantine
Empire.
Impact of the Mongols :
The invasion of Russia by Mongols cut it from Europe, but they only
conquered only a part of Russia in the thirteenth century. In 1242, an army of
Germany was defeated when they lose the army of Alexander Nevsky - prince of
Novgorod in the Northwestern of Russia.
Then, he corporated with Mongols and rewarded with the title of grand
prince.
1.4) Christianity and Medieval Civilization
Christianity has infiltrated every aspect of European culture and
consciousness. The actions of kings and princes were influenced by papal
commands, and Christian doctrines and practices influenced the lives of all
Europeans. Christianity transformed classical Western Civilization into Medieval
Civilization by absorbing the traditions and cultures of Rome, Greece, and the
Hellenistic nations and uniting Europe under the new religion. Christianity is a
substantial religion that began in the first century CE with the teachings, life, and
death of Jesus of Nazareth. It has become the most enormous and most widely
practised religion in the world.
Reform of the Papacy
From the 5th century AD, the Pope began to preside over the affairs of the
Catholic Church. During the 14th and 15th centuries, the pope became increasingly
involved in emerging feudal relations. For example, bishops and abbots began to
regard their office as a noble fief. They had to perform vassal duties, including
military service. The formal title is the process by which secular rulers select
nominees for positions in the church and invest them in the symbolism of their
position. By the 11th century, the leaders of the church realized that they needed to
free the church from the interference of the lords in the appointment of church
officials. In 1075, Pope Gregory VII made it illegal for secular leaders to invest in
high-ranking clerics. Gregorian declares himself to be "God's representative on
earth" and rules over all Christians. Gregory VII soon contradicted his conduct with
King Frederick William III of Germany. For example, King Henry IV of Germany
(1056-1106) was a strong-willed man. He made the bishop and other high priests
vassals. Henry has no intention of obeying laws that violate the foundation of his
government. The dispute over the investigation is one of the most important
arguments between state and church. It dragged on until 1122 when the new
German’s king and new Pope signed the Concordat of Worms. Under the agreement,
German church officials elected a bishop, but a papal representative granted him
temporary powers.
The Church Supreme
Throughout the pontificate of Pope Innocent III, the Catholic church had hit
the pinnacle of potency (1198-1216). Pope Gregory VII's reformist ideals were not
abandoned by the twelfth-century popes and were focused more on consolidating his
power and building a strong administrative system. In the same way of God, the
Creator of the universe, placed 2 great lights in the solid sky, one to rule by day and
the other by night. He has placed two great dignities in the firm foundation of the
universal Church. The greater spirits, that is, souls will rule by day, while the lower
spirits, for example, the body will rule the night in a letter to a priest at the beginning
of his pontificate. The church's authority is represented by two of these dignities
(royal power and the papal authority). Royal power derives its dignified splendor
from the Pope's power, just as the moon, though inferior to the sun, receives its light
from the sun heaven. Innocent III, as Pope, acted as if he thought he was the final
arbiter of European affairs. He didn’t vacillate to use spiritual armaments of his own
accord to achieve his political objectives. He forbade priests from administering the
sacraments in the hopes of putting pressure on their ruler by depriving the people of
their religious comforts.
New Religious Orders and New Spiritual
From 1050 to 1150, Europe was swept away by a wave of religious fervour,
with the Cistercian Order serving as the mainstay. In 1098, The Cistercian Order, a
group of monks dissatisfied with moral decadence and a lack of rigorous religious
discipline was a key figure in the creation of a new spiritual model appropriate for
12th-century Europe. In honour of God, a monk from German waters used to spend
hours in prayer. The Cistercian’s ideal had a modification focal point: “Arise, soldier
of Christ, arise! Get up off the ground and return to the battle from which you have
fled! Fight more boldly after your flight, and triumph in glory!” Females played an
active role in the spiritual movements of the time. Convents were very helpful for
families who couldn't find a husband for their daughter, as well as for women who
refused to marry. They provided female intellectuals with a safe haven to pursue
their interests. The nuns were the majority of educated women in the Middle Ages.
