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Summary, International Organizations, Week 1-12, IGOs and
NGOs Summary
International Organizations (De Haagse Hogeschool)
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IGOs and INGOs Summary
Week 1 Introduction to International Organizations
What are international organisations?
= a formal, continuous structure establish by agreement between members from at least 2 sovereign
states with the aim of pursuing the common interest of the membership.
= any type of patterned, repetitive behaviour. Set of implicit or explicit principles, norms, rules, and
decisions making procedures around which actors' expectations converge in a given area.
Types of International Organizations
- intergovernmental organizations – IGOs
- non- governmental organizations - NGOs and international NGOs – INGOs
- multinational/transnational corporations MNCs/
IGOS
= formal institutions whose members are states. Governments of nation-states voluntary join,
contribute financing and make decisions within the organization. Categorized by rules of membership.
Members  sovereign states/nation states that join the organization voluntary.
The purpose, structure and decision-making procedures include in a charter or treaty. (Example:UN,
NATO, EU)
Membership can be:
- Universal: all states allowed to join. UN
- Limited: participation base on particular criteria. NATO (security alliance), Arab League
Purpose can be:
- General: variety of international issues: UN
- Narrow: focus on specific economic/social issues: ILO, WTO, WHO(world health organ.)
International legal personality = IGOs have the capacity to act under international law.
INGOs
- Members are NGOs: non-profit, private organisation that engage in a variety of intern. activities.
- They can have single or multi-purpose agendas
- Define goals, provide information, give expert advice
- Pressure governments and IGOs through direct and indirect lobbying
- Can get UN recognition and became official partner. UNs ECOSOC statute legitimates place of
NGOs in inter-governmental diplomacy.
- Amnesty International, Greenpeace, Inter. Committee for Red Cross, Doctors without borders.
MNCS/TNCs
- For-profit firms with subsidies in two or more countries
- Activities that move goods and services across national borders.
- Shift economic decision-making from national level (government) to international level. In some
area of economic policy, governments have lost sovereignty
+ MNC can evade taxation or governmental financial controls
+ Limits government control over international trade
+ Ability to move production constrains individual governments in regulation and taxation
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- Principal economic objective of MNCs is to produce goods and services for world markets at the
least possible cost.
Five Categories:
1. Agriculture and extractive industries
4. General services companies
2. Provision of financial services
5. Big boxes who sell multinationals under
3. Industrial corporations
one roof, e.g. Walmart, Tesco
Scholars argue over:
- The relationship between state interest and the purpose of IOs. Whether and to what extent IOs are
more than the collective will of their members: to what extent they constrain members behaviour,
strategies, interests even identities.
- Who makes the rules? Whose values comes first? Who benefits and who loses? How does change
come about?
- How and whether cooperation in one area may spill-over in another.
Prisoners Dilemma
- Two criminals are arrested on suspicious of having committee a bank robbery. The police place them
in different cells and make them this offer:
+ if you confess and your partner remains silent you will go free and your partner will serve 40 years
for robbery
+ if you remain silent and your partner confesses, serve 40 years and your partner will go free.
+ if you both remain silent, you will each serve 30 days for illegal possession of a handgun
+ if you both confess, you will each serve 2 years for robbery.
So confession would be the right thing to do. But the best option for the paid would be cooperation to
remain silent.
Definition reminders
State = geographic territory with internationally recognized boundaries, and identifiable
population that lives within these boundaries and a recognized government.
Sovereignty = the ability the government to act within a territory , independently from
international or external rivals
Quiz: www.mijnquiz.nl/quiz/IGOS-quiz-1
Week 2 History International Organizations
Predecessors
- Notion that IOs are 2nd century phenomenon. True, but they did not emerge in a void.
- Defensive leagues set up by neighbouring states: ancient Greece (common currency between
city states of Athens, Sparta and Macedonia).
- Hanseatic League: XIV-XVI century in Western Europe, 50 towns joined forces to protect
trading interests, representatives meeting in general assembly and majority voting.
- The Catholic Church: considerable political and economic power over large geo areas.
These early organizations were constrained by limitations on mobility and communications.
From the XVII century on we see:
- the rise of the modern state
- technology advances in transport and communications
This leads to increase connections, interdependence and thus the need for cooperation between states.
Emergence of organizations designed to facilitate this cooperation.
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Why the need for cooperation through IOs?
Take 1: common interest
Take 2: interdependencies lead to problems, which can only be overcome together.
Take 3: powerful states create an IO to further their interest an ' convince' other to cooperate.
Cooperation never happens because of common interest.
Is it common or individual interest we need to focus on?
Factors leading to more International Cooperation
- industrial expansion
- human rights violations
- war and power politics
- environmental degradation
- development disparities
- world economic crisis
Industrial Expansion
Standardisation for better outcomes.
- Transportation
example: Rhine navigation act (1815)
today: International Maritime Organization (IMO)
- Communication
example: International Telegraph Union (1865)
today: International Telecommunications union (ITU)
- Intellectual Property
example: Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property (1883)
today: World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)
- Social Regulation
example: International Office for Public Hygiene (1907)
today: World Health Organisation (WHO)
Economic Crisis
- World economic crisis (1929-32)
- In times of crisis states have a tendency to adopt protective measures. This often deepens the crisis.
After World War 2 : US emerges as main power of the Western World.
- General agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). How much do we need to pay for common goods
when they cross borders.
- International Monetary Fund (IMF). About the US being liberal. Works for the bigger rich countries,
not for the smaller and poor countries.
- International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)
What is the UK doing now? They say something needs to change, so they want to step out of the EU.
Development Disparities
Decolonisation 1940s, 1950s
- Independent politically, but depedent economically
- Created socio-economic disparities
- The beginning of the North-South divide
USA took initiative
Two types of organisations:
- Administering development funds, give money to poor countries (e.g. World Bank Group, UNDP)
- Institutions that sustain structures e.g. UN trusteeship council, UN conference on Trade and
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Development (de facto of the WTO)
Human Right Violations
- Human rights were excluded from international politics. Within the competence of sovereign states.
- WW2: atrocities committed by Nazi Regime (Holocaust). Realization that human rights cannot be
left to be sovereign state.
- 1948: Universal Declaration of Human Rights: call for civil, political, social and cultural rights. Not
legally binding state. This is what a international community wants, its values. Sign the treaty, I will
not abuse human rights. It took them 20 years
1966:
- International covenant on Civil and Political Rights - legally binding, supervised by Committee on
Human Rights. China still did not sign!
- International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights - legally binding, supervised by the
committee on Individual Experts. USA still did not sign, they don’t agree because they are liberal.
Participate in society, if you are not good enough then that’s not the governments problem.
Offices to ensure and monitor voluntary compliance
- Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNHCHR).
- Human Right Council (Geneva) - central UN body replacing the Commission on HR.
Communism - to ensure people will be able to live, but we are in charge. (Cold war)
Environment
Environmental problems are a side effect of industrial production.
The more production the more degradation/pollution. By nature: cross-border, require international
cooperation.
Mainly pushed forward by NGO, selectively supported by great powers.
