CHAPTER 3
PREPARATORY ACTIVITIES
CHAPTER 3
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LESSON 1. THE SCHOOL CURRICULUM: DEFINITION, NATURE AND SCOPE
Some Definitions of Curriculum lifted from Bilbao et. al (2015):
1.
Curriculum is a planned and guided set of learning experiences and intended outcomes, formulated through
the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences under the auspices of the school, for the learners‟
continuous and wilful growth in personal social competence.” (Daniel Tanner, 1980)
2.
It is a written document that systematically describes goals planned, objectives, content, learning activities,
evaluation, procedures and so forth.(Pratt, 1980)
3.
The contents of a subject, concepts and tasks to be acquired, planned activities, desired learning outcomes
and experiences, product of culture and an agenda to reform society make up a curriculum. ( Schubert, 1987)
4.
A curriculum includes “all of the experiences that individual learners have ina a program of education whose
purpose is to achieve broad goals and related specific objectives, which is planned in terms of a framework of theory
and research or past and present professional practice.” (Hass, 1987)
5.
It is a programme of activities (by teachers and pupils) designed so that pupils will attain so far as possible
certain educational and other schooling ends or objectives. (Grundy, 1987)
6.
It is a plan that consists of learning opportunities for a specific time frame and place, a tool that aims to bring
about behaviour changes in students as a result of planned activities and includes all learning experiences received
by students with the guidance of the school. (Goodland and Su, 1992)
7.
It provides answers to three questions: 1. What knowledge , skills and values are most worthwhile? 2. Why
are they most worthwhile? 3. How should the young acquire them? (Cronbeth, 1992)
Traditional Vs. progressive Curriculum Points of View
Definition of curriculum varies from people to people. Points of View of different people brought about by diverse
academic and culture background as well as experiences have shaped to the curriculum that we recognize today.
Points of view can be classified as either Traditional or Progressive basing upon the person‟s Philosophical,
Psychological and Psychological background.
Curriculum from Traditional Points of View
Below are the different Definition of Curriculum rooting from the Traditional Points of View Theorists Robert Hutchins,
Arthur Bestor, and Joseph Schwab lifted from Bilbao et. al, (2015).

Robert M. Hutchins claimed that curriculum as “ permanent studies” where rules of grammar, reading,
rhetoric, logic and mathematics for basic education are emphasized. The 3Rs (Reading, Writing, „rithmetic) should
be

emphasized in basic education while liberal education while liberal education should be the emphasis in college.

Arthur Bestor as an essentialist believes that the mission of the school should be intellectual training, hence
curriculum should focus on the fundamental intellectual disciplines
of grammar, literature and writing. It should


include mathematics, science, history and foreign language.

Joseph Schwab thinks that the sole source of curriculum is a discipline, thus the subject areas such as
Science, mathematics, Social Studies, English and many more. In college, Academic disciplines are labelled as
humanities, sciences, languages,
mathematics among others. He coined the word discipline as a ruling doctrine for

curriculum development.
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

Phillip Phenix asserts that Curriculum should consist entirely of knowledge which comes from various disciplines.
In general, theorists like Hutchins, Bestor and Schwab narrowed the definition of Curriculum to Written Curriculum.
That is, They recognizes syllabi, modules, teaching guides and other written document as a collective definition of
Curriculum.
Curriculum from Progressive Points of View
Contrary to the Traditional definition of Curriculum, Progressivists believe that written documents like syllabi does not
sum up to what a curriculum is. Let us observe the Progressive point of View about Curriculum from the different
theorists lifted from Bilbao et. al,(2015)

John Dewey believes that
education is experiencing. Reflective thinking is a means that unifies curricular

elements that are tested by application.

Othaniel Smith, William Stanley and Harlan Shore likewise defined curriculum as a sequence of
potential
experiences, set up in schools for the purpose of disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking and


acting.