The new religious order had a significant impact on the common people. In the
thirteenth century, the Pope's Inquisition appointed the Franciscans as judges. It was
received very well. The Dominicans were born. At the request of the Spanish priest
Domingo de Guzmán (1170-1221), defended the teachings of the church against
paganism or beliefs contrary to the official teachings of the church. believes that the
best way to fight sects is to create a religious order. The new monastery is made up
of poor people who are well educated and can preach effectively. The Dominicans
are best known for their work as papal investigators. The Pope's Holy Office of
Inquisition is a court established by the Church with the mission of locating and
prosecuting heretics. The state found anyone accused of heresy who refused to
confess guilty and sentenced them to death. Heresy was both a sin against God and
a sin against humanity for the Christians of the 13th century.
1.5) The culture in the High Middle Ages
A.The Rise of Universities and Displacement of Monasteries
Monasticism and the High Middle Ages
Monasteries were the primary centers of education until the High Middle
Ages. The High Middle Ages lasted roughly from the 11th through the 13th
centuries. The Catholic Church had become the dominant religion in Western
Europe prior to this time. The majority of national churches were Catholic, which
meant they all reported to the same person: the Pope. The popularity of Catholicism
resulted in the Pope amassing immense money and rising power. As the Pope's
power rose, he strove to expand his influence into secular and political concerns,
pressuring nobles and royals to accept whatever papal program was popular at the
time.
The University is Born
Western Europe was enjoying a population boom at the time. The demand for
clergy who could read and keep records grew as trade and commercialism grew.
Classical writings had become more widely available, and schools had grown in
number.
Many medieval people formed guilds as educational institutions sprang all
over Western Europe. Artisans and craftspeople organized medieval guilds to help
regulate quality and assure fair prices for items. Students and teachers at educational
centers formed associations and petitioned for legal rights in the same way. The term
'university' is derived from this. In Latin, the word universitas implies "a group of
people organized into a single guild'.
The concept of academic freedom is one illustration of this legal right. A
charter was adopted at one of the earliest universities, the University of Bologna,
that permitted a visiting scholar to pursue his educational endeavors without
hindrance. A charter was a document that codified a university's rights.
Universities grew in popularity and could now be located throughout Europe.
Leaders recognized the value of having well-educated minds in their midst. Classical
books encouraged logic and scholasticism in learning, allowing people to gain skills
in debate and problem-solving that they would not have had otherwise.Education
became more widely available as the Pope and the royals, two of Western Europe's
most powerful figures, fostered it.
B.The Daily Life of English Peasants
From the 11th to the 13th centuries, the High Middle Ages were a period of
time. There was a lot of conflict at this point in history. Kings competed for power
and territory. The pope battled for the same thing, but he also had to keep control
over the Christian realm. Feudalism was the system of government during the period.
Feudalism was a system in which a landowner ruled over the land's lower-class
laborers. The king was at the head of the feudal system in the Middle Ages, but
landowners were the direct administrators over their workforce. Peasants were at the
bottom of the food chain.
The Obligations of a Peasant
The peasants were the ones who had to bear the brunt of the tax load. They
had to pay their master money in the form of taxes or rent for the land they worked.
They were also required to pay a tithe to the local church. The tax was set at ten
percent of the worker's annual earnings. Even though the sum may appear
insignificant, peasants produced and saved so little of their harvest that it could
jeopardize their capacity to maintain their families.
Peasants were required to perform free labor on the property of their local
church in addition to their everyday duties. However, the church maintained that
failing to fulfill this obligation was a sin, and that individuals who did not contribute
free labor would be punished by God.
The Domesday Book added to the pressure. This book kept track of how much
money each person owed the monarch in taxes. The book would also keep track of
how much money was owed in taxes. Peasants could keep whatever was left after
taxes were paid, which was typically very little.