- World Meteorological Organisation (WMO)
- International Maritime Organisation (IMO)
However, increasing awareness of environmental degradation
- 1972: United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
- Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 1988
- Kyoto Protocol 1992 - annual CO2 Emissions (US highest, then China and Russia). US refused to
sign the protocol. Would be unfair for economic development, global warming has nothing to do with
human feelings. We are not producing it!
War and Peace
Most sensitive area: security
Aim: institutional mechanism for the prevention of war
- Vienna Congress 1815 - concert of Europe, balance of powers- created by the great power of Europe
to re-establish order and stability after the Napoleon wars.
- Not really a IO: no headquarter, no secretariat, did not meet on a regular basis. Not institutionalised.
- Important forerunner of today’s IGOs
- Idea: the major European Powers would together secure peace and cooperation among each other
and would ' concert together' against threats to the system. They would be able to negotiate before to
start war. This was new and maybe they didn’t have to go to war.
- Rules for diplomacy established: states representatives do not talk only at the end of a conflict, but in
times of peace to prevent conflict.
- After the Vienna Congress, The Hague Peace Conferences (1899 & 1907): principle of arbitration of
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disputes, peaceful crisis settlement and war prevention.
- NO result, interrupted by WW1
- WW1 meant the end of diplomacy and peaceful resolution of conflicts.
- Catalyst for the League of Nations
- after WW2 intercountries war didn’t happen anymore. See movie youtube
League of Nations
Founded in 1919 as response to the devastation of World War 1
Recognition that:
- States must prevent war in the age of technological advances
- International institutions can play a critical role
United States as great power initiator (Woodrow Wilson)
- Main task: strengthen international security worldwide
- Continuation of Concept of Europe, but now institutionalised (first proper IGO)
Wilson’s party lost the election in 1919. His opponents promised to follow a policy of
isolationism (staying out of international affairs). Thus America did not join League of Nations.
Council  responsible for addressing issues
relating to international war and threats to
international peace.
Assembly  functioned as a quasi-legislative
body; it, too, was entitled to address any
matter within the purview of the League.
Secretariat  served as the League’s
bureaucracy, responsible for carrying out the
League’s policies and mandates (bevel).
Problems of the League
- Absence of important countries: the USA
- The treaty of Versailles it was meant to protect was seen as unfair towards Germany in particular
- Self-interest of members dominated
- Decisions were slow - unanimity required. Few decisions do not very often happen because it takes
so much time and no one can agree
- sanctions were ineffective. Lack of troops to enforce military measures. Three type of santions:
verbal (warnings), economic and military sanctions. League had no army. Withut giving the actual
power, the UN has a bit more power.
- 1929: wall street cash: major downturn for the league. Domestic problems become the priority for
league members.
Its Legacy Lives On
The league of nations was based on three important principles(principles live on in United Nations):
1. Collective security: international security is linked to the security of member states. An attack
against one is an attack against all.
2. Peaceful settlements of disputes through nonviolent measures as mediation, negotiation.
3. The importance of international cooperation in economic and social realms.
The United Nations
- January 1942: Atlantic Charter, 26 government
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- created in 1945 at the end of WW2
- representatives from 51 countries met in San Francisco to draft the UN charter (basic foundational
document)
- signed on the 26th of June and came into effect on the 24th of October 1945 (UN day) when the
charter was ratified by china, france, the UK, the USA and the USSR  The security council
The Purposes
Chapter 1 of the UN charter, main areas where the UN works in:
- to maintain international peace and security
- to develop friendly relations among nations
- to address economic, social, cultural and humanitarian problems
- to promote respect for universal human rights.
The Principles of the UN
1. Sovereign equality of all member states. Most important principle on which the UN its bases its
interstate reality. Means, each state retains right to determine its own internal/external affairs.
2. Obligation for all member states. Was very important, unlike the league of nations the UN came
with duties for the nations. (abide (verdragen) the Security Council decisions, e.g.)
3. Founding principle: Peaceful settlement of disputes. Prevent war: talk first before killing each other.
4. Non-use of force or no threatening their international relations. To prevent war.
5. Non-intervention in domestic affairs of member states. This cannot be really followed, the war that
play these days are in civil, domestic war affairs etc. Human right violation.
The Structure
Six principal Organs:
1. The general assembly
2. The security council
3. The economic and social council
4. The international court of justice
5. The secretariat
6. The trusteeship council (inactive)
The General Assembly
- similar to a parliament, but does not produce binding law
- can deliberate and consider any issue or question arising under the UN charter
- may bring to the attention of the security council any matter that may cause a breach of peace
- decide on admission of new members on proposal of the security council (UNSC)
- drafts and approves the UN budget
- oversees UN bureaucracy, elects non-permanent member of the UNSC, all member of ECOSOC,
secretary general (proposal of UNSC) and 15 judges of ICJ (int. Court of justice)
- all 193 states represented with a simple majority deciding most issues, important issues: 2/3 majority.
One state, one vote
- meets in regular sessions from September to December and as needed in UN headquarters in New
York.
- based on liberal democratic principles of political equality and majority rule.
- decisions are made on a one-state/one-vote basis. Majority rule.
The Security Council
- organ charged to maintain international peace and security (identify threats, craft response, build
consensus, carry out actions)
- resolutions taken under chapter 7 are binding
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- limited memberships. Includes 5 permanents member with the right of veto (the no vote) and 10 nonpermanent/elected by GA members. If only 1 member says no, everything will be erased.
- resolutions pass with 9 votes
- permanent residence at UN headquarters in NYC
- the 5 countries: china, USA, France, Sovjet and UK
The Economic and Social Council
- promotes economic and social cooperation economic development, human rights, social welfare
- 54 members elected by GA for 3 years
- decisions based on majority rule
- makes recommendations for protecting/promoting human right, prepare draft conventions relating to
economic/social issues, calls international conferences, coordinates specialized UN agencies
- regular meetings but one important in July that meet alternatively in NYC and Geneva.
The International Court of Justice
- aka 'world court'. Peace palace in The Hague
- adjudicates disputes arising under the charter
- 15 justices from different member states elected for 9 years
- majority vote, 9 justices
- only states can be parties in cases
- parties decide if they give the court jurisdiction over their international disputes (optional clause).
Dramatically limits its role: advisory opinions (Palestine).
The Secretariat
- serves as UN bureaucracy. Consists of Secretary-General and bureaucratic staff  UN tasks.
- secretary general: chief diplomat, represents the UN
- bureaucratic staff: 43,747 employees. 1 UN employee for every 100000 people in the world
- often criticized regarding its size, expenses and priorities
- offices in: new york, geneva, nairobi and vienna
The Challenges
- tensions between the collective and national interest. Unilateralism preferred by US under Bush
administration: Kyoto protocol, intervention in Iraq. UN suffered from a lack of state leadership.
- financing of the organization: the US is the UNs largest contributor and debtor. Large funds are
withheld by the US who disagrees with the amounts owed and the use of the funds (abortion)
- protection of UN personnel: killed or at risk during missions. 2003: attack on UN headquarter in
Iraq. Issues of security precautions and underfunding.
