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Flowering plant - Wikipedia
Flowering plant
Flowering plants are members of the clade Angiospermae
(/ˌændʒiəˈspɜːrmi/),[5][6] commonly called angiosperms. The term "angiosperm"
is derived from the Greek words angeion ('container, vessel') and sperma ('seed'),
and refers to those plants that produce their seeds enclosed within a fruit. They
are the most diverse group of land plants with 64 orders, 416 families,
approximately 13,000 known genera and 300,000 known species.[7] Angiosperms
were formerly called Magnoliophyta (/mæɡˌnoʊliˈɒfɪtə, -əˈfaɪtə/).[8]
Flowering plant
Temporal range: Late Valanginian
– present,
Like gymnosperms, angiosperms are seed-producing plants. They are
distinguished from gymnosperms by characteristics including flowers, endosperm
within their seeds, and the production of fruits that contain the seeds.
The ancestors of flowering plants diverged from the common ancestor of all living
gymnosperms during the Carboniferous, over 300 million years ago,[9] with the
earliest record of angiosperm pollen appearing around 134 million years ago. The
first remains of flowering plants are known from 125 million years ago. They
diversified extensively during the Early Cretaceous, became widespread by 120
million years ago, and replaced conifers as the dominant trees from 60 to 100
million years ago.
Contents
Description
Angiosperm derived characteristics
Vascular anatomy
Reproductive anatomy
Taxonomy
History of classification
Modern classification
Evolutionary history
Paleozoic
Triassic and Jurassic
Cretaceous
Gallery of photos
Diversity
Reproduction
Fertilisation and embryogenesis
Fruit and seed
Meiosis
Apomixis
Uses
See also
Notes
References
Diversity of angiosperms
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
Clade:
Tracheophytes
Clade:
Spermatophytes
Clade:
Angiosperms
Groups (APG IV)[1]
Basal angiosperms
Amborellales
Nymphaeales
Austrobaileyales
Core angiosperms
Clades
magnoliids
monocots
eudicots
Orders
Chloranthales
Ceratophyllales
Synonyms
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Anthophyta Cronquist[2]
Bibliography
Articles, books and chapters
Angiospermae Lindl.
Websites
Magnoliophyta Cronquist,
External links
Takht. & W.Zimm.[3]
Magnolicae Takht.[4]
Description
Angiosperm derived characteristics
Angiosperms differ from other seed plants in several ways, described in the table below.
These distinguishing characteristics taken together have made the angiosperms the
most diverse and numerous land plants and the most commercially important group to
humans.[a]
Distinctive features of angiosperms
Feature
Description
Flowering
organs
Flowers, the reproductive organs of flowering plants, are the most remarkable feature
distinguishing them from the other seed plants. Flowers provided angiosperms with the
means to have a more species-specific breeding system, and hence a way to evolve
more readily into different species without the risk of crossing back with related
species. Faster speciation enabled the Angiosperms to adapt to a wider range of
ecological niches. This has allowed flowering plants to largely dominate terrestrial
ecosystems, comprising about 90 percent of all plant species.[10]
Stamens with
two pairs of
pollen sacs
Stamens are much lighter than the corresponding organs of gymnosperms and have
contributed to the diversification of angiosperms through time with adaptations to
specialised pollination syndromes, such as particular pollinators. Stamens have also
become modified through time to prevent self-fertilization, which has permitted further
diversification, allowing angiosperms eventually to fill more niches.
Reduced
male
gametophyte,
three cells
The male gametophyte in angiosperms is significantly reduced in size compared to
those of gymnosperm seed plants.[11] The smaller size of the pollen reduces the
amount of time between pollination — the pollen grain reaching the female plant — and
fertilization. In gymnosperms, fertilization can occur up to a year after pollination,
whereas in angiosperms, fertilization begins very soon after pollination.[12] The shorter
amount of time between pollination and fertilization allows angiosperms to produce
seeds earlier after pollination than gymnosperms, providing angiosperms a distinct
evolutionary advantage.
Closed carpel
enclosing the
ovules
(carpel or
carpels and
accessory
parts may
become the
fruit)
The closed carpel of angiosperms also allows adaptations to specialised pollination
syndromes and controls. This helps to prevent self-fertilization, thereby maintaining
increased diversity. Once the ovary is fertilised, the carpel and some surrounding
tissues develop into a fruit. This fruit often serves as an attractant to seed-dispersing
animals. The resulting cooperative relationship presents another advantage to
angiosperms in the process of dispersal.
Reduced
female
gametophyte,
seven cells
with eight
nuclei
The reduced female gametophyte, like the reduced male gametophyte, may be an
adaptation allowing for more rapid seed set, eventually leading to such flowering plant
adaptations as annual herbaceous life-cycles, allowing the flowering plants to fill even
more niches.
Endosperm
In general, endosperm formation begins after fertilization and before the first division of
the zygote. Endosperm is a highly nutritive tissue that can provide food for the
developing embryo, the cotyledons, and sometimes the seedling when it first appears.