Daily schedule
A peasant's everyday existence would have consisted primarily of labour,
with little time for recreation. Work may have begun as early as 3 a.m. during the
warmer months. By daylight, peasants would have a small breakfast and be working
in the fields or on the land. Pottage, a thick stew made with peas, carrots, onions,
oats, and herbs, was most likely served for breakfast.
Working in the field could entail a variety of tasks. Plowing the field and
spreading seeds would have been the responsibility of peasants. They'd also have to
reap crops in preparation for harvest. They would have had to make hay by cutting
grass and drying it as well. Workers would also beat plant stems and husks to extract
seeds from the straw. This is referred to as threshing. Peasants worked until dusk on
these tasks, making summer workdays particularly arduous.
Peasant women used to get up at the same time as their husbands, often as
early as 3 a.m. The woman would be in charge of breakfast preparation. She'd also
be in charge of making any additional daily meals and caring for small livestock
such as chickens. Other responsibilities could include sewing or mending clothes
and gathering plants and berries. Peasant mothers were responsible for their children
and frequently used plants for therapeutic purposes.
C.Gothic Architecture: Style, Characteristics & History
Throughout
Europe,
Gothic
architecture
supplanted
Romanesque
architecture. Discover the first Gothic cathedral, the three essentials of Gothic
architecture, and various examples of Gothic architecture's style and qualities.
St. Denis: The First Gothic Cathedral
Abbot Suger began rebuilding the Abbey Church of St. Denis in 1137. Suger
was dissatisfied with Romanesque architecture's dark, heavy, and chaotic design.
Suger envisioned his church as an elegant embodiment of geometric harmony that
aspired to Heaven and was showered with wondrous light.
Years later, the world was introduced to the new Church of St. Denis. This
new church, as Suger had wished, stood out from its Romanesque predecessors. His
new church was lofty, unlike the Romanesque churches, which were short and thick.
His new church was cheerful and inspirational, in contrast to the dark and imposing
Romanesque structures. Suger dubbed his new church design'modern.' It was dubbed
Gothic by his critics.
The Goths were a tribe of Germanic barbarians who attacked and looted most
of the Western Roman Empire a thousand years ago, and the term "Gothic" referred
to them. Suger's new church was dubbed Gothic by the people of the 12th century,
implying that it was crude, barbaric, and non-Roman.
This is what attracts people to Gothic architecture. After centuries of living in
the shadow of Rome and attempting to imitate the Roman Empire's wonders,
Western Europe had finally produced something unique, something magnificent in
its own right: the Gothic cathedral.
Fundamentals of Gothic Architecture
There are three things that make Gothic architecture Gothic:
1. The pointed arch
2. The ribbed vault
3. The flying buttress
These three elements come together in Gothic architecture, and the results changed
the world.
The Road to the Pointed Ribbed Vault
The conventional semicircular arch was used as the base arch in early vaulted
churches, and its stress lines tended to push out the church walls. Ribbed vaulting is
a type of vaulting that creates a web of strong arches or ribs and then fills in the gaps
with lighter materials. Because all of the weight is supported by those rib arches, the
pressure can be concentrated to a tiny area. Only a few piers were required to support
massive ceilings in Gothic churches, leaving the remainder of the walls free to be
filled with stained glass windows.
Before moving on, it's worth noting that rib vaulting became even more
ambitious and complicated in England, resulting in fan vaulting, a distinctly English
style of rib vaulting.
D.Gothic Sculpture and Stained Glass Windows: Characteristics & Style
The completion of Gothic churches necessitated the creation of appropriate
ornamental art. Learn about the style and qualities of Gothic sculpture and stainedglass windows, such as the emphasis on order, realism, and sculpting in the round.
Decorating the Great Cathedrals
Gothic cathedrals began to appear all over Europe in the 12th century. The
challenge was met by Gothic artists in a number of ways. The stained glass window
was the most important type of Gothic architectural art. Because few people could
read at the time, stained glass windows provided illiterate Christians with a beautiful
insight into the Bible's stories.