Week 3 IO Classification
Classification of IGOs
Different approaches to classifying international organizations:
1. Membership & competencies
2. Function
Membership
- Open membership: UN
- Restricted membership: EU, OPEC, due to geography, economy, culture
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Regionalization
Chapter 8 of UN charter: encourages regionalism, local and regional solutions better than UN action,
more familiar with actors, issues and dynamics.
UN must be kept informed of activities and events that may threaten peace and security, no regional
enforcement without Security Council authorization.
Post- WW2, explosion of regional organization:
- European UN equivalent: OSCE
- Regional security alliance: NATO
- Regional economic integration: EFTA, EU, NAFTA, ASEAN
- Regional development agencies: ECHO, EuropeAID
- Regional political cooperation: African Union, EU, Arab League, Council of Europe
Competencies
Comprehensive: UN & EU. Limited:
- Specialised agencies of the UN: ILO, FAO etc
- Special organisations: Europe Space Agency (ESA)
Function
What are the main tasks of an IGO? Two types:
1. Programme Organisations: sets norms and rules: UN, OSCE
2. Operation Organisations: concentrate on implementation (monitoring, compliance): IMF,
World Bank, IAEA.
Authority of Decision Making
Programme organisations: obligations of members
- Loosely binding: OSCE, WHO (peer pressure)
- Strongly binding: EU, WTO (trade sanctions for breaching the rules)
Operational organisations: capacity to implement rules and decisions
- Strong implementation capacity: IMF, World Bank
- Weak implementation capacity: UNHCR
Degree of Consensus
- Consensus always required: there must be consensus among the participating national
decision-making unites (member states)
Strict intergovernmental organisations: OSCE, OPEC, international Coffee Organisation ICO goal of
these organizations is to facilitate coordination among government of member states.
- Consensus not always required: hierarchical mode of coordination, national member states
participate in decision-making, but consensus is not always required.
Supranational organisations: pooled or delegated decision-making authority.
EU: pooled sovereignty in Council of Ministers where binding decision can be made by qualified
majority. Delegated sovereignty in European Court of Justice where decisions are made by
independent judges.
Week 4 NGO Historical Background
What are NGOs?
- Notoriously difficult to define. “Trying to nail jelly on the wall”
- Non-profit, interest groups, voluntary, independent, charitable, grassroots, activist
organizations
- Wide variety of fields: advocacy, service, emergency relief, human rights, development,
conflict resolution, environmental issues, research, policy analysis, lobbying, etc.
 economic and social council may make suitable arrangement for consultation with nongovernmental organisation which are concerned with matters within its competence. Such
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arrangements may be made with international organizations and, where appropriate, with national
organizations after consultations with the members of the UN concerned.
- recognition of the importance and role of NGOs in creating the UN charter. Nevertheless,
NGOs remain marginal in decision-making.
First NGO?
1823: anti-slavery society
1846: world evangelical alliance
Came into limelight in 1970s and 1980s due to the fight for freedom and democracy of people in Latin
America and eastern Europe.
Civil Society
- These freedom movements revived the notion of civil society: area where one could discuss
ideas outside of oppressive authoritarian states.
- Arena of un-coerced collective action, shared interests, purpose and value
- Distinct from the state and market
What is Civil Society?
= all the activities of a wide variety of groups and organisations that are not part of the state or of
political society. Self-organizing society separate from the state (!). Organizations and groups that
interact with political society (parties), but do not want to replace them. Operates independent from
the state.
- Separate from the market and profit making activities and organizations: CS organizations are
non-profit.
- Civil Society is also distinct from the private realm of family. Civil Society became more
public over the years.
NGOs and Civil Society
- Often treated as overlapping but:
- civil society is the context in which NGOs operate. CS
is normative (particular guidelines for thinking and
behaviour. Way of feeling if you operate outside the state)
and is more than just a collection of organizations.
All CS organizations are NGOs, but not all NGOs are
CS organizations.
Exam example: is the mafia a NGO? First you define a
NGO and then you explain the mafia fits in here and here,
but eventually it is not because of certain arguments.
Revival of Civil Society
In the west: decreased legitimacy and capacity of established democracies lead to demands for more
participation and self governance.
In developing countries: civil society and NGOs as preferred channels for developmental aid, mean
circumventing corrupt and ineffective governments.
NGOs Definition
Mostly defined by the way they are NOT. Difficult to pin point what they are.
Clearly belonging to the third sector. Third sectors & public sector & private sector. More specific
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explanation of the third sector. See charter!!!
The N, the G and the O
N = not governmental, not for profit
G = independent of government, non-state actors
O = have an organizational structure and legal status: statutes,
constitutions, offices, administration, board, elections, annual
meetings, finances, etc..
And the I = international NGOs = same definition but international in scope. And INGO has
offices/operations in several countries.
Amnesty international: offices in 72 countries (52 sections). Human rights
Doctors without borders: emergency medical services in more than 60 countries.
Recap what is a NGO?
- a non state actor
- independent firm government
- Not for profit
- Acts in public interest
- Upholds democratic values
Week 5 NGO Classification
Classification
What kind of different NGOs are there? Depends on how big/small they are, at what geographic level
they operate, what they do, how they do it, how they organize it, etc.
Size
- large multinational bodies, offices in many countries, large full time and salaried staff (greenpeace,
Oxfam, international committee of Red Cross, Medicins sans frontieres).
- vs. Small (even 1/2 persons), voluntary, par time effort
Need to look at: number of full time employees, number of members/volunteers or funding of annual
budget.
Ford Foundations in 2011: reported assets of 10 billion dolar and gave 413000 dollar ICRC-70
delegations throughout the world. 13.000 staff members up from 12 in 1914. Www.icrc.org
In which area does this NGO operate?
1. Size
2. activity - operating in heaps of fields: Addiction, animal protection, community, environment,
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human rights, hunger, poverty, migration, refugees, human trafficking, women issues (remember at
least 2).
3. Level of operations (UNDP)
Geography
- community-based: peoples own initiatives, sports clubs, women's, neighbourhood, religious,
educational organizations.
- citywide: chamber of commerce, coalition of business, ethnic or educational groups
- national: red cross, professional organizations
- international: save the children, Oxfam, care, ford foundation, action aid
Orientation: EXAM!!
- Charitable: meeting the needs of the poor, relief activities. Top down with little participation
by the beneficiaries. Outreach international, Oxfam.
 Goal: feed the poor kids today! Once done, achieved.
- Services: health, family planning, education services. People expected to participate in
implementing and receiving the service. NGOS supporting democratic development: IFES,
freedom house, family planning association.
 Goal: I am not giving you food today, I am giving you seeds, tools and you have to work to
make food for tomorrow. ‘ be passive, but be active!
- Participatory: people involved in implementation of a project, contribute cash, tools, land
materials, labour. Neighbourhood watches, home associations, community gardens.
 Goal: everybody involved how to do it and how its carried out. People come together and
say: lets plant trees, someone has tools, someone has seeds and they all use it and make this
happen.
