MODULE 1
When you read a passage or hear some form of verbal communication, there are linguistic features which
make an impression on you. This is so because the words, graphs and symbols chosen and their
arrangements are telling you something about the writer`s/speaker`s purpose and context.
The use of various linguistic, grammatical, punctuations and features to convey the overall purpose of the
speaker/writer are referred to as language strategies.
In assessing the language strategy of a speaker/writer or in devising strategies of your own, you may want
to consider the following:
The Linguistic Features
These refer to the grammar, syntax and vocabulary that the writer uses to convey his intended message.
Consider what the use of each of the following might mean:

Type of language used: spoken or written, formal or informal, personal or impersonal, standard
or creole?

The vocabulary used: prosaic or florid, simple or stilted, slang or formal, repetition of key words
and phrases?

The phrasing and sentence structure: simple or complex, economical or verbose, direct or
circumlocutory

Connotative or Denotative use of language: words used emotively - to convey arouse feelings, to
suggest; words used referentially - to emphasize or state factual content; words which seem to
primarily about conveying facts but which are really intended to arouse emotions.

Significant use of punctuation marks- e.g. pause marks such as full stops, question signs,
exclamation marks and suspension dots.

Lay-out of the page- use of banner headlines, newspaper (column) or broad-sheet lay-out,
advertising-copy layout, verse-lay-out, portrait or landscape lay-out.

Typographical features- use of font sizes, bold face, capitals, spacing, indentation, italic/roman
type.

Use of pictures and graphics - help make written concepts plain; reinforce concepts; help to
stimulate for younger readers.
Function and Purpose of the Language
Identifying the type of writing (discourse) will help you determine its function. Consider if it is narrative,
Expository, descriptive, dramatic, or argumentative? Read more on the purposes for which writers have
used them.
The Context of the Language
Every time language is used to communicate meaning it takes place within a particular set of
circumstances referred to as the context of use. The context influences the way language is used and it
includes:

the subject matter or content to be communicated

the purpose for the communication

the writer`s/speaker`s awareness of her relationship to the audience

the way the writer/speaker wishes or expects the audience to respond
Selecting Your Target Audience
To communicate effectively with your intended target audience, you must have a `sense` of that audience.
You need to know what they are like and what their expectations are. Here are some considerations:
 The age of the speaker/narrator and the effect on the audience/reader/listener receiving
the communication
 The status or social background of the audience
 The knowledge background of the audience - how much or little do they know of the
topic being communicated and the level of their interest.
 The presence or absence of an emotional connection between speaker/writer and intended
audience - is it hostile, indifferent, cordial, intimate?
 The size of the audience being addressed - inter-personal or group communication?
 The degree to which the communication is intended to be public, private or intimate.
MODULE 2 ESSAYS
Requirements :