Gothic Sculpture: Order, Realism and Sculpture in the Round
Sculptors began adorning Gothic churches with ornamental sculpture as glaziers
were flooding the interiors with holy light. In Gothic sculpture, three trends are
emerging:
1. The wild movement of Romanesque sculpture is replaced with geometric
harmony and symmetry.
2. We begin to see the first steps toward full sculpture in the round, or 3-D
sculptures that stand on their own two feet.
3. This trend is accompanied by an increased sense of realism in Gothic
sculpture.
Realism and Sculpture in the Round
Gothic sculptures began to break free from their constricting architectural
contexts, displaying an increasing amount of realism. These statues got more natural
poses and lifelike characteristics as techniques improved. Sculptors eventually began
to create sculptures without supporting columns or any other obvious architectural
purpose. These figures were now free to stand in more natural stances and even
gesture without the need to support a ceiling.
Even the alcoves eventually became simply embellishments framing lifelike
figures in various attitudes. Sculptors eventually gave up on architectural
embellishment and began constructing freestanding sculptures in the round. As a
result, over the period of nearly a century, sculpture advanced tremendously and
emerged as one of the most prominent forms of artistic expression. Rather than using
sculptures to complement architecture, people used architecture to complement
sculptures. Without any architectural structure, sculptures began to stand alone. As
sculptors developed their talents and their artwork came to the fore, the realism of
their work enhanced.
E. Gothic Painting: Style & Characteristics
Northern and southern European artists would paint in different styles of
Gothic painting. Learn about the style and qualities of Gothic art in Italy and
Northern Europe, as well as how both displayed early attempts at perspective in
both.
Gothic Painting
So far, we've largely talked about these diverse types of art in terms of time.
Because Gothic art speaks to both a period and a location, it poses an additional
challenge.
Around 1144, Abbot Suger erected the first Gothic Church at the Abbey of St
Denis, which marked the beginning of Gothic art in France. From roughly 1250 to
1400, it swept over Europe, eventually becoming a worldwide standard. Gothic art
fell out of favor over the next century in Europe, and it retreated to France, where it
reigned dominant until roughly 1550.The versatility of the term 'Gothic' is more
evident in Italy than anywhere else. Italy was one of the last countries to join the
Gothic craze, but one of the first to embrace its own distinct Renaissance.
Italian Gothic Panels, Frescoes and Murals
Stained glass windows became the primary type of interior church decoration
throughout the Gothic period. In Italy, murals, frescoes, and other types of painting
remained popular forms of church decorating. Early Italian painters' explorations
restored the majesty of ancient art and prepared the path for the Renaissance's
astounding realism.
Early Attempts at Perspective
The Gothic exploration of perspective is arguably even more astounding than
the development of realistic figures. Gothic artists were not merely recapturing
classical splendor in this regard. Beyond the simple illusions of the Pompeian style,
the Romans don't seem to have had much luck with perspective painting.
Duccio and Ambrogio Lorenzetti pioneered the development of Italian Gothic
perspective, which culminated in Gentile Da Fabriano's Adoration of the Magi. As
painters get a greater understanding of perspective, two basic types of perspective
emerge: internal and exterior.
Northern Gothic Painting: Illumination
In the North, illumination, or illustrating manuscripts, remained the most common
style of painting. Gothic sculpture and stained glass were major influences on
these illuminations. Les Tres Riches Heures du Duc de Berry is one of the most
famous illuminated manuscripts of all time. The famed Limbourg brothers illustrated
this prayer book, which follows a common medieval theme: the months' labors.
2) The Renaissance
2.1 ) The formation of the Renaissance
The Renaissance (French: "Rebirth") was a time in European civilization that
occurred immediately after the Middle Ages and is traditionally seen to have been
marked by a spike in interest in Classical learning and values. The Renaissance also
saw the discovery and exploration of new continents, the replacement of the
Ptolemaic system of astronomy with the Copernican system, the decline of feudalism
and the rise of commerce, and the invention or application of potentially powerful
innovations such as paper, printing, the mariner's compass, and gunpowder.
However, it was essentially a moment of resurgence of Classical learning and
wisdom for intellectuals and thinkers of the day, following a lengthy period of
cultural decline and stagnation.