- Empowering: helping poor people develop a clearer understanding of their own potential.
Zimbabwe Women Finance Trust (financial assistance, education and emotional support for
women entrepreneurs)
 Goal: giving women money who are trying to set up a business, trying to run their own
business.
Operational vs. Campaigning NGOs (UNESCO) EXAM: explain what both categories are.
- operational NGOs: main goal is to sustain/implement their programs. Needs to mobilize resources
(donations, volunteers). Efficient bureaucracy and operational staff. CARE, ICRC
- campaigning NGOs: main is to raise awareness of an issue, supply information, publicity (events
organized for publicity rather than fund raising). Greenpeace
OXFAM: both operational and campaigning for health, education, social issues.
ALL NGOs: fund raising, mobilization of work by supporters, organizing special events, cultivating
the media and administering a headquarters.
OXFAM: For every dollar Oxfam receives: 5c is spent on essential administration. 75c goes directly to
support our programmes and advocacy work. 20c is invested to generate income and get the message
out to the public.
World bank Classification EXAM
- Service delivery: support implementation of projects or deliver services directly. Oxfam, ICRC
- Advocacy: lobby of particular issues, promote given interests and ideologies. Greenpeace, STAND
(standnow.org).
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+ watch dog: ensure that requirement of system are met. (Surveying the field, seeing if anything
goes wrong) Amnesty international, freedom house
+ social movements: try to change or undermine existing system. Civil Rights movement, green
movement.
Functions of NGOs
- what the NGO does
- whom the NGO is designed to
benefit
Beneficiary
Self
Alcoholic Anonymous
Chess Clubs
Labor Unions
Trade Associations
Others
Salvation Army
CARE
WWF
Amnesty International
Service
Advocacy
Roles of NGOs
Type of activity
1. Expertise: information activities and
issue advocacy: fact finding, expert analysis.
2. Carrying out policies of state as subcontractors: developmental aid food, medicine, health,
education. Implementing policy is largely domain of social-welfare NGOs, which are subcontractors.
3. Representation: present voices of citizens. NGOs are the 'conscience of the world' influencing the
moral development of national and international communities.
Private interactions: involved in variety of private international transactions that bring together
groups and individual.
Changing The World
Main goal: influence the activities and decisions of states, IGOs, MNCs
- direct lobbying: contact and persuade officials to adopt appropriate initiatives/policies, educate
officials and staff.
- indirect lobbying: multinational advertising campaigns to shape and mobilize public opinion
Example: Coalition for the Establishment of International Criminal Court
- global network of 2500 CSOs in 150 different countries
- founded by NGOs in 1995
- 1997: call for a diplomatic conference to negotiate the ICC treaty
- 1998: actively engaged in drawing the Rome statute (ICC treaty)
- multi-year campaign to secure the 60 ratifications required for entry into force of the treaty
- Rome statute entered into force in 2002
Week 6 Global Issues and Global Governance
Global Governance = focuses on how state and nonstate actors (IOs) define and address global
problems absent a world government. (war, terrorism, poverty, etc). Also involves making and
sustaining the rules and norms of world order.
The definition of Global Issues contains the following “terms”:
 Issues with significant impact for large numbers of people (Can’t be only)
 Transnational (Not a national issues)
 Persistent and long-term (Not something that is only one activity, it has to be persistent (has to
repeat itself) )
 Interconnected (Global issues has to be in connection into each other, it cannot be an isolated
issue.)
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One of the global issues (an example):
Population growth
 Roots of many global problems
 World population doubled between 1960 and 1999 (according to the UN)
 7 billion in 2011
 Currently increasing by 0 to 85 million people each year
 UN projections 7.3 million to 10.7 billion in 2050
So what...
 97% of this growth happens in the developing world, in low income countries
 The fastest rate of growth is expected in the least developing countries. This means that there
will be a growth of poor people.
The effects of Population Growth:
 Rich-poor gap: natural resources, economic globalisation, lack of infrastructure and capacity
 Discrimination and human rights violation
 Health concerns
 Conflicts
 Migration
 Terrorism
Global answers
 Global problems need global solutions.
 State action alone is not enough. Must include other actors. Shift from government to
governance.
Governance (THIS WILL BE IN THE EXAM!)
 Multi-level approach decision-making, where the government is only the actor
 Blurs the distinction between state and society
 Focus on interdependence and exchange between:
o Government (the states, IGOs)
o Civil Society (NGOs)
o Private Sector (MNCs)
Civil society pushed both the INGOs and the states to sign the Rome Statue (as the states do not ).
Governance is the idea that the decision-making includes a number of actors. Governance is about
bringing the civil society and the sovereign states together.
Member-states is only a state that is member of an organisation, when you want to refer to a normal
state, you should say “sovereign state”.
Red tape  bureaucracy. The more red tape, the less efficient the state is considered these days.
Policy networks
 Complex set of relationships and links at the local, national, transnational levels
 Range from highly integrated policy communities to issue-based loose networks
 Brings together government officials, representatives of civil society (interest groups,
specialists, academics) and private sector actors.
Effects
 At the national level: from government to policy networks, binging society in the state
 At the international level: shift away from national governments (Europe)
o Upward shift to policy-making responsibility (to the European level)
o Downward shift of policy-making responsibility (to the local, regional or sub-national
level). Subsidiarity.
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Regions vary: institutions, powers, policy-making capacity, financial resources, EU/state/region
relations, economic development. Not a homogeneous level of governance
Exam questions:
1. What are the three main reasons for the emergence of IGOs.
 Common interest (for example the NAFTYA: benefit US, Canada and Mexico by eliminating
trade barriers
 Interdependencies lead to problems, which can only be overcome together (WTO: tariff and
trade, etc.)
 Powerful states, create an IO to further their interest and ‘convince’ others to cooperate (UN
pushed by vectored of WWII)
2. How do member-states abide by decisions in loosely binding organisations?
In loosely binding organisations member-states are not forced into implementing decisions, there
are no sanction for non-compliance. Such organisations operate instead by peer-pressure where a
member-state abide by a decision n order to remain part of the club and be considerable
comparator by the other members. Because not cooperating today on a less favourable for you
decision may mean that the others will not cooperate tomorrow on an important for you decision
(for example OSCE, WHO)
Week 7 Security
What is International Security?
Traditionally it has meant the security of states. Related to war and conflict between states. Concerned
with war prevention.
Redefined by international organizations: human security. People centred-approach, physical threats to
individual not only war, but also hunger, disease, poverty, environmental disaster.
2005 World Summit: UN member states committed themselves to the principle: responsibility to
protect (R2P). Redefinition of sovereignty: if a state is unable or unwilling to protect its population,,
then the responsibility falls to the international community. We no longer just look at the states, also at
people. What is the big deal about the question to protect?  who is responsible for our security; the
sovereign state. What does theR2P says: when the sovereign state is not able to protect, the
international community will take over responsibility. When intervene? situation needs to fix 6
standards.
Two approaches:
- traditional approach, among sovereign states.