Colin Marsh and George Willis also viewed curriculum 
as all the experiences in the classroom which are
planned and enacted by the teacher and also learned by the students.
LESSON 2: APPROACHES TO SCHOOL CURRICULUM
Ways of Approaching a Curriculum lifted from Bilbao et. al, (2015)
Curriculum is described using three categories in approaching it: 1.) Curriculum as a Content or a Body of
Knowledge;2.) Curriculum as a Process and ;3.) Curriculum as a Product.
THREE WAYS OF APPROACHING A CURRICULUM
1. Curriculum as
a
Content or Body of *Curriculum as a topic outline,subject matter, or cencepts to be included in
Knowledge
syllabus or books
*Focus of the curriculum will be the body of knowledge to be transmitted to
students using appropriate teaching method.
*Teaching is limited to the acquisition of facts, concepts and principles of the
subject matter; however, the content or subject matter can also be taken as a
means to an end.
Four ways of presenting the content in the curriculum:
1.
Topical Approach,where much content is based on knowledge, and
experiences are included;
2.
Concept approach with fewer topics in clusters around major and subconcepts and their interaction, with relatedness emphasized;
3.
Thematic Approach as a combination of concepts that develop
conceptual structures, and
4.
Modular Approach that leads to complete units of Instruction.
Criteria and Selection of Content
Below are the some suggested criteria in the selection of knowledge or subject
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matter.(Scheffer, 1970 in Bilbao et. al, 2009)
1. Significance
2. Validity(authenticity)
3. Utility(usefulness)
4. Learnability
5. Feasibility(possible to be learned within allowed time,resources etc.)
6. Interest
Guide in the Selection of the Content in the Curriculum
1. Commonly used in daily life
2. Appropriate to the maturity levels and abilities of the learners
3. Valuable in meeting the needs and competencies of the future career
4. Related to other subject fields or discipline for complementation and
integration.
5. Important in the Transfer of learning to other disciplines
Basic principles of Curriculum Content(Palma,1952)
1. Balance. Content should be fairly distributed in depth and breadth.
2. Articulation. As the content complexity progresses with the educational
levels, vertically or horizontally, across the same discipline smooth
connections or bridging should be provided.
3. Sequence. Content should be logically arranged.
4. Integration. Content should be infused with other disciplines whenever
possible.
5. Continuity. Content should continuously flow.
2. Curriculum
Process
as
a
*Curriculum is not seen as a physical things but as a verb or an action
*Curriculum happens in the classroom as the questions asked by the teacher and
the learning activities engaged in by the students
*Curriculum as a process is seen as a scheme about the practice of teaching.
*Curriculum links to the content
*This is the other side of the coin: instruction, implementation and teaching.
Guiding Principles of Curriculum approached as a process
1. Curriculum process in the form of teaching methods or strategies are
means to achieve the end.
2. There is no single best process or method. Its effectiveness will depend
on the desired learning outcomes, the learners, support materials and
the teacher.
3. Curriculum process should stimulate the learners‟ desire to develop the
cognitive, affective an psychomotor.
4. In the choice of methods, learning and teaching styles should be
considered.
5. Every method or process should result to learning outcomes which can
be describes as cognitive, affective and Psychomotor.
6. Flexibility in the use if the process should be considered. An effective
process will always result to learning outcomes.
7. Both teaching and learning are two important processes in the
implementation of the curriculum.
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3. Curriculum
Product
as
a
*Product is what the students desire to achieve as learning outcomes
*The product from the curriculum is a student equipped with the knowledge, skills
and values to function effectively and efficiently.
*The real purpose of Education is to bring about significant changes in students‟
pattern of behaviour.
Central to the approach is the formulation of behavioural objectives stated as
intended learning outcomes or desired products so that content and teaching
methods may be organized and the results evaluated.
*curriculum is expresses in form of outcomes which are referred to as achieved
learning outcomes.
Source: Bilbao et. al, (2020): Curriculum Development. Quezon City,Manila. LORIMAR PUBLISHING,Inc.
LESSON3: CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT: PROCESS AND METHODS
Curriculum Development Process
1.
Curriculum planning. This curriculum process starts with the review of the Institutional Mission, Vision and
Core Values and Goals. The schools‟ Philosophy is also a contributing factor to Curriculum Planning. Thus, Curriculum
outc omes must adhere with the Principles the member of each school community lives up with.
2.
Curriculum Designing. This curriculum process involves the conceptualization from the Curriculum
Objectives, Content and set curriculum experiences. “Curriculum designing is the way curriculum is conceptualized to
include the selection and organization of content, the selection and organization of learning experiences or activities
and the selection of the assessment procedure and tools to measure achieved learning outcomes. A curriculum design
will also include the resources to utilized and the statement of the intended learning outcomes”. (Bilbao et.al, 2015)
3.
Curriculum Implementing. “Curriculum implementing is putting into action the plan which is based on the
curriculum design in the classroom setting or the learning environment. The teacher is the facilitator of learning and,