Chamaenerion angustifolium,
also known as fireweed or
rosebay willowherb, is a
flowering plant in the willowherb
family Onagraceae.
Vascular anatomy
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Angiosperm stems are made up of seven layers as shown on the right. The amount
and complexity of tissue-formation in flowering plants exceeds that of
gymnosperms.
In the dicotyledons, the vascular bundles of the stem are arranged such that the
xylem and phloem form concentric rings. The bundles in the very young stem are
arranged in an open ring, separating a central pith from an outer cortex. In each
bundle, separating the xylem and phloem, is a layer of meristem or active formative
tissue known as cambium. By the formation of a layer of cambium between the
bundles (interfascicular cambium), a complete ring is formed, and a regular
periodical increase in thickness results from the development of xylem on the inside
and phloem on the outside. The soft phloem becomes crushed, but the hard wood
persists and forms the bulk of the stem and branches of the woody perennial. Owing
to differences in the character of the elements produced at the beginning and end of
the season, the wood is marked out in transverse section into concentric rings, one
for each season of growth, called annual rings.
Cross-section of a stem of the
angiosperm flax:
1. pith, 2. protoxylem, 3. xylem, 4.
phloem, 5. sclerenchyma (bast fibre),
6. cortex, 7. epidermis
Among the monocotyledons, the bundles are more numerous in the young stem and
are scattered through the ground tissue. They contain no cambium and once formed the stem increases in diameter only
in exceptional cases.
Reproductive anatomy
The characteristic feature of angiosperms is the flower. Flowers show remarkable variation in form
and elaboration, and provide the most trustworthy external characteristics for establishing
relationships among angiosperm species. The function of the flower is to ensure fertilization of the
ovule and development of fruit containing seeds.[13] The floral apparatus may arise terminally on a
shoot or from the axil of a leaf (where the petiole attaches to the stem). Occasionally, as in violets, a
flower arises singly in the axil of an ordinary foliage-leaf. More typically, the flower-bearing portion
of the plant is sharply distinguished from the foliage-bearing or vegetative portion, and forms a more
or less elaborate branch-system called an inflorescence.
There are two kinds of reproductive cells produced by flowers. Microspores, which will divide to
become pollen grains, are the "male" cells and are borne in the stamens (or microsporophylls).[14]
The "female" cells called megaspores, which will divide to become the egg cell (megagametogenesis),
are contained in the ovule and enclosed in the carpel (or megasporophyll).
The flower may consist only of these parts, as in willow, where each flower comprises only a few
stamens or two carpels. Usually, other structures are present and serve to protect the sporophylls
and to form an envelope attractive to pollinators. The individual members of these surrounding
structures are known as sepals and petals (or tepals in flowers such as Magnolia where sepals and
petals are not distinguishable from each other). The outer series (calyx of sepals) is usually green and
leaf-like, and functions to protect the rest of the flower, especially the bud. The inner series (corolla
of petals) is, in general, white or brightly colored, and is more delicate in structure. It functions to attract insect or bird
pollinators. Attraction is effected by color, scent, and nectar, which may be secreted in some part of the flower. The
characteristics that attract pollinators account for the popularity of flowers and flowering plants among humans.
A collection of
flowers forming
an
inflorescence.
While the majority of flowers are perfect or hermaphrodite (having both pollen and ovule producing parts in the same
flower structure), flowering plants have developed numerous morphological and physiological mechanisms to reduce or
prevent self-fertilization. Heteromorphic flowers have short carpels and long stamens, or vice versa, so animal
pollinators cannot easily transfer pollen to the pistil (receptive part of the carpel). Homomorphic flowers may employ a
biochemical (physiological) mechanism called self-incompatibility to discriminate between self and non-self pollen
grains. Alternatively, in dioecious species, the male and female parts are morphologically separated, developing on
different individual flowers.[15]
Taxonomy
History of classification
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The botanical term "angiosperm", from Greek words angeíon (ἀγγεῖον 'bottle, vessel') and
spérma (σπέρμα 'seed'), was coined in the form "Angiospermae" by Paul Hermann in 1690,
as the name of one of his primary divisions of the plant kingdom. This included flowering
plants possessing seeds enclosed in capsules, distinguished from his Gymnospermae, or
flowering plants with achenial or schizo-carpic fruits, the whole fruit or each of its pieces
being here regarded as a seed and naked. Both the term and its antonym were maintained
by Carl Linnaeus with the same sense, but with restricted application, in the names of the
orders of his class Didynamia. Its use with any approach to its modern scope became
possible only after 1827, when Robert Brown established the existence of truly naked
ovules in the Cycadeae and Coniferae,[16] and applied to them the name Gymnosperms.
From that time onward, as long as these Gymnosperms were, as was usual, reckoned as
dicotyledonous flowering plants, the term Angiosperm was used antithetically by botanical
writers, with varying scope, as a group-name for other dicotyledonous plants.