- security needs to be more than that, not only about states, also about the individual. Human people
centred. All about human security to understand what international security means.
Sovereignty is a duty, not a right.
The UN and Collective Security
Main goal of the UN: outlaw war as a legitimate option of international diplomacy (art. 2).
Collective security: an attack on one member is an attack on all. Group of states that look at their
security together, we should do it all together. If somebody attacks you, it attacks on me as well.
- all states should refrain from using force to further their own interests.
- be willing to intervene collectively in situation where they have no direct strategic, military,,
economic interest.
BALANCE OF POWER
--> parity between competing security forces.
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--> concert of Europe (1815-late 19th century)
--> cold war(1946-89)
COLLECTIVE SECURITY
--> settles disputes amongst its members.
states cooperate, aiming to provide security for each other.
harmony of interests.
major states must be part of arrangement.
--> league of nationas (1920-1939)
--> united nations(1945-current)
COLLECTIVE DEFENCE
--> assists any member state under attack.
an attack on one is an attack on all
alliance of states
--> NATO (1949-current)
What is Aggression?
Traditionally: land grab, involving the use of clearly identifiable regular military forces.
AfterWW2, this became ambiguous: land grab rare, replaced by: proxy wars, insurgency, anti-colonial
rebellions, terrorism.
Both state and non-state actors involved in violence and claim the legitimate right to use force.
The UN charter: the only permissible use of force is self-defense (art 51). What about: abusive
governments, what about preemptive/preventive actions.
Collective Security RIP
- for CS to work, 3 factors: consensus, commitment, and organization
- since aggression is so hard to define, consensus and commitment are very difficult to reach.
- collective security proved impossible to achieve in reality:
1. Political diversity of UN member
2. Veto right in security council
3. Cold war, another reason why collective security did not work. All 3.
- tension between the interests of sovereign states and the need for global governance and stability.
UN Recap
Security council:
- chapter 6: pacific settlements of disputes. Security council may at any time investigate, arbitrate and
recommend solutions, if it sees a threat to international peace
Chapter 7: AFMAKEN
The General Assembly:
- authority to make recommendations regarding international security issues
- control of UN budget
- uniting for peace resolution (1950): in case of lack of unanimity among permanent SC members, the
GA can step in. If SC cannot agree, GA can recommend also sanctions.
The Secretary-General:
- may bring to the attention of security council matters that threaten international peace and security.
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- considderable influence on fact finding activities and implementation of policies.
CaseStudy: Iraq
See powerpoint.
--> collective security did work. First Iraq war 1990: classic land grab. Naked aggression allowed the
collective security arrangemennts of the UN to function as originally intended.
1. Emergency session and condems
2. Economic sanctions
3. Implement eco sanction
4. Resolution Authorizing all means necessary to extract
The UN did matter
- provided states and their leadership with framework for action. The rules and procedures of the UN
helped states define their common interests.
- facilitated and enforced the application of sanctions
- the presence of the UN reduced uncertainties and controlled the conflict.
- the UN legitimacy helped democratic leaders sell the war at home
- end of the cold increased belief in multilateralism, embodied by the UN
- the UN embodied a set of rules and norms of international behaviour, which made Iraqs behaviour
utterly inappropriate and unacceptable to the rest of the international community.
- the UN influenced the behaviour and interests of the states.
The UN did not matter
- to understand the Gulf War, we must look at great power and their individual interests: US
challenged in its leadership, unwilling to see a shift in the balance of power in the middle east,
economic and military importance of middle-eastern oil for US and Europe, USSR focused on internal
problems and interested in better relations with the West, China in the wake of Tiananmen Square.
- the US would have acted with or without the UN
- the UN provided legitimacy and helped the US in managing the conflict, but it is the US that
provided the military capabilities and made the command decisions.
- the UN had little AFMAKEN
- to understand the Gulf War, we have to look at the attitude of capitalist states towards the middle east
in the post-colonial era.
- colonial powers carved up the area to suit their interests
- the Gulf War was the liberation of an anti-democratic, oil-rich kingdom with ties to the capitalist
West. It benefited the US military industrial complex
- the UN is created by the victorious capitalist states and reflect the underlying free market, liberal
economic order.
The Second Gulf War
- between 1991 and 2003, Iraq challenged the authority of the UNSC by denying access to arms
inspector and being generally uncooperative.
- after 9/11 2001, the US and UK made it clear that Iraq was are unacceptable threat
- in Nov. 2002: SC resolution fell short of including: all means necessary
- in March 2003: coalition of the willing invades Iraq without explicit SC authorization
- generated an ongoing crisis in the UN and talk of reform
Week 8 Trade – The World Trade Organization
International Trade
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- oldest aspect of international relations
- produces cooperation: brings mutual benefits to participating countries
- produces conflict: can destroy national industries, displace workes and threaten national culture and
identity.
Main Periods
Mercantilism: from XVI century, trade s tool for enhancing national wealth and power, purpose of
trade is to accumulate wealth
Liberalism: XIX century on, market forces should determine what a state should specialize in,
comparative advantage, multilateralism, low tariffs, limited use of quotas
Nationalism/protectionism: after WW2, even more after Great Depression: states seek to protect and
expand industrial sectors of their economies. Before WW2, international trade came to a standstill.
Reaction to Liberalism..
The Bretton Woods System
- The main victor of WWII, the US: establish a liberal international economic order amid post-war
devastation.
- Influenced by John Maynard Keynes: balance between interests of states and need for international
economic stability: commit to liberal economic principles while recognizing the interests of states in
full employment, low inflation and steady economic growth
- Included: The World Bank, the IMF and the GATT
GATT
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
Main goal: (end WW2) jump start international trade through tariff (tax, pay little extra when trading
products from one country to another to protect national market) reduction based on principles of:
- reciprocity - mutual exchange of commercial or other priviledges. Especially the exchange of
rights/priviledges of trade between nations
- non-discrimination
- multilateralism
Non-Tariff Barriers
Emergence of new forms of trade protectionism
- Government subsidies: payments, tax breaks, actual services. Protection of domestic firms from
international competition (Ex.: defense contract for Boeing) also military aircrafts. Giving contracts to
boost the company, unfair advantage on international market (because they now make more revenue).
One area: agriculture, offering subsidies to farmers.
- Governmental regulation: governments can mandate particular safety and environmental standards;
give preferential treatment to certain industries to help them compete abroad (dumping products)
Dumping a product = product goes into a different market for a cheaper price. Supported by the
government by subsidies, so company can offer it for much lower price than market price.
- Voluntary Export Restrictions (VER): negotiated agreements where exporters agree to limit the
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number of goods send to the other country
Quota = limit to trade products
GATT Negotiations
GATT addressed the question or tariffs and quotas. But not subsidies and regulations because that is a
tricky line and member states and sovereign and have the ability and right to make certain choices
about how to manage their markets.
To tackle these issues through multilateralism, three rounds of negotiations - both for tariff barriers
and non-tariff barriers.