Standard English and Creoles

Characteristics of Language

Variation in Language + Reasons

Purposes of Language

Registers

Attitudes to Language

Communicative Behaviors
Standard English and Creoles should be known from either textbooks or teacher's notes.
Language
The following are definitions of language:
 system of communication between humans, through written and vocal symbols
 speech peculiar to an ethnic, national or cultural group
 words, especially employed in any art, branch or knowledge, or profession
 a person’s characteristic mode of speech
 by extension, the articulate or inarticulate expression of thought and feeling by living
creatures.
Language combines a wide variety of features and is the most precise and complex means
of communication thatexists.Language is one of a range of means of communication. It is not
to be regarded as just another form ofcommunication. It is perhaps the most complex of all. It is
flexible, dynamic, systematic, creative and sociallygoverned. It is to be distinguished from all
other forms of communication, both human and non-human, because itdoes more than simply
communicate.
There is a popular misconception that language is just another form of communication. It is
important to note thatlanguage is not like other forms of communication and that in fact it is
a peculiarly human phenomenon, thoughmany of its features are to be found in other forms of
communication.
There are two types of languages: denotative and connotative language. Denotative language
is language interpretedliterally while connotative language has emotive shades of meaning.
Functions of Language
Language is a marker of evolution for the human species
Language offers human beings the means of expressing themselves verbally.
Language is extensive, meaning that the ability to speak separates us from all other species.
Language stands as being widely creative.
Language has identity, meaning that you begin to identify people based on his or her use
of language. It creates personal identity.Characteristics of Language
Language has a human characteristic. Only humans have the physical capability to pronounce the
wide variety of
sounds that are used in world’s languages. Language must be sound based. However, it
is not necessary to write itto be considered a language. Communication must take place for it to
be considered a language.Mutual intelligibility: where information could be passed on
and understand Note that, in order for a language to become a standard form, it must be written.
Language is verbal. It is based on recognizable sounds.
Language is symbolic. This means that it uses words as representations or symbols of ideas.
Most words have anarbitrary, but mutually agreed relationship between the symbol and
the meaning. Symbolism in language ensuresthat ideas are easily shared among speakers of
the same language. Dictionaries are actually records of the symbolicmeaning of the words in a
language. They ensure that the symbolism remains consistent despite the advent of newgenerations
and new speakers.
Language is systematic. Languages have structure. Each language has specific grammar rules and follow
specificword order. Unlike other forms of communication, language makes use of a number of
different systems operatingat several levels. 1.
SoundSince some sequences of sound are not acceptable. Note that the spelling in some cases is
not readily recognized because it may not suggest a sequence of sounds that speakers of English
recognize or use normally. Each languagehas its accepted sound patterns that are easily
recognizable to its speakers.2.
GrammarSince some order of words, or parts of words, are not acceptable. The grammar of a
language is a set of rules thatgovern how the words of the language are put together to make
meaning.3.
SemanticsWords have specific meanings and people cannot keep changing the meanings of words
because they feel like it,
nor can they combine words which produce ridiculous combinations such as ‘green cow’. Such a
form is
only possible as a figure of speech.
Language is evolutionary. One manifestation of language change is the invention of new words.
As humans inventor discover new things and new ideas enter the world, new symbols have to be
created to represent them.Changes in meaning are another way in which language evolves.
Generally, these changes occur when a significantgroup of persons persistenly uses a word to
mean something other than its traditionally accepted definition.
Language has a maturational characteristic. As and individual grows older, their ability
to produce and comprehendlanguage increases.
Language is non-instinctive. It needs to be learnt through communicative interaction with
others.While humans are born with the ability to acquire language, they can only do so through
imitation.
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Language is dynamic.Language is constantly changing. It has great flexibility and can vary
according to certainsocial or geographical factors.
Language and A Language
Language (generic) is a vehicle of thought, system of expression. The principal means used by
human beings tocommunicate with one another. Language is primarily spoken, but it can also
be written.
Language is the verbal form of human expression.
Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and
desires by means ofa system of voluntarily produced symbols.
A language (individual) is a set of elements and a system for combining them into patterned
sentences that can beused to accomplish specific tasks in specific contexts. Examples: to greet
friends, argue, ask the time.