In 1851, Hofmeister discovered the changes occurring in the embryo-sac of flowering
plants, and determined the correct relationships of these to the Cryptogamia. This fixed the
position of Gymnosperms as a class distinct from Dicotyledons, and the term Angiosperm
then gradually came to be accepted as the suitable designation for the whole of the
flowering plants other than Gymnosperms, including the classes of Dicotyledons and
Monocotyledons. This is the sense in which the term is used today.
In most taxonomies, the flowering plants are treated as a coherent group. The most
popular descriptive name has been Angiospermae, with Anthophyta (lit. 'flower-plants') a
second choice (both unranked). The Wettstein system and Engler system treated them as a
subdivision (Angiospermae). The Reveal system also treated them as a subdivision
(Magnoliophytina),[17] but later split it to Magnoliopsida, Liliopsida, and Rosopsida. The
Takhtajan system and Cronquist system treat them as a division (Magnoliophyta). The
Dahlgren system and Thorne system (1992) treat them as a class (Magnoliopsida). The
APG system of 1998, and the later 2003[18] and 2009[19] revisions, treat the flowering
plants as an unranked clade without a formal Latin name (angiosperms). A formal
classification was published alongside the 2009 revision in which the flowering plants rank
as a subclass (Magnoliidae).[20]
From 1736, an illustration of
Linnaean classification
An auxanometer, a device
for measuring increase or
rate of growth in plants
The internal classification of this group has undergone considerable revision. The
Cronquist system, proposed by Arthur Cronquist in 1968 and published in its full form in 1981, is still widely used but is
no longer believed to accurately reflect phylogeny. A consensus about how the flowering plants should be arranged has
recently begun to emerge through the work of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG), which published an influential
reclassification of the angiosperms in 1998. Updates incorporating more recent research were published as the APG II
system in 2003,[18] the APG III system in 2009,[19][21] and the APG IV system in 2016.
Traditionally, the flowering plants are divided into two groups,
Dicotyledoneae or Magnoliopsida
Monocotyledoneae or Liliopsida
to which the Cronquist system ascribes the classes Magnoliopsida (from "Magnoliaceae" and Liliopsida (from
"Liliaceae"). Other descriptive names allowed by Article 16 of the ICBN include Dicotyledones or Dicotyledoneae, and
Monocotyledones or Monocotyledoneae, which have a long history of use. In plain English, their members may be called
"dicotyledons" ("dicots") and "monocotyledons" ("monocots"). The Latin behind these names refers the observation that
the dicots most often have two cotyledons, or embryonic leaves, within each seed. The monocots usually have only one,
but the rule is not absolute either way. From a broad diagnostic point of view, the number of cotyledons is neither a
particularly handy, nor a reliable character.
Recent studies, as by the APG, show that the monocots form a monophyletic group (a clade) but that the dicots are
paraphyletic. Nevertheless, the majority of dicot species fall into a clade, the eudicots or tricolpates, and most of the
remaining fall into another major clade, the magnoliids, containing about 9,000 species. The rest include a paraphyletic
grouping of early branching taxa known collectively as the basal angiosperms, plus the families Ceratophyllaceae and
Chloranthaceae.
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Modern classification
There are eight groups of living angiosperms:
Basal angiosperms (ANA: Amborella, Nymphaeales, Austrobaileyales)
Amborella, a single species of shrub from New Caledonia;
Nymphaeales, about 80 species,[22] water lilies and Hydatellaceae;
Austrobaileyales, about 100 species[22] of woody plants from various parts of the
world
Core angiosperms (Mesangiospermae)[20]
Chloranthales, 77 known species[23] of aromatic plants with toothed leaves;
Magnoliids, about 9,000 species,[22] characterised by trimerous flowers, pollen with
one pore, and usually branching-veined leaves—for example magnolias, bay laurel,
and black pepper;
Monocots, about 70,000 species,[22] characterised by trimerous flowers, a single
cotyledon, pollen with one pore, and usually parallel-veined leaves—for example
grasses, orchids, and palms;
Monocot (left) and dicot
seedlings
Ceratophyllum, about 6 species[22] of aquatic plants, perhaps most familiar as aquarium plants;
Eudicots, about 175,000 species,[22] characterised by 4- or 5-merous flowers, pollen with three pores, and
usually branching-veined leaves—for example sunflowers, petunia, buttercup, apples, and oaks.