- Kennedy Round (1962-1967)
- Tokyo Round (1973-1979)
- Uruguay Round (1986-1993): created the WTO
The WTO
- January 1st 1995
- Headquarter in Geneva
- 153 members
- Funding: each member’s share of the total trade among members
- Organization:
- Ministerial Conference: attended by all members, meets every two years, responsible for
long term strategic planning. Works by consensus, but vote by 2/3 or ¾ also possible
- General Council: Dispute Settlement Body and Trade Policy Review Body
- Goods Council, Services Council and the Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property
Council (TRIPS)
- Secretariat: 500 trade experts and economists
WTO Principles
Reciprocity: Most-favoured-nation (MFN) – normal trade relations: equal treatment. If one member
state grants a trade concession to another member state, it must extend it to all members
Non-discrimination: National treatment - treating foreign & local goods & services equally
WTO Function
- Multilateral trading system. System of rules dedicated to open, fair & undistorted competition
- Negotiating forum to reach freer trade: reduce trade barriers, abolish quotas, prohibit discriminatory
treatment (allows different treatment for members of FTA, EU)
- Increases predictability through binding agreements & transparency
- Its mandate includes: tariffs and quotas on manufactured and industrial goods, agricultural, services
and intellectual property rights
- Supra-national arbitration: helps to settle disputes. It reviews state policies affecting trade and
authorizes sanctions against non-compliance. 456 cases to date:
http://www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/dispu_e/dispu_status_e.htm
- Its goal is to depoliticize and denationalize trade: the market should divide the global pie
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Protectionist Reactions
States protects industries:
- for national security reasons: military services, agricultural products, banks, insurance companies,
utilities: owned or regulated by states. Critical thus cannot be trusted to foreign owned providers.
- that are emerging, thus not yet competitive, but hold promises for the future
- To give mature industries time to adjust to new competitor or new types of market strategies
- Because in some societies, interest groups can exert pressure to establish protection for certain
sectors
WTO Developing Countries
3/4 of wto members are developing and less developed countries:
- According the WTO website, all WTO agreements contain special provisions for these countries
- Longer time periods to implement agreements & commitments
- Measures to increase their trading opportunities
- Support to help them build the infrastructure for WTO work, handle disputes and implement
technical standards
- Committee looks at developing countries’ special needs
- Technical assistance & training
Criticism
- Free trade creates winners and losers: Global South. The benefits of trade are unequally distributed:
developing countries export raw materials/primary commodities with low value and volatile prices and
buy manufactured goods with high value and relatively stable prices
- No regard for environment and workers’ rights
- Democratic deficit
- Anti-capitalist and anti-globalization movements: 1999 Seattle anti-WTO Protests
- In 2000, a UN study calls the WTO a nightmare for developing countries, the WTO rules are grossly
unfair and even prejudiced, they reflect an agenda that serves only to promote to dominant corporatist
interests
- 2001: Doha Round of WTO negotiations: failed due to the
2008 financial crisis that brought back protectionism
Week 9 Development
What Is Development?
No consensus on causes of poverty and meaning of development
Orthodox Approach To Development
- Development measured quantitatively with economic statistics: increase in GDP per capita and
rising levels of industrialization
Main tenets of the liberal economic view:
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- The markets is the most efficient tool to create and distribute wealth.
- Competition leads to innovation, progress, lower prices, higher efficiency
- States should be guided by the law of comparative advantage: specialization and exchange maximize
wealth and make all participants better off
- Protectionism leads to a welfare dilemma: if all states raise tariffs and quotas to increase their share
of the pie, the pie gets smaller, all suffer
- Free trade and growing interdependence promote peace
- Encourage a domestic and international division of labour
- represented by World Bank, IMF and MNCs
Critical Approach To Development
- Orthodox approach is ethnocentric and inadequate. Assumes that market growth translates into
higher standards of living for all. Not substantiated in practice
- Critical approach: Development is measured qualitatively, by the fulfilment of basic human needs
(access to nutrition and sanitation), the condition of the natural environment and the extent to which
the marginalized are politically empowered (differences between rich and poor): quality of life
- Mainly supported by UNCTAD, UNDP & INGOs
Underdevelopment Stem Froms:
- Poor terms and prospects for trade: unequal N/S trade with terms of trade heavily tilted toward the
North, law of comparative advantage works to the disproportionate advantage of the N. Core countries
have created and maintained the global economic system to their own advantage. The system relies on
the existence of a periphery that supply cheap materials and labour
- Developing countries export raw materials/primary commodities with low value and volatile prices
and buys N manufactured goods with high value and relatively stable prices
- Dependence on world business cycles: dependency of the South on the successes and failures of the
North
Debt
Main impediment to development is external debt
i.e. debt that is owed to foreigners and has to be paid back in foreign currency
Origin of Foreign Debt
Orthodox (liberal) view: endogenous (internal) causes: the fault lies with the developing countries:
excessive government spending (on social welfare, education and health programs they cannot afford),
government subsidies (energy), excessive military spendings, pervasive government corruption.
--> States borrowed more than they could afford, mismanaged what they borrowed, spent frivolously
and lived beyond their means
Critical view: exogenous (external) causes: the fault lies with the global economic system
Developing states were forced, by the IMF and World Bank to borrow to transform their agricultural
economies into modern competitive economies according Western standards.
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They needed to borrow not for economic ventures, but to survive
Economic crisis in the North (increase in oil prices): non-oil producing states needed to borrow even
more to meet their legitimate needs
World Bank
World Bank System
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)
International Development Association (IDA)
Income through member state & international capital markets
IBRD: traditional loaning bank at lower interest rates
IDA: ‘soft loans’ (long repayment periods, low interest) for poorest countries in the world
Internationally Monetary Fund (IMF)
- Created in order to insure a stable international monetary system
- How? Made the US$ the key currency and tie it to a fixed value of gold (system of fixed exchange
rates)
- 1971 collapse, as the US delinked the dollar from gold
- IMF moved from fixed exchange rates to management of fluctuating, market-determined exchange
rates
- Most controversial issue: Structural Adjustment Loans, which reflect the orthodox view on
development
- Carrot & Stick policy
- believes in orthodox approach, believe in participating in the free market.
UN Conference On Trade and Development (UNCTAD)
- G-77: developing countries demanding more equal treatment
- NIEO: New International Economic Order: raise the price of raw materials and agricultural products,
available in the poor countries.
- Call for more equal participation and for genuine trade liberalization: also for commodities and
agricultural exports
-Impact diminished by fall of the Soviet Union: developing countries have no other choice than the
current system. Cut down the power of G77 when the USA won. Liberalism foundation of economic
system these days.
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) IMPORTANT!!!!!!!!
- Founded in 1965
- Funded through voluntary contributions
- Coordinates development projects within the UN system (e.g. UNICEF, WHO, WFP etc.)
- UNDP gives technical development assistance and favours technology transfer. Why? Because
technology needs to be up to date.
- Bottom-up approach, i.e. involvement with NGOs working ‘on the ground’. Working together with
Oxfam.
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- Development = human development, i.e. access to clean water, food, housing, sanitation, health etc.