Origins and rise of humanism
Scholars in the 15th century developed the word "Middle Ages" to describe
the period between the fall of the Classical world of Greece and Rome and its
rediscovery at the dawn of their own century, a resurgence in which they felt they
were taking part. Indeed, Petrarch had before stated the idea of a protracted time of
cultural darkness. A sequence of social, political, and intellectual revolutions began
at the end of the Middle Ages, particularly in the 12th century, and culminated in the
Renaissance.The failure of the Roman Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire
to provide a stable and unifying framework for the organization of spiritual and
material life, the rise of city-states and national monarchies, the development of
national languages, and the disintegration of old feudal structures were among them.
While the Renaissance spirit took numerous shapes over time, the philosophical
movement known as humanism was the first to articulate it. Humanism was founded
by secular men of letters, not by the scholar-clerics who dominated medieval
intellectual life and established Scholastic philosophy. Humanism was born in Italy
and flourished there first. Its pioneer were Dante and Petrarch, as well as Gianozzo
Manetti, Leonardo Bruni, Marsilio Ficino, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, Lorenzo
Valla, and Coluccio Salutati, among others. Many eastern scholars fled to Italy after
the fall of Constantinople in 1453, carrying with them priceless books and
manuscripts, as well as a heritage of Greek learning.
Humanism had a number of distinguishing characteristics. For starters, it
focused on human nature in all of its manifestations and achievements. Second, it
emphasized the theory of syncretism, which emphasizes the unity and compatibility
of truth found in all philosophical and religious schools and systems. The third point
was that it stressed man's dignity. The humanists looked to the fight of creation and
the desire to assert power over nature instead of the medieval ideal of a life of
penance as the highest and noblest form of human activity.Finally, humanism
anticipated the resurgence of a long-forgotten human spirit and wisdom. However,
in their efforts to reclaim it, the humanists contributed to the formation of a new
spiritual and intellectual outlook, as well as the development of a new body of
knowledge. Humanism had the effect of assisting mankind in breaking free from the
mental constraints imposed by religious dogma, inspiring unfettered inquiry and
critique, and instilling a renewed faith in the capabilities of human thinking and
inventions.
The new humanist attitude and the Renaissance it spawned swept north from
Italy, boosted by the discovery of printing, which allowed literacy and the
availability of Classical books to skyrocket. Desiderius Erasmus was the most
prominent northern humanist, and his Praise of Folly (1509) encapsulated the moral
essence of humanism in its emphasis on feeling virtue rather than formalistic
devotion. Many humanists, like Erasmus, resented the intellectual stimulation
provided by humanists, which helped spark the Reformation.
2.2) The major achievements in the age of the Renaissance:
Following the Middle Ages, The Renaissance was a chaotic period of
"rebirth" in European culture, art, politics, and economy. The Renaissance was a
period in history when people began, which lasted from the 14th through the 17th
centuries, was characterized by classical philosophy, literature, and art are being
rediscovered. Some of history's finest philosophers, writers, politicians, scientists,
and artists lived during this time, bloomed, as global discovery opened up new places
and civilizations to European trade. Between the Middle Ages and contemporary
civilization, The Renaissance is said to have bridged the divide.
During the Renaissance, renowned works of art were created, including:
 Mona Lisa is one of the most famous paintings in the world (Da Vinci)
 The Last Supper is a depiction of the Last Supper (Da Vinci)
 David's Statue (Michelangelo)
 Venus's Conception (Botticelli)
 Adam's First Creation (Michelangelo)
Literature:
The Renaissance's first-era literature originated in 14th-century Italy; famous
Italian Renaissance writers include Dante, Petrarch, and Machiavelli. The
Renaissance's impact expanded at different speeds to other regions from Italy, and it
continued to spread throughout Europe during the 17th century. The English
Renaissance and the Scottish Renaissance took place during the late 15th and early
17th centuries. Erasmus' scholarly publications, Shakespeare's plays, Edmund
Spenser's poetry, and Sir Philip Sidney's writings can all be called Renaissance in
nature in northern Europe.