A language is any distinct system of verbal expression, distinguished from other such system by
its peculiarities ofstructure and vocabulary
–
i.e. every language is distinct from other languages because of these features.
A language is one recognizable, identifiable or accepted entity used by one or more communities
of speakers.
A language community is all the speakers of a particular language.
A language family is a group of languages that have all developed from a single ancestral
language.
Purposes of language
1.
Expressive purposes
Language can be used simply to express one’s feelings, ideas or attitudes, without necessarily
taking a reader or
listened intro consideration. When language is used in this way, the speaker is not trying to effect
change in anaudience or elicit response. He/she is merely giving vent to emotion or needs.
Diaries and journals are obviousexamples of language used for expressive purposes.2.
Informative purposesLanguage is employed with the intention of conveying information to
others. This purpose is used to convey ideas,truth statements, instructions, abstract and complex
propositions and to aid understanding. Therefore, a news broadcast, a bulletin board or
a textbook are all examples of language being used for this purpose.3.
Cognitive purposesWhen language is used cognitively, it is with the intention of affecting the
audience in some way in order to evokesome type of response. Therefore, when one uses
language to persuade, entertain, stir to anger or arouse sympathy,one is using language
for cognitive purposes. Jokes, political speeches and horror stories are different examples ofways
in which language can be used cognitively.4.
Poetic purposesLanguage used in literary, stylistic or imaginative ways is poetic. The user
focuses on the structure and pattern ofthe language and places emphasis on the manner in which
language is manipulated.5.
Phatic purposesLanguage is used simply to establish or maintain contact among people. This use
of language is most obvious inspoken communication. Language used for phatic purposes does not
necessarily seek to generate a meaningful
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response. Although the phatic purpose of language does not often apply to written
communication, in the case ofletter writing, the greeting and closure are phatic. Informal or
friendly letters and email may also use expressions.6.
Metalinguistic purposesThis is the use of the language to comment on, refer to or discuss
language itself. A critique of a speech ismetalinguistic.7.
Social purposeSometimes when language is used, it has more to do with certain cultural
or ceremonial conventions that relate tosocial interaction in a particular community.8.
Identifying purposeThis is seen in the use of slogans, chants, anthems, nicknames and other
terms that allow for expression of personalor group identity.9.
Ritual purposeThis language offers the possibility of exercising control over certain aspects of
life.10.
Aesthetic purposeAesthetic use of language in its absolute form (for example, experimental
poetry) exploits qualities of language suchas sound and pattern, but may invite a variety of
different interpretations and responses.11.
Persuasive purposeThe persuasive purpose is used to convince, or persuade, the reader that
the opinion, or assertion, or claim, of thewriter is correct or valid.
Variation
Although any speaker of a language could communicate with any other speaker of the same
language, these peopleoften do not all speak the language in the same way. The way in which
language is used often varies from group togroup, from one situation to another, and from
individual to individual. The language used may also vary in relationto the intent of the speaker
or the purpose of the communication or even the nature of the relationship between thespeaker and
the audience.
Variation is the changes in language in response to various influences. For example: social,
geographic, individualand group factors.
Some factors influencing language variation are social pressures, development in technology,
geographical location, political and economic status.
How do varieties develop?They develop where there is limited communication between different
parts of a community that share onelanguage. Geographical boundaries, isolation, political
conflict or military hostilities may lead to sustained loss ofcontact between groups so that
changes in the language are not shared by all speech communities.
Dialect
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Dialect is a variety of a language spoken by an identifiable subgroup of people, i.e. dialects can
be characteristic ofgeographic, regional, ethnic, socio-economic or gender groups; any version
of a language spoke by a particulargeographic or social sub-group, e.g. British Standard English,
Cockney English, Yorkshire English, TrinidadStandard English, American English, Dominican
Standard English.
Sometimes, as a language evolves, one particular dialect becomes dominant. This is usually due
to the fact that it isthe dialect spoken by the people with the economic power or greatest social
influence in that society. In this case,their dialect becomes accepted as the
standard variety
of that language. Therefore, the standard variety becomesthe one used for writing and other
formal purposes and is often given prestige over the other varieties.
No one variety of a language is superior to another and that every language is really a collection
of dialects.
A group of people who speak the same dialect is known as a
speech community.