- Human Development Reports (since 1990). Check it out onine. Alternative to GDP, GDI or any other
to economic measurements in how well its development. They came up wit Human Development
Idex. A composite index measuring average achievement in 3 basic dimensions of human development
- a long and healty life, knowledge and a decent standard of living. So not only looking at GDP.
However the critic on GDP approach made no sense, because comparing both systems there is no big
difference. But HDI is more accurate, so always refer to it when arguing about it.
Millenium Development Goals (MDG) by UN World Summit
2000 World Summit: 8 goals to be achieved by 2015
1st goal: eradicate extreme poverty by half (people living on less then 1$ a day and suffer from
hunger)
2nd: provide universal primary education to all children
3rd: promote gender equality
4th and 5th: reduce child mortality by 2/3 and improve maternal health care
6th: combat AIDS & infectious diseases
7th: ensure environmental sustainability - development of today should not jeperdise development of
tomorrow.
8th: build a global partnership for development
These targets will not be achieved by 2015
Official Development Assistance
- If the richest countries would devote 0.7% GNI, this would eliminate extreme poverty worldwide
- 2002 - Monterrey Consensus: the UN recommended the implementation of this benchmark
Norway, Sweden, Luxembour, Denmark and NL give more than 0,7% of GNI to developmental aids!
US only 0,16%, which is at to bottom of the list.
Week 10 The Environment
Dilemmas
Protecting the environment is a contentious issue:
- Economic activity requires exploitation of natural resources
- How to balance needs of industrial societies with the preservation of the natural environment.
The tragedy of the Commons
- Global commons: resources open for use and which are not under the jurisdiction of any state
(air, water).
- Overexploitation of open access resources by users, rationally pursuing their individual
interests.
The Environment Dilemma Trap
 Each state wants environmental protection at lowest economic cost
 At international level each state is tempted to pass economic costs of environmental protection
onto others: free ride
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

If all states followed this strategy none would benefit economically & the environment would
be undermined
Result is “environmental dilemma trap
Environmental Problems
5 interconnected issues:
- Deforestation – reduction of forest cover worldwide.
- Desertification – dry unusable land, more and more.
- Soil degradation – the less trees you have the les soil will be washed away, so more soil is
worse.
- biodiversity – how many types of plants do you have in one area (but also animals). How
diverse life is in a certain area. Amazon is one of diverse biological area. Why is that a
problem for us? Food chain in order to sustain what we need for ourselves. Diversity is the
one that assures survival. Less biodiversity the risks of the whipped out.
- ozone depletion - ozone layer reduction
- climate change
Climate Change
 One of the greatest threats to the global commons is climate change
 Greenhouse effect: build up of gases (CO2, CFCs, methane) that leads to higher temperatures:
disrupt agriculture, accelerates species extinction and habitat loss, rise in sea levels, increase
spread of diseases
How Can We Protect the Commons?
1. Privatize the commons: individuals have incentives to care for their own property. But who
gets what and how much and who decides? Can the environment be privatize?
2. Create an authoritative body to regulate use and monitor the conditions
International Cooperation
Particularly important for environmental issues, which are quintessentially transnational, global
The prospects for cooperation are also better because:
 There is less distrust
 Participants care more about their own gains from cooperation (absolute gains) rather than
about what others are likely to gain (relative gains)
 Cheating and defecting are less consequential problems
 IOs offer collective opportunities to overcome obstacles
International Solutions
 1972: the Stockholm Conference: established transnational monitoring networks and the
principle of the Common Heritage of Mankind - attempt of the international community to
define global commons
 Led to the creation of the UN Environmental Program (UNEP): global monitoring of
environmental conditions
 Overseen by the ECOSOC
 Funded on base of voluntary contributions
 Headquarters in Nairobi, Kenya
 Promotes interagency cooperation within the UN
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




Has no supranational authority and must rely on cooperation of states, other UN
agencies and NGOs (particularly active in monitoring implementation/ breach of
rules)
Agreements to reduce CFCs and schedule for complete elimination:
1985 Vienna Convention
1987 Montreal Protocol
1988: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Earth Summit 1992
 Rio Conference: 150 states and several hundred NGOs
 Theme: sustainable development: development that meets the needs of today without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
 Agenda 21: ambitious program for environmental protection and economic
development.
 Creation of the Commission on Sustainable Development (SCD), under ECOSOC
 Recognize that the experience of developed countries cannot be replicated in the Third World
without grave consequences for the environment
 3 framework conventions: climate change, biological diversity, to combat desertification.
Supposed to be followed by legally binding treaties
Kyoto Agreement
 1997: 130 states meet to implement the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC). Today: 190 parties to the protocol
 Reduction in worldwide emissions of greenhouse gases by 5.2 % below 1990 levels by 2012.
Only advanced industrialized countries required to meet target
 Developing countries: voluntary limits
Kyoto Protocol participation map (commitment period: 2013-2020)
dark green: Parties, countries with binding targets
Light green: Parties, developing countries without binding targets
Grey: States not Party to the Protocol
Orange: Signatory country with no intention to ratify the treaty, with
no binding targets
Red: Countries that have renounced the Protocol, with no binding targets
Purple: Parties with no binding targets in the second period, which previously had targets
N-S Disputes
 Advanced industrialized countries generate the majority of green house gases, while having
less than 25% of the world’s population
 They are primarily responsible for reducing their emissions. Developing countries should not
be constrained in their development.
 Developed countries are far more efficient users of fossil fuels. Developing countries have far
more dirty industries. Developed countries should pay for new technologies to help the
developing world become more efficient and less polluting.
Latest Developments
 in March 2001: US rejects Kyoto protocol
 But the international community continues under the leadership of the EU
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
2009: Copenhagen Conference (COP15): 15th meeting of the UNFCCC; conference of the
parties, 5th meeting of Kyoto. Goal: negotiate a post-Kyoto binding treaty. Disappointing
results
2012: Doha: extension of Kyoto to 2020. Trend towards a single negotiation forum that
includes both developed and developing countries.
Week 11 Human Rights
Central issue that has become increasingly internationalised.
1948 – Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
- Civic/political rights such as right to life, liberty, personal security and political participation.
- Economic/social rights such as right to work, form unions, standard of living adequate for health and
well-being.
- Collective right such as right to self determination and development.
Not legally binding, i.e. not a treaty or covenant that would hold states accountable.
Are Human Rights Universal?
- East - west divide: political/civil rights vs social/economic rights: west favours political/civil
rights – east favours social/economic rights
- North-South divide: the South focuses on economic, cultural and collective rights. Common
criticisms: discrepancy between rhetoric and politics of the North. North ignores the basic
needs of people in the developing world: supports abusive regimes, denies the right to
development.
- Universalism vs. cultural relativism: HR principles (as embodied by the UN) are Eurocentric.
Ignore non-western approaches to human rights and their philosophic and religious traditions.
Because the west and the east couldn’t agree on which aspect of live was more important, it was very
difficult for the UN to create a proper document as to what civil rights actually meant. During the cold
war, this was a large problem.