together with the learners, uses the curriculum as design guides to what will transpire in the classroom with the end in
view of achieving the intended learning outcomes. Implementing the curriculum is where action takes place. It involves
the activities that transpire in every teacher‟s classroom where learning becomes an active process”. (Bilbao et. al,
2015)
4.
Curriculum Evaluating. “Curriculum evaluating determines the extent to which the desired outcomes have
been achieved. This procedure is on-going as in finding out the progress of learning(formative) or the mastery of
learning(summative). Along the way, evaluation will determine the factors that have hindered or supported the
implementation. It will also pinpoint where improvement can be made and corrective measures, introduced. The result
of evaluation is very important for decision making of curriculum planners, and implementors”. (Bilbao et.al, 2015)
Curriculum Development Process Models
1.
Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic principles
According to Bilbao et. al, (2015),Ralph Tyler model is also known as the Tyler‟s Rationale which puts emphasis to
planning stage. He introduced the four Fundamental principles in his book “Basic Principles of Curriculum and
Instruction” which has the following questions as its basis.
1.
2.
What education purposes should schools seek to attain?
What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?
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3.
4.
How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained or not?
For curriculum development to be successful, Tyler proposed the following considerations :
1.
2.
3.
4.
Purposes of the School
Educational Experiences related to the purposes
Organization of the experiences
Evaluation of the experience
2.
Hilda Taba Model: Grassroots Approach. Contrary to Tyler‟s Model which Curriculum Development starts
at the top, Hilda Taba‟s Grassroots Approach recognizes the bottom as the starting point in developing a curriculum.
In her linear model, she laid down seven major principles and these are as follows
:
1.
Diagnosis of learners‟ needs and expectations of the larger society
2.
Formulation of learning objectives
3.
Selection of learning contents
4.
Organization of learning contents
5.
Selection of learning experiences
6.
Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it.
3.
Gaylen Saylor and William Alexander Curriculum Model. Saylor and Alexander(1974) viewed curriculum
as “ a plan for providing sets of learning opportunities to achieve broad educational goals and related specific
objectives for an identifiable population served by a single school center.”(Bilbao et. al, 2015). According to Saylor
and Alexander(1974), there are four steps to curriculum development lifted from Bilbao et. al, (2015).
1.
Goals, objectives and Domains. Curriculum planners begin by specifying the major educational goals
and specific objectives they wish to accomplish. Each major goal represents a curriculum domain: personal
development, human relations, continued learning skills and specialization. The goals, objectives and domains are
identified and chosen based on research findings, accreditation standards, and views of different stakeholders.
2.
Curriculum Designing. Designing a curriculum follows after appropriate learning opportunities are
determined and how each opportunity is provided. Will the curriculum be designed along the lines of academic
disciplines, or according to student needs and interests or along themes? These are some of the questions that need
to be answered at this stage of the development process.
3.
Curriculum Implementation. A designed curriculum is now ready for implementation. Teachers then
prepare instructional plans where instructional objectives are specified and appropriate teaching methods and
strategies are utilized to achieve the desired learning outcomes among students.
4.
Evaluation. The last step of the curriculum model is evaluation. A comprehensive evaluation using a
variety of evaluation techniques is recommended. It should involve the total educational programme of the school
and the curriculum plan, the effectiveness of instruction and the achievement of students. Through the evaluation
process, curriculum planner and developers can determine whether or not the goals of the schools and objectives of
instruction have been met.
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LESSON 4: FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Educational Policies must be built upon concrete foundations. Philosophical, Physchological, Historical, Legal and
Political are the main facets of Education by Educational System was formed.
A.
Philosophical Foundation
According to Guay (2020), the philosophical foundation of curriculum helps determine the driving purpose of
education, as well as the roles of the various participants. He added that one‟s philosophy defines the role of a
teacher, ranging from all-knowing authoritarian to that of a mentor, and the role of the student, ranging from the
obedient vacant vessel to an individual worthy of actively engaging in one‟s educational process.
The word Philosophy was born out of the words “philos” meaning love and “sophi” meaning wisdom. For Aristotle,
Philosophy is the ability to feel at ease while Immanuel Kant defined philosophy as a science of criticism and
cognition.
1. IDEALISM
PHILOSOPHERS : Plato, Rene Descartes, Immanuel Kant, Spinoza, Leibniz, Hegel and Schopenhauer, Saint
Augustine of Hippo
Idealism is a Philosophy which promotes ideas as the only truth and the only thing worth knowing. In his famous book
entitled “The Republic”, Plato who was halted as the father of Idealism, introduced his views about Idealism.
Dash(2015) formulated the implication of the Philosophy of Idealism in Education and here are as follows :