The exact relationships among these eight groups is not yet clear, although there is agreement that the first three groups
to diverge from the ancestral angiosperm were Amborellales, Nymphaeales, and Austrobaileyales (basal
angiosperms)[24] Of the remaining five groups (core angiosperms), the relationships among the three broadest groups
remains unclear (magnoliids, monocots, and eudicots). Zeng and colleagues (Fig. 1) describe four competing
schemes.[25] The eudicots and monocots are the largest and most diversified, with ~ 75% and 20% of angiosperm
species, respectively. Some analyses make the magnoliids the first to diverge, others the monocots.[26] Ceratophyllum
seems to group with the eudicots rather than with the monocots. The APG IV retained the overall higher order
relationship described in APG III.[19]
1. Phylogeny of the flowering plants, as of APG III (2009).[19]
2. Example of alternative phylogeny (2010) [26]
Amborella
Amborella
Nymphaeales
Nymphaeales
Austrobaileyales
Austrobaileyales
monocots
magnoliids
angiosperms
angiosperms
Chloranthales
monocots
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Chloranthales
magnoliids
Ceratophyllum
Ceratophyllum
eudicots
eudicots
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3. APG IV (2016) [1]
Amborellales
Nymphaeales
Austrobaileyales
basal angiosperms
(ANA group)
magnoliids
angiosperms
Chloranthales
core angiosperms
monocots
Ceratophyllales
eudicots
Detailed Cladogram of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG) IV classification.[1]
Angiosperms
Amborellales Melikyan, Bobrov & Zaytzeva 1999
Nymphaeales Salisbury ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Austrobaileyales Takhtajan ex Reveal 1992
Mesangiosperms
Chloranthales Mart. 1835
Canellales Cronquist 1957
Piperales von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Magnoliids
Magnoliales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Laurales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Monocots
Acorales Link 1835
Alismatales Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Petrosaviales Takhtajan 1997
Dioscoreales Brown 1835
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Pandanales Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Liliales Perleb 1826
Asparagales Link 1829
Arecales Bromhead 1840
Poales Small 1903
Commelinids
Zingiberales Grisebach 1854
Commelinales de Mirbel ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Ceratophyllales Link 1829
Eudicots
Ranunculales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Proteales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Trochodendrales Takhtajan ex Cronquist 1981
Buxales Takhtajan ex Reveal 1996
Core eudicots
Gunnerales Takhtajan ex Reveal 1992
Dilleniales de Candolle ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Superrosids
Saxifragales von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Rosids
Vitales de Jussieu ex von Berchtold & Presl
1820
Fabids
(eurosids I)
Zygophyllales Link 1829
Celastrales Link 1829
Oxalidales von Berchtold &
Presl 1820
Malpighiales de Jussieu ex
von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Fabales Bromhead 1838
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Rosales von Berchtold &
Presl 1820
Cucurbitales de Jussieu
ex von Berchtold & Presl
1820
Fagales Engler 1892
Geraniales de Jussieu ex von
Berchtold & Presl 1820
Myrtales de Jussieu ex von
Berchtold & Presl 1820
Crossosomatales Takhtajan ex
Reveal 1993
Picramniales Doweld 2001
Malvids
(eurosids II)
Sapindales de Jussieu ex
von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Huerteales Doweld 2001
Malvales de Jussieu ex
von Berchtold & Presl
1820
Brassicales Bromhead
1838
Superasterids
Berberidopsidales Doweld 2001
Santalales Brown ex von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Caryophyllales
Asterids
Cornales Link 1829
Ericales von Berchtold & Presl 1820
Lamiids
(euasterids I)
Icacinales
Van
Tieghem
Metteniusales
Takhtajan
1900
1997
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Garryales Mart. 1835
Gentianales de Jussieu
ex von Berchtold & Presl
1820
Solanales de Jussieu
ex von Berchtold & Presl
1820
Boraginales de Jussieu
ex von Berchtold & Presl
1820
Vahliales Doweld 2001
Lamiales
Bromhead
1838
Aquifoliales Senft 1856
Escalloniales Mart. 1835
Asterales Link 1829
Bruniales Dumortier 1829
Campanulids
(euasterids II)
Apiales Nakai 1930
Paracryphiales
Takhtajan
1992
ex
Reveal
Dipsacales de Jussieu
ex von Berchtold & Presl
1820
Evolutionary history
Paleozoic
Fossilised spores suggest that land plants (embryophytes) have existed for at least 475 million years.[27] Early land
plants reproduced sexually with flagellated, swimming sperm, like the green algae from which they evolved. An
adaptation to terrestrialization was the development of upright meiosporangia for dispersal by spores to new habitats.
This feature is lacking in the descendants of their nearest algal relatives, the Charophycean green algae. A later
terrestrial adaptation took place with retention of the delicate, avascular sexual stage, the gametophyte, within the
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tissues of the vascular sporophyte. This occurred by spore germination within sporangia rather than spore release, as in
non-seed plants. A current example of how this might have happened can be seen in the precocious spore germination
in Selaginella, the spike-moss. The result for the ancestors of angiosperms was enclosing them in a case, the seed.