The Northern conquering countries enforce their own ideas of liberty on former colonies, but they do
not seem to truly believe or act upon their beliefs of human rights. The person born in a former
colonies is not given the same equalities as the person born in the United States.
1966 Binding Treaties
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.
- Right to work, right to fair remuneration, right to safe working conditions, right to form and
join unions etc.
- Right to food, housing and education
- Right to participate in the cultural life of a society
- Right to benefit from scientific progress
International covenant on Civil and Political Rights.
- Right to life, liberty, freedom of movement, equality under the law, presumption of innocence
- Rights of association, freedom of religion and conscience
- Right to free elections, universal suffrage etc.
UN Agencies
Bodies that promote and protect human rights.
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-
The covenant on C&P: Committee of Human Rights, reports on ECOSOC.
The covenant on E, S &C: Committee on Individual Experts.
Results of the UDHR (Universal Declaration of Human Rights): UN Commission on Human Rights.
Replaced in 2006 by the Human Rights Council.
- Elected by General Assembly
- 47 members
- Proportional representation by region
- Politicised – some countries guilty of human rights abuses are included in the Council and
hence are able to protect their country from public finer pointing.
(If every country has a problem with human rights abuses and violations, every country that is a
member of the Human Rights Council can defend itself against action taken by the council.)
United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNHCHR) 1994:
- Diplomatically promote and protect human rights.
- Provide advisory and educational assistance to states
- Coordinate UN education and public information programmes.
DO NOT HAVE REAL POWER BUT CAN SHAME COUNTRIES INTO DOING THE RIGHT
THING.
NGOS
High number involved in HR. Identify and investigate HR violations ‘name and same strategy’ .
Pressure governments and IGOs
- ICRC (international committee of the Red Cross): only NGO with observer status at the UN.
- Amnesty International
- Human Rights Watch
- Doctors without borders.
Humanitarian Intervention
Controversial: interference in the internal affairs of a sovereign state, which has not committed acts of
aggression o secure and enforce human rights.
Types of intervention:
1. Forcible: use of military units without the government’s consent.
2. Non-forcible (ie sanctions, withholding aid, funding opposition parties etc.)
When can IIOs override state sovereignty to protect HR?
- Un charter guarantees sovereignty and non-intervention. The SC (security council) must link
HR violations to international peace and security. Make it look like the Human Rights
violation will effect security all around the world. (i.e. America’s intervention of the Gulf War
was justified by the idea that Iraq was going to attack other countries after Kuwait)
- Criticism: UN cannot override the sovereignty of powerful states. Weaker states: HR are a
pretext, powerful states ignore the HR violation of their allies.
Who should be responsible for HR? The states or IOs: R2P (responsibility to protect)
As a result of these controversies: no common strategy and issues are dealt with on a case-by-case
basis: South Africa, Iraq 1991 (Kurds), Somalia 1992, NATO bombing of Yugoslavia 1999, Libya
2011.
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Week 12 Civil Participation in Decision-Making (Code of Good Practice)
Multi-level Governance
= process of decision-making that involves multiple actors  states, IGOs, MNCs, NGOs. Blurs the
distinction between state and society.
NGOs more prominent in policy-making within states and across borders.
Pressure, monitoring, offer expertise.
The Council of Europe
Founded in 1949, 47 member countries. Strasbourg. Aims to:
- Protect human rights, rule of law and consolidate democratic stability.
- Support political, legislative and constitutional reform.
- Encourage cultural identity and diversity
- End discrimination, xenophobia (racism), intolerance, terrorism, trafficking, organised crime
and violence against children, etc.
Council of Europe has/linked to creation of signature Europe convention on human rights. They
produced it, then member states came together to sign this convention in 1953. It is not an European
Union document. If you look at human rights, you look at the council of Europe.
The Conference of INGOs
- Consultative status for INGOs since 1952
- Participatory status since 2003
- 400 INGOs have participatory status: active participation in the policies and the work
programmes of the Council of Europe.
- The conference meets 4 times per year
- Five thematic committee: human rights; civil society and democracy; social cohesion and
eradication of poverty; culture, science and education; sustainable territorial development
- Priority: give substance to participatory democracy.
Code of Good Practice
- Adopted by the conference of INGOs of the Council of Europe and endorsed by the council of
ministers as a reference document of CoE in October 2009.
- Based on actual experiences from NGOs across Europe (international good practice, regional
consultations)
- Contains a set of general principles, guidelines, tools and mechanisms for civil participation in
the political decision-making process.
- 4 principles: participation, trust, accountability, independence.
- Goal of enhancing cooperation/shared responsibilities of NGOs and public authorities in
promoting democratic and inclusive policy-making and common values.
Level of Participation (KNOW ALL 4!!!)
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1. Information: one way provision of information from public authorities to NGOs without
interaction expected or required from the NGO. Like a lecture, teacher provided the
information, we obtain it en we hardly have any contact.
2. Consultation: public authorities may ask NGOs for their opinion on a specific topic. The
initiative is with public authorities. Government reach out to NGOs who have specialists and
who measure the circumstances in poor countries and then they decide what to do. Who is
taking the initiative? The government!! But they need to go to NGO to see what options.
3. Dialogue: initiative can be taken by either party; can be broad: two-way communication based
on shared objectives (open hearings, specialized meetings) or collaborative: joined, frequent
and regular meetings to develop core policies, leads to joint recommendation or legislation.
4. Partnership: close cooperation with respect for the NGO independence. Provision of service,
participatory forums and even co-decision-making decision. NGOs trying to now, through the
council of Europe get a treaty. It varies by field, organizations, actual situation. NGO wants
the documents so then request it from the government.
They are harmonizing in the countries of the council of Europe. Then all 47 countries will be helped,
they have particular standards their government can hold on to.
Cycle of Decision-Making
Monitoring (is it going as we planned)
Reformulation (how did it work out?!)
The Way Forward
 More expert NGO involvement
- BUT: not necessarily more people involvement. Professionalization of NGOs
 Decision-making process more transparent
 More accountability, less corruption
- BUT: will that mean more public debate?
IOs: A Look Back
A formal, continuous structure established by agreement between members […] from at least 2
sovereign states with the aim of pursuing the common interest of the membership" (Archer)
1. Instruments: with which states pursue their interests
2. Arenas: permanent institutions of multilateral diplomacy
3. Actors: players in their own right, corporate actors with rights and duties.
IOs in the Future
 IOs will be largely irrelevant. National interests always prevails. IOs cannot change the
strategies or interests of states (Realists)
 IOs will grow in importance, will bring more actors to the table, will improve their ability to
enforce decisions. They will change both the strategies and the interests of states (Liberals)
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EXAM:
- Iraq Read it in the book! Give an example. Iran case study (nuclear).
- Trade.
- Millennium goals. Genetically modified food case study, read first page for sure (outline).
Summarize! NOT maxirsm , realism cuts. Climate change (environment). NOT: whaling.
- NOT financial crisis of 90s, not important.
- Not theory of case studies. Not part of the exam, not future as well. Just use it as an example
- Rwanda case study.
- You have to: case study 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9 !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! for good grade 
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