An emphasis on theory before practice;




An emphasis in logical thinking

A high value attached to liberal education.

2. PRAGMATISM
PHILOSOPHERS : John Dewey, Charles Pierce
Pragmatism, also known as Experientialism believes that the reality of experience is the only thing that is real.
Pragmatists believes in the constantly changing reality and that problems in this society can be solved through
application of our past experiences to the present context. They educates individuals with the idea that there is no
universal, unchanging and absolute truth rather what‟s practical and what works is the truth.
According to James Prett as cited by Dash(2015) “ Pragmatism offers us a theory of meaning, a theory of truth of
knowledge and a theory of reality.
Dash(2015) Aims of Education :



To reform and reconstruct the society

To enable the individual to adjust with the changing social environment
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













To develop the child fully according to his interest, abilities and needs
To create social efficacy in the child

To provide educational opportunities to all citizens on equal footing
To instil habit of experimentation in the children


To remove social evils and make the society a good place for living
To enable the child to discover the truth himself
To make child self-reliant




Dash(2015) Impacts of Pragmatism to Modern Education :


Inculcation of democratic values and social responsibilities have been included in the aims of education today.


Activity and self-experience methods of teaching are very much recognized today.


Special emphasis on vocational and professional courses.





Organization of co-curricular activities in the school


Updating of curriculum after every five years according to the changing needs of the society.


Promotion of self-discipline


Respect for Democratic values




3. REALISM
PHILOSOPHERS : Aristotle
Realists, the believer or the philosophy of Realism, views reality and human mind as something separated. Realism‟s
basis is the reality. They claimed that the world independent of the human mind (the world of physical objects) holds
the truth for reality is something that can be observed. Aristotle, the student of Plato, who was known as the father of
both Realism and Scientific Reasoning. “Things rather than words” is one of the watchwords of the realists.
Realistic system of education throws light on all the aspects of education which are as follows(Dash,2015):


Preparing the child for a happy and successful life


Preparing the child for real life


Developing the physical and mental powers of the child


Developing and training of senses
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