The apparently sudden appearance in the fossil record of nearly modern flowers, and in great diversity, initially posed
such a problem for the theory of gradual evolution that Charles Darwin called it an "abominable mystery".[28] However,
the fossil record has considerably grown since the time of Darwin, and recently discovered angiosperm fossils such as
Archaefructus, along with further discoveries of fossil gymnosperms, suggest how angiosperm characteristics may have
been acquired in a series of steps. Several groups of extinct gymnosperms, in particular seed ferns, have been proposed
as the ancestors of flowering plants, but there is no continuous fossil evidence showing how flowers evolved, and
botanists still regard it as a mystery.[29] Some older fossils, such as the upper Triassic Sanmiguelia lewisi, have been
suggested.
The first seed bearing plants, like the ginkgo, and conifers (such as pines and firs), did not produce flowers. The pollen
grains (male gametophytes) of Ginkgo and cycads produce a pair of flagellated, mobile sperm cells that "swim" down
the developing pollen tube to the female and her eggs.
Oleanane, a secondary metabolite produced by many flowering plants, has been found in Permian deposits of that age
together with fossils of gigantopterids.[30][31] Gigantopterids are a group of extinct seed plants that share many
morphological traits with flowering plants, although they are not known to have been flowering plants themselves.[32]
Triassic and Jurassic
Based on current evidence, some propose that the ancestors of the angiosperms
diverged from an unknown group of gymnosperms in the Triassic period (245–
202 million years ago). Fossil angiosperm-like pollen from the Middle Triassic
(247.2–242.0 Ma) suggests an older date for their origin.[33] A close relationship
between angiosperms and gnetophytes, proposed on the basis of morphological
evidence, has more recently been disputed on the basis of molecular evidence that
suggest gnetophytes are instead more closely related to other gymnosperms.[34][35]
The fossil plant species Nanjinganthus dendrostyla from Early Jurassic China
seems to share many exclusively angiosperm features, such as a thickened
receptacle with ovules, and thus might represent a crown-group or a stem-group
angiosperm.[36] However, these have been disputed by other researchers, who
contend that the structures are misinterpreted decomposed conifer cones.[37][38]
Fluffy flowers of Tetradenia riparia
(misty plume bush)
The evolution of seed plants and later angiosperms appears to be the result of two
distinct rounds of whole genome duplication events.[39] These occurred at
319 million years ago and 192 million years ago. Another possible whole genome
duplication event at 160 million years ago perhaps created the ancestral line that led
to all modern flowering plants.[40] That event was studied by sequencing the
genome of an ancient flowering plant, Amborella trichopoda,[41] and directly
addresses Darwin's "abominable mystery".
One study has suggested that the early-middle Jurassic plant Schmeissneria,
traditionally considered a type of ginkgo, may be the earliest known angiosperm, or
at least a close relative.[42]
Cretaceous
Flowers of Malus sylvestris (crab
apple)
Whereas the earth had previously been dominated by ferns and conifers,
angiosperms appeared and quickly spread during the Cretaceous. They now
comprise about 90% of all plant species including most food crops.[43] It has been
proposed that the swift rise of angiosperms to dominance was facilitated by a reduction in their genome size. During the
early Cretaceous period, only angiosperms underwent rapid genome downsizing, while genome sizes of ferns and
gymnosperms remained unchanged. Smaller genomes—and smaller nuclei—allow for faster rates of cell division and
smaller cells. Thus, species with smaller genomes can pack more, smaller cells—in particular veins and stomata—into a
given leaf volume. Genome downsizing therefore facilitated higher rates of leaf gas exchange (transpiration and
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photosynthesis) and faster rates of growth. This would have countered some of the
negative physiological effects of genome duplications, facilitated increased uptake of
carbon dioxide despite concurrent declines in atmospheric CO2 concentrations, and
allowed the flowering plants to outcompete other land plants.[44]
The oldest known fossils definitively attributable to angiosperms are reticulated
monosulcate pollen from the late Valanginian (Early or Lower Cretaceous - 140 to
133 million years ago) of Italy and Israel, likely representative of the basal
angiosperm grade.[37]
The earliest known macrofossil confidently identified as an angiosperm,
Archaefructus liaoningensis, is dated to about 125 million years BP (the Cretaceous
period),[45] whereas pollen considered to be of angiosperm origin takes the fossil
record back to about 130 million years BP,[46] with Montsechia representing the
earliest flower at that time.[47]
Flowers and leaves of Senecio
angulatus (creeping groundsel)
In 2013 flowers encased in amber were found and dated 100 million years before
present. The amber had frozen the act of sexual reproduction in the process of
taking place. Microscopic images showed tubes growing out of pollen and
penetrating the flower's stigma. The pollen was sticky, suggesting it was carried by
insects.[48] In August 2017, scientists presented a detailed description and 3D
model image of what the first flower possibly looked like, and presented the
hypothesis that it may have lived about 140 million years ago.[49][50] A Bayesian
analysis of 52 angiosperm taxa suggested that the crown group of angiosperms
evolved between 178 million years ago and 198 million years ago.[51]
Recent DNA analysis based on molecular systematics[52][53] showed that Amborella
trichopoda, found on the Pacific island of New Caledonia, belongs to a sister group
of the other flowering plants, and morphological studies[54] suggest that it has
features that may have been characteristic of the earliest flowering plants. The
orders Amborellales, Nymphaeales, and Austrobaileyales diverged as separate
lineages from the remaining angiosperm clade at a very early stage in flowering
plant evolution.[55]
Two bees on the composite flower
head of creeping thistle, Cirsium
arvense
The great angiosperm radiation, when a great diversity of angiosperms appears in the fossil record, occurred in the midCretaceous (approximately 100 million years ago). However, a study in 2007[56] estimated that the division of the five
most recent of the eight main groups occurred around 140 million years ago. (the genus Ceratophyllum, the family
Chloranthaceae, the eudicots, the magnoliids, and the monocots) .