Although two person may speak the same dialect, their accents may be different. An
accent
is simply a variation in pronunciation. Accents can be regional or social.
Dialects differ from one another by semantics (word choice), syntax (sentence structure),
grammar and morphology(word forms).
No matter what dialect is spoken by a speech community, each user is capable of manipulating
that dialect inrelation to the context of communication. Depending on whom you are speaking or
writing to, you can vary the wayyou express yourself. This type of
language variation
is called
code switching
. This is the ability to manipulate between the standard and non-standard dialect based on
the social setting.
Dialectal Variation
refers to a person’s conscious choice of dialect which
can be the variation of Creole or
Standard English. Choice of dialect is chosen based on the speaker’s status, educational
background, emotional state
and attitude towards the dialect.
The three different types of dialects are basilect, mesolect and acrolect.
Basilect is a basic form of the dialect spoken by the group at the bottom of the social ladder.
Mesolect is a midway point between basilect and acrolect.
Acrolect is a dialect that is closest to the standard European language spoken by the groups
in close contact withmost powerful sector of the society.
Jamaican Language ContinuumThis is the range of languages and language dialects spoken in
Jamaica. This range is represented as a continuum because:1.
Not every point on the continuum is a separate language2.
Jamaicans will switch from one to the other continuously in conversations and in different
situations3.
according to some persons, the Creole is continuously changing and becoming more like
English.Basilect. is the form of Creole with more African derived features than other forms. The
first point on thecontinuum. It is most often spoken in rural areas and by uneducated
persons.Mesolect is a form of Creole with more English derived features than the basilect. The
point on the continuum nextto the basilect. It is most often spoken by urban and educated
persons.Acrolect is the last point on the continuum. An example is Jamaican Standard English.
It is most often spoken informal situations.
Register
A register is the form of a language in which one may choose to speak, where “form” refers to
ranges in formality
and informality.
Standard English is a formal register, Jamaican Creole is a more informal register.
Words used to refer to informal register include: colloquial, vernacular.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LANGUAGE (the ones needed for the essay)
1.
Symbolic - words used as symbols of ideas. Vocabulary is based on the needs of the
society that employs the language. The language must be understand amongst all the speakers in
the society, for it to be effective as a means of communication.
2.
Systematic - the structure of the language, which is the grammar and rules that define
how the language is to be used.
NOTE: this is important when identifying the difference between Standard English and Creoles/dialects.
VARIATION IN LANGUAGES + REASONS
Each language has differences in :
1.
Words Used
2.
Structure
3.
Sentence Length
4.
Articulation of Words
5.
Completion of the Spoken Word
6.
Non - Verbal Communication
These are all based around the relationship between the two individuals conversing.
The Reasons for these variations being present are :
1.
Audience who is being addressed
2.
Subject Matter topic of focus
3.
Medium means of communication
4.
Attitude of Writer - personal feeling upon the topic displayed by writer
NOTE: These should be taken into consideration when analyzing the piece.
PURPOSES
1.
2.
reader.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Expressive - emotional and focused on the speaker / writer.
Informative - all the words are used in context to give specific information to direct the
Reflective - focused on analyzing the past and uses memories.
Poetic - language is stylistic or imaginative to pleasure the reader.
Phatic - simply establishes contact among persons without seeking a response.
Metalinguistic - use of language to discuss language.
REGISTERS
Formality of Language.
It is conveyed by word choice and style and structure used.
1.
Frozen - for print purposes, where no direct response from the reader is expected
2.
Formal - used in socially formal contexts
3.
Consultative - a supply of extra information, under the assumption that is is essential for
full comprehension.
4.
Casual - used in dialogues between friends or any other persons who can be spoken to
with slang (acquaintances).
5.
Intimate - communication between people who are close (relationship-wise) and it
conveys personal thoughts and feelings.
ATTITUDES TO LANGUAGE
Refers to how an individual feels about the language spoken.
1.
2.
Positive - has pride in and enjoys the language spoken
Negative - does not enjoy the language being spoken, feels ashamed.
COMMUNICATIVE BEHAVIORS
Ways in which an individual acts that will add to the meaning of the message.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Vocalics - use of volume, pitch and tone in voice.
Proxemics - use of space (either free space or personal space or space amongst persons)
Artifacts - use of objects (objects includes clothing)
Movement + Facial Expression - gestures, eye contact and other motions .
Chronemic - use of time (as in how long the speech is or otherwise).
NOTE : There is often a question which states :
" Suggest how a video presentation would make this piece easier to understand . "
Communicative Behaviors and Registers are usually a good way to answer.