Acquitting the child with nature and social environment


Imparting vocational education


4. EXISTENTIALISM
PHILOSOPHERS : Soren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche, Martin Heidegger and Jean-Paul Sartre
Existentialists like Soren Kierkegard believes in the power of choices and individual Freedom. Reality is nothing
without individual existence for Human being is the central of truth. It is the sole responsibility of an individual to define
the meaning oh his life and to decide the kind of person he will become. The definition of ourselves lies on our choices.
Instructional Methodology according to Idealism(Dash,2015)
1.
Existentialists advocates learning which is self-paced, self-directed and includes a great deal of individual
contact with the teacher.
2.
Existentialists should embrace individual differences.
3.
The existential way to teach science is for the students to live it.
4.
Existentialists favors the socratic method of teaching.
B.
Historical Foundations of Education
While it is true that the past makes up the present , it is also impossible to move forward without recognizing the past.
Below are the development of curriculum across time along with the great contributors in today‟s Educational Dogma
lifted from Bilbao et. al, (2015)
Person
Franklin Bobbit(1876-1956)
Werret Charters(1875-1952)
William Kilpatrick(1875-1952)
Contribution/ Theories and Principles
*He started the curriculum development movement
*Curriculum is a science that emphasizes students‟ needs
*Curriculum prepares learners for adult life
*objectives and activities should group together when
tasks are clarified
*Like Bobbit, he posited that curriculum is a science and
emphasizes students‟ needs
*Objectives and activities should match. Subject matter or
content relates to objcetives.
*Curricula are purposeful activities which are childcentered.
*The purpose of the curriculum is child development and
growth. He introduced this project method where teacher
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and student plan the activities.
*Curriculum develops social relationships and small group
instruction.
Harold Rugg(1886-1960)
Hollis Caswell(1901-1989)
Ralph Tyler(1902-1994)
Hilda Taba(1902-1967)
Peter Oliva(1992-2012)
*Curriculum should develop the whole child. It is childcentered.
*With the statement of objectives and related learning
activities, curriculum should produce outcomes.
*Emphasized social studies and suggested that the
teacher plans curriculum in advance.
*Curriculum is organized around social functions of
themes, organized knowledge and learner‟s interest.
*Curriculum , instruction and learning are interrelated.
*Curriculum is a set of experiences. Subject matter is
developed around social functions and learners‟ interests.
*Curriculum is a science and an extension of school‟s
philosophy. It is based on students‟ needs and interest.
*Curriculum is always related to instruction. Subject matter
is organized in terms of knowledge, skills and values.
*The process emphasizes problem solving. Curriculum
aims to educate generalists and not specialists.
*She contributed to the theoretical and pedagogical
foundations of concepts development and critical thinking
in social studies curriculum
*She helped lay the foundation for diverse student
population.
*He described how curriculum change is a cooperative
endeavour.
*Teachers and curriculum specialist constitute the
professional core planners.
*Significant improvement is achieved through group
activity.
Source: Bilbao et. al, (2020): Curriculum Development. Quezon City,Manila. LORIMAR PUBLISHING,Inc.
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C.
Psychological Foundation of Curriculum
Source: Bilbao et. al, (2020): Curriculum Development. Quezon City,Manila. LORIMAR PUBLISHING,Inc.
Persons
Contributions/ Theories and Primciples
Behavioral Theorists
Ivan Pavlov(1849-1936)
Edward Thorndike( 1874-1949)
Robert Gagne(1916-2002)
*He is the father of the Classical Conditioning Theory, the
S-R Theory
*The Key to learning is early years of life is to train them
what you want them to become.
*The S-R Theory is a foundation of learning practice called
indoctrination
*He championed the connectionism theory
*He proposed the three laws of learning:
-Law of readiness
-Law of exercise
-Law of effect
*Specific stimulus has specific response.
*He proposed the Hierarchical Learning Theory
*Behavior is based on prerequisite conditions.
*He introduced tasking in the formulation of objectives.
Cognitive Theorists
Jean Piaget(1896-1980)
*Cognitive Development Theory with Four Stages
1. Sensori-Motor
2. Pre- Operational
3. Concrete Operational
4. Formal Operational
*Keys to Learning
-Assimilation(incorporation of new experience)
-Accmmodation(learning modification and adaptation)
-Equilibration(balance between previous and later
learning)
*Theories of Lev Vygotsky
- Cultural transmission and development:
Children could, as a result of their interaction with society,
actually perform certain cognitiveactions prior to arriving at
developmental stage
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Lev Vygotsky(1986-1934)
Howard Gardner
Daniel Goleman
- Learning preceded development
- Socio cultural development theory
*Keys to Learning
-Pedagogy creates learning processes that lead to
development
-The child is an active agent in his or her educational
process.
*Gardner‟s Multiple Intelligences
*Humans have several different ways of processing
information and these ways are relatively independent to
one another
*There are nine known intelligences according to gardner
and these are : Linguistic, logico-mathematical, musical,
spatial, bodily/kinethetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and
naturalistic.
*Emotion contains power to affect action
*He called this Emotional Learning
Humanistic Psychology
Gestalt psychology
Abraham Maslow(1908-1970)
*Gestalt Theory
-Learning is explained in terms of wholeness of the
problem.
-Human beings do not respond to isolated stimuli but to an
organization or pattern of stimuli.
*Keys to Learning
-Learning is complex and abstract
-Learners analyse the problem, discriminate between
essential and non-essential data, and perceive
relationships.
-Learners will perceive something in relation to the whole.
What/ how they perceive is related to their previous
experiences.
*He advanced the Self-Actualization Theory
And Classic theory of Human Needs
*A child whose basic needs are not met will not be
interested in acquiring knowledge of the world.
*He put importance to human emotions, based on love and
trust.
*Key to Learning
-Produce a healthy and happy learner who can accomplish,
grow and actualize his/her human self.
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Carl Rogers
*Non-directive and Therapeutic Learning
*He established counselling procedures and methods of
facilitating learning.
*Children‟s perceptions, which are highly individualistic,
influence their learning and behaviour in class.
*Key to Learning
-Curriculum is concerned with process, not product;
personal needs, not subject matter. Psychological
meaning, not cognitive scores.
Social Foundations of Curriculum
Schools and Society(symbol)
John Dewey(1859-1952)
Alvin Toffler
*Society as a source of change
*Schools as agents of change
*Knowledge as an agent of change
*Considered two fundamental elements-schools and civil
society-to be major topics needing attention and
reconstruction to encourage experimental intelligence and
plurality.
*Wrote the book Future Shock
*Believed that knowledge should prepare students for the
future
*Suggested that in the future, parents might have the
resources to teach prescribed curriculum from home as a
result of technology, not in spite of it.(Home Schooling)
*Foresaw schools and students work creatively,
collaboratively, and independent of their age.