It is generally assumed that the function of flowers, from the start, was to involve mobile animals in their reproduction
processes. That is, pollen can be scattered even if the flower is not brightly colored or oddly shaped in a way that attracts
animals; however, by expending the energy required to create such traits, angiosperms can enlist the aid of animals and,
thus, reproduce more efficiently.
Island genetics provides one proposed explanation for the sudden, fully developed appearance of flowering plants.
Island genetics is believed to be a common source of speciation in general, especially when it comes to radical
adaptations that seem to have required inferior transitional forms. Flowering plants may have evolved in an isolated
setting like an island or island chain, where the plants bearing them were able to develop a highly specialised
relationship with some specific animal (a wasp, for example). Such a relationship, with a hypothetical wasp carrying
pollen from one plant to another much the way fig wasps do today, could result in the development of a high degree of
specialisation in both the plant(s) and their partners. Note that the wasp example is not incidental; bees, which, it is
postulated, evolved specifically due to mutualistic plant relationships, are descended from wasps.[57]
Animals are also involved in the distribution of seeds. Fruit, which is formed by the enlargement of flower parts, is
frequently a seed-dispersal tool that attracts animals to eat or otherwise disturb it, incidentally scattering the seeds it
contains (see frugivory). Although many such mutualistic relationships remain too fragile to survive competition and to
spread widely, flowering proved to be an unusually effective means of reproduction, spreading (whatever its origin) to
become the dominant form of land plant life.
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Flower ontogeny uses a combination of genes normally responsible for forming new shoots.[58] The most primitive
flowers probably had a variable number of flower parts, often separate from (but in contact with) each other. The
flowers tended to grow in a spiral pattern, to be bisexual (in plants, this means both male and female parts on the same
flower), and to be dominated by the ovary (female part). As flowers evolved, some variations developed parts fused
together, with a much more specific number and design, and with either specific sexes per flower or plant or at least
"ovary-inferior". Flower evolution continues to the present day; modern flowers have been so profoundly influenced by
humans that some of them cannot be pollinated in nature. Many modern domesticated flower species were formerly
simple weeds, which sprouted only when the ground was disturbed. Some of them tended to grow with human crops,
perhaps already having symbiotic companion plant relationships with them, and the prettiest did not get plucked
because of their beauty, developing a dependence upon and special adaptation to human affection.[59]
A few paleontologists have also proposed that flowering plants, or angiosperms, might have evolved due to interactions
with dinosaurs. One of the idea's strongest proponents is Robert T. Bakker. He proposes that herbivorous dinosaurs,
with their eating habits, provided a selective pressure on plants, for which adaptations either succeeded in deterring or
coping with predation by herbivores.[60]
By the late Cretaceous, angiosperms appear to have dominated environments formerly occupied by ferns and
cycadophytes, but large canopy-forming trees replaced conifers as the dominant trees only close to the end of the
Cretaceous 66 million years ago or even later, at the beginning of the Paleogene.[61] The radiation of herbaceous
angiosperms occurred much later.[62] Yet, many fossil plants recognisable as belonging to modern families (including
beech, oak, maple, and magnolia) had already appeared by the late Cretaceous. Flowering plants appeared in Australia
about 126 million years ago. This also pushed the age of ancient Australian vertebrates, in what was then a south polar
continent, to 126-110 million years old.[47]
Gallery of photos
A poster of twelve Lupinus pilosus
different species of
flowers of the family
Asteraceae
Bud of a pink rose
Diversity
The number of species of flowering plants is estimated to be in the range of 250,000 to 400,000.[63][64][65] This
compares to around 12,000 species of moss[66] or 11,000 species of pteridophytes,[67] showing that the flowering plants
are much more diverse. The number of families in APG (1998) was 462. In APG II[18] (2003) it is not settled; at
maximum it is 457, but within this number there are 55 optional segregates, so that the minimum number of families in
this system is 402. In APG III (2009) there are 415 families.[19][68] Compared to the APG III system, the APG IV system
recognizes five new orders (Boraginales, Dilleniales, Icacinales, Metteniusales and Vahliales), along with some new
families, making a total of 64 angiosperm orders and 416 families.[69] The diversity of flowering plants is not evenly
distributed. Nearly all species belong to the eudicot (75%), monocot (23%), and magnoliid (2%) clades. The remaining 5
clades contain a little over 250 species in total; i.e. less than 0.1% of flowering plant diversity, divided among 9 families.