Renaissance literature was created as part of the Renaissance movement,
which began in 13th century Italy and lasted until the 16th century, spreading across
the Western world. It was marked by the adoption of a Humanist philosophy and the
revival of antiquity's classical literature, and it profited from the spread of printing
in the later half of the 15th century. Greco-Roman influence might be seen in the
topics of Renaissance writers' works as well as the literary techniques they
employed. The world was viewed through the lens of philosophy. Platonic ideals
were resurrected and applied to Christianity. The pursuit for sensual pleasures, as
well as a critical and intellectual mindset, completed the ideological landscape of the
time. New literary genres emerged, such as the essay, as well as new metrical forms
like the sonnet and Spenserian stanza.
Johannes Gutenberg's invention of the printing press (using movable type) in
the 1450s encouraged authors to write in their mother languages rather than the
Greek or Latin classical languages, expanding the reading population and spreading
Renaissance ideals.
The Renaissance had a diverse influence across the continent, depending on
whether the country was largely Catholic or predominantly Protestant. Areas where
the Orthodox Church was culturally dominant, as well as those in Europe under
Islamic domination, were most affected. The focus at this time was on selfactualization and the ability to accept what is happening in one's life.
Art:
The Renaissance had a diverse influence across the continent, depending on
whether the country was largely Catholic or predominantly Protestant. Areas where
the Orthodox Church was culturally dominant, as well as those in Europe under
Islamic domination, were mostly affected. The focus at this time was on selfactualization and the ability to accept what is happening in one's life.
Painting, sculpture, and decorative arts in the Renaissance style originally
developed in Italy in the late 14th century, peaking in the late 15th and early 16th
centuries with the work of Italian painters such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo,
and Raphael. In addition to portraying traditional Greco-Roman traditions,
Renaissance painting aimed to express the individual's experience as well as the
beauty and mystery of the natural world.
Renaissance art may be dated back to the late 13th and early 14th century in
Italy. Italian academics and artists viewed themselves as reawakening to the goals
and achievements of classical Roman culture during this so-called "protoRenaissance" period (1280-1400). After the collapse of the Roman Empire in the
sixth century, writers like Petrarch (1304-1374) and Giovanni Boccaccio (13131375) looked back to ancient Greece and Rome, hoping to restore the languages,
values, and intellectual traditions of those nations after a long period of stagnation.
Science:
According to medieval scientists, the visible cosmos was created by
combining and permuting four elements: earth, air, fire, and water. The universe was
composed of a series of spinning spheres, with the more distant ones transporting
the stars on their daily trips. The Earth's globe, massive and immobile, sat in the
center. In the skies, the motion was completely circular; on Earth, it was uneven and
naturally downward. The Earth had three landmasses: Europe, Asia, and Africa, and
its southern zones were unknown and dangerous. Human beings, the object of all
creation, were made out of four senses of humor: black and yellow bile, blood, and
phlegm, and the equal amounts of each established the body's health. Although
theologians were concerned about free will, the world was alive with a universal
awareness with which humans may connect in many ways, and the heavenly bodies
were generally believed to impact human character and events.
In mathematics, the Renaissance made the most significant contribution to the
foundation of modern science. Artists improved the geometrization of space through
their work on perspective, and Leonardo da Vinci had a nagging impression that the
universe was governed by "number," even if it was merely a nagging emotion.
According to George Alfred Leon Sarton, a 20th-century historian of science, "the
interest in algebra at Renaissance colleges was producing a kind of fever." It
produced some of the best mathematical thinkers, such as Niccol Fontana Tartaglia
and Girolamo Cardano. Renaissance academics would have made a significant
contribution to mathematics even if they had done nothing else, by translating and
publishing some hitherto discovered works of Archimedes, possibly the most
important of the ancients in this discipline, in 1544.