The 43 most-diverse of 443 families of flowering plants by species,[70] in their APG circumscriptions, are
1. Asteraceae or Compositae (daisy family): 22,750 species;
2. Orchidaceae (orchid family): 21,950;
3. Fabaceae or Leguminosae (bean family): 19,400;
4. Rubiaceae (madder family): 13,150;[71]
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5. Poaceae or Gramineae (grass family): 10,035;
6. Lamiaceae or Labiatae (mint family): 7,175;
7. Euphorbiaceae (spurge family): 5,735;
8. Melastomataceae or Melastomaceae (melastome family): 5,005;
9. Myrtaceae (myrtle family): 4,625;
10. Apocynaceae (dogbane family): 4,555;
11. Cyperaceae (sedge family): 4,350;
12. Malvaceae (mallow family): 4,225;
13. Araceae (arum family): 4,025;
14. Ericaceae (heath family): 3,995;
15. Gesneriaceae (gesneriad family): 3,870;
16. Apiaceae or Umbelliferae (parsley family): 3,780;
17. Brassicaceae or Cruciferae (cabbage family): 3,710:
18. Piperaceae (pepper family): 3,600;
19. Bromeliaceae (bromeliad family): 3,540;
20. Acanthaceae (acanthus family): 3,500;
21. Rosaceae (rose family): 2,830;
22. Boraginaceae (borage family): 2,740;
23. Urticaceae (nettle family): 2,625;
24. Ranunculaceae (buttercup family): 2,525;
25. Lauraceae (laurel family): 2,500;
26. Solanaceae (nightshade family): 2,460;
27. Campanulaceae (bellflower family): 2,380;
28. Arecaceae (palm family): 2,361;
29. Annonaceae (custard apple family): 2,220;
30. Caryophyllaceae (pink family): 2,200;
31. Orobanchaceae (broomrape family): 2,060;
32. Amaranthaceae (amaranth family): 2,050;
33. Iridaceae (iris family): 2,025;
34. Aizoaceae or Ficoidaceae (ice plant family): 2,020;
35. Rutaceae (rue family): 1,815;
36. Phyllanthaceae (phyllanthus family): 1,745;
37. Scrophulariaceae (figwort family): 1,700;
38. Gentianaceae (gentian family): 1,650;
39. Convolvulaceae (bindweed family): 1,600;
40. Proteaceae (protea family): 1,600;
41. Sapindaceae (soapberry family): 1,580;
42. Cactaceae (cactus family): 1,500;
43. Araliaceae (Aralia or ivy family): 1,450.
Of these, the Orchidaceae, Poaceae, Cyperaceae, Araceae, Bromeliaceae, Arecaceae, and Iridaceae are monocot families;
Piperaceae, Lauraceae, and Annonaceae are magnoliid dicots; the rest of the families are eudicots.
Reproduction
Fertilisation and embryogenesis
Double fertilization refers to a process in which two sperm cells fertilise cells in the ovule. This process begins when a
pollen grain adheres to the stigma of the pistil (female reproductive structure), germinates, and grows a long pollen
tube. While this pollen tube is growing, a haploid generative cell travels down the tube behind the tube nucleus. The
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generative cell divides by mitosis to produce two haploid (n) sperm cells. As the
pollen tube grows, it makes its way from the stigma, down the style and into the
ovary. Here the pollen tube reaches the micropyle of the ovule and digests its way
into one of the synergids, releasing its contents (which include the sperm cells). The
synergid that the cells were released into degenerates and one sperm makes its way
to fertilise the egg cell, producing a diploid (2n) zygote. The second sperm cell fuses
with both central cell nuclei, producing a triploid (3n) cell. As the zygote develops
into an embryo, the triploid cell develops into the endosperm, which serves as the
embryo's food supply. The ovary will now develop into a fruit and the ovule will
develop into a seed.
Fruit and seed
As the development of the embryo and
Angiosperm life cycle
endosperm proceeds within the embryo sac, the
sac wall enlarges and combines with the
nucellus (which is likewise enlarging) and the integument to form the seed coat.
The ovary wall develops to form the fruit or pericarp, whose form is closely
associated with type of seed dispersal system.[72]
The fruit of Aesculus
hippocastanum, the horse chestnut
tree
Frequently, the influence of fertilisation is felt beyond the ovary, and other parts of
the flower take part in the formation of the fruit, e.g., the floral receptacle in the
apple, strawberry, and others.
The character of the seed coat bears a definite relation to that of the fruit. They
protect the embryo and aid in dissemination; they may also directly promote
germination. Among plants with indehiscent fruits, in general, the fruit provides
protection for the embryo and secures dissemination. In this case, the seed coat is only slightly developed. If the fruit is
dehiscent and the seed is exposed, in general, the seed-coat is well developed and must discharge the functions
otherwise executed by the fruit.
In some cases, like in the Asteraceae family, species have evolved to exhibit heterocarpy, or the production of different
fruit morphs.[73] These fruit morphs, produced from one plant, are different in size and shape, which influence dispersal
range and germination rate.[73] These fruit morphs are adapted to different environments, increasing chances for
survival.[73]
Meiosis
Like all diploid multicellular organisms that use sexual reproduction, flowering plants generate gametes using a
specialised type of cell division called meiosis. Meiosis takes place in the ovule (a structure within the ovary that is
located within the pistil at the centre of the flower) (see diagram labeled "Angiosperm lifecycle"). A diploid cell
(megaspore mother cell) in the ovule undergoes meiosis (involving two successive cell divisions) to produce four cells
(megaspores) with haploid nuclei.[74] It is thought that the basal chromosome number in angiosperms is n = 7.[75] One
of these four cells (megaspore) then undergoes three successive mitotic divisions to produce an immature embryo sac
(megagametophyte) with eight haploid nuclei. Next, these nuclei are segregated into separate cells by cytokinesis to
producing 3 antipodal cells, 2 synergid cells and an egg cell. Two polar nuclei are left in the central cell of the embryo
sac.
Pollen is also produced by meiosis in the male anther (microsporangium). During meiosis, a diploid microspore mother
cell undergoes two successive meiotic divisions to produce 4 haploid cells (microspores or male gametes). Each of these
microspores, after further mitoses, becomes a pollen grain (microgametophyte) containing two haploid generative
(sperm) cells and a tube nucleus. When a pollen grain makes contact with the female stigma, the pollen grain forms a
pollen tube that grows down the style into the ovary. In the act of fertilisation, a male sperm nucleus fuses with the
female egg nucleus to form a diploid zygote that can then develop into an embryo within the newly forming seed. Upon
germination of the seed, a new plant can grow and mature.
The adaptive function of meiosis is currently a matter of debate. A key event during meiosis in a diploid cell is the
pairing of homologous chromosomes and homologous recombination (the exchange of genetic information) between
homologous chromosomes. This process promotes the production of increased genetic diversity among progeny and the
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recombinational repair of damages in the DNA to be passed on to progeny. To explain the adaptive function of meiosis
in flowering plants, some authors emphasise diversity[76] and others emphasise DNA repair.[77]
Apomixis
Apomixis (reproduction via asexually formed seeds) is found naturally in about 2.2% of angiosperm genera.[78] One
type of apomixis, gametophytic apomixis found in a dandelion species[79] involves formation of an unreduced embryo
sac due to incomplete meiosis (apomeiosis) and development of an embryo from the unreduced egg inside the embryo
sac, without fertilisation (parthenogenesis).
Some angiosperms, including many citrus varieties, are able to produce fruits through a type of apomixis called nucellar
embryony.[80]
Uses
Agriculture is almost entirely dependent on angiosperms, which provide virtually all plant-based food, and also provide
a significant amount of livestock feed. Of all the families of plants, the Poaceae, or grass family (providing grains), is by
far the most important, providing the bulk of all feedstocks (rice, maize, wheat, barley, rye, oats, pearl millet, sugar
cane, sorghum). The Fabaceae, or legume family, comes in second place. Also of high importance are the Solanaceae, or
nightshade family (potatoes, tomatoes, and peppers, among others); the Cucurbitaceae, or gourd family (including
pumpkins and melons); the Brassicaceae, or mustard plant family (including rapeseed and the innumerable varieties of
the cabbage species Brassica oleracea); and the Apiaceae, or parsley family. Many of our fruits come from the Rutaceae,
or rue family (including oranges, lemons, grapefruits, etc.), and the Rosaceae, or rose family (including apples, pears,
cherries, apricots, plums, etc.).[81][82]
In some parts of the world, certain single species assume paramount importance because of their variety of uses, for
example the coconut (Cocos nucifera) on Pacific atolls, and the olive (Olea europaea) in the Mediterranean region.[83]
Flowering plants also provide economic resources in the form of wood, paper, fiber (cotton, flax, and hemp, among
others), medicines (digitalis, camphor), decorative and landscaping plants, and many other uses. Coffee and cocoa are
the common beverages obtained from the flowering plants. The main area in which they are surpassed by other plants—
namely, coniferous trees (Pinales), which are non-flowering (gymnosperms)—is timber and paper production.[84]
See also
List of garden plants
List of plant orders
List of plants by common name
List of systems of plant taxonomy
Notes
a. The major exception to the dominance of terrestrial ecosystems by flowering plants is the coniferous forest.
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External links
Media related to Angiosperms at Wikimedia Commons
Data related to Magnoliophyta at Wikispecies
Magnoliophyta at Wikibooks
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