If the Renaissance played more of a midwife than a parent in the emergence
of today's science, the Renaissance magus, a manipulator of nature's secret powers,
is the right image in the world of technology. Engineers and technicians in the 15th
and 16th centuries produced astonishing achievements by working with medieval
conceptions of natural processes, pushing traditional cosmology to its explanatory
limits. It's possible that this had less to do with scientific theory and more to do with
changing societal requirements. One cause for practical change that sparked new
theoretical problems was warfare. Questions about the movement of bodies in space,
for example, became increasingly important as the use of cannon increased, and
mathematical calculation became more crucial. Gun manufacturing boosted
metallurgy and fortification, while city planning and measuring changes were linked
to geometric The Renaissance infatuation with alchemy, the birth of chemistry, was
probably fueled by a scarcity of precious metals exacerbated by government
expansion and war costs. Painting, sculpture, and decorative arts in the Renaissance
style originally developed in Italy in the late 14th century, peaking in the late 15th
and early 16th centuries with the work of Italian painters such as Leonardo da Vinci,
Michelangelo, and Raphael. In addition to portraying traditional Greco-Roman
traditions, Renaissance painting aimed to express the individual's experience as well
as the beauty and mystery of the natural world.
Philosophy:
The Renaissance, roughly spanning the middle of the fourteenth century to
the beginning of the seventeenth, was an era of intense, all-encompassing, and, in
many ways, unique philosophical activity. The Renaissance movement was founded
on the belief that the remains of ancient antiquity were an essential source of
perfection to which damaged and decadent modern times may turn to heal the harm
caused by the Roman Empire's collapse It was formerly thought that God had given
humanity a single, undivided truth and that ancient philosophers' works had
preserved some of this first deposit of great wisdom. This concept not only
established an academic culture based It focuses on ancient writings and their
interpretation, although it also includes cultivated a style of textual interpretation
that aimed to harmonize and reconcile various philosophical viewpoints. One of the
most remarkable elements of Renaissance philosophy is the growing interest in
previously obscure or scarcely studied core sources of Greek and Roman thought.,
sparked by newly available writings. His fresh study of Neoplatonism, Stoicism,
Epicureanism, and Skepticism broke trust in Aristotelian philosophy's universal
truth and expanded the logical scope, laying the groundwork for modern science and
philosophy to arise.
2.3) The content and meaning of the Renaissance
Content
Renaissance, (French: “Rebirth”) period in European civilization from the
14th century to the 17th immediately following the Middle Ages and conventionally
held to have been characterized by a surge of interest in Classical scholarship and
values. The Renaissance also witnessed the discovery and exploration of new
continents like the decline of the feudal system and the growth of commerce, and
the invention or application of such potentially powerful innovation ( all of the
achievements known as the irresistible march of modernity and progress).
A sharp break with medieval values and institutions, a new awareness of the
individual, an awakened interest in the material world and nature, and a recovery of
the cultural heritage of ancient Greece and Rome - the major achievements of the
Renaissance.
Including the revival of urban life, banking, the formation of states,
and vernacular literatures.
In religious life, the Renaissance was a time of the broadening and
institutionalizing of earlier initiatives in lay piety and lay-sponsored clerical
reforms, rather than the abandonment of traditional beliefs.
In government, city-states and regional and national principalities supplanted
the fading hegemony of the empire and the papacy and obliterated many of the local
feudal jurisdictions that had covered Europe.
Meaning
The Renaissance was a cultural movement that profoundly affected European
intellectual life in the early modern period. its influence was felt in art, architecture,
philosophy, literature, music, science, technology, politics, religion, and other
aspects of intellectual inquiry. Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method
in
study,
and
searched
for
realism
and
human
emotion
in
art.
The first public struggle in the field of ideological culture of the bourgeoisie against
feudalism
An attempt by intellectuals to study and improve the secular and worldly,
both through the revival of ideas from antiquity, and through novel approaches to
thought.
The independent city-republics (for ex in Italy) took over the principles of
capitalism
invented
on
monastic
estates
and
set
off
a
vast
unprecedented Commercial.
Revolution that
preceded
and
financed
the
Renaissance.