Chapter 6 Policy Problem
and Agenda Setting
Policy Problem
• One of the reasons why government agencies fail to resolve some of
the complex issues in the society is that they pay limited attention to
the process of defining the policy problem and its immediate
environment.
• Policy problems are not at all simple and trouble free
• For Anderson, it is crucial to understand why some policy problems
are acted upon by the government and why others are not despite
being significant.
• The inability of the policymakers to see policy problems in different
lenses according to Anderson makes them more complicated and
diluted in the process of defining them.
Policy Problem
• According to Anderson may be defined as, a condition or situation that produces
needs or dissatisfaction among the people and for which relief or redress by
governmental action is sought,
• Originates mostly from the people
• Anderson also noted that many of the societal problems are not at all public
problems.
• Before they become public problems they need to have the necessary requisites
that would allow the problems to be felt by the entire public in general.
• Thus, the problem of Juan dela Cruz for not being to land a descent job after his
graduation from college is certainly a private problem.
• However, the continued unemployment of Juan dela Criz and other newly
graduate individuals for more than two years in Metro manila is likely to cause a
public outrage and maybe perceived as a public problem in the process.
Policy Problem
• Guy Peters, admitted that the available literature in explaining the
links between policy problems and tools are very limited.
• As a consequence, the knowledge as to how policy problems can be
addressed effectively by the policymakers becomes less imaginable
and problematic.
• Guy Peters in functional titles undeniably help the govt. to facilitate
the definition of the policy problem and the identification of the right
policy instrument or tool.
2 stages in defining policy problem according
to Peters
• Actual definition of what the problem is
• Refers to the process of framing the issue according to D. Schon and m. Rein
that is affecting a particular segment. They argued that the stage of framing
the policy problem is imperative and one of the crucial phases in the process
of policymaking in the government.
• Petracca complemented the argument made by Schon and Rein, “how an
issue is defined or redefined, as the case may be, influence the type of
politicking, the chances of reaching the agenda, and the chances of a policy
outcome that is favorable to the advocates of the issue.
• The development of dimensions that can be used to characterize the
problem itself.
• Is the development of a set of dimensions that can be used to characterize a
particular policy issue.
• Peters also described the second stage as the point where the problem after
having been identified is understood to be in the process of being prepared
for the solution.
• This stage may have some subjective and political elements but Peters argued
that behind all of these is a larger objective component of the issue being
contended.
Characteristics of the Policy Problem
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Solubility
Complexity –(political and programmatic complexities)
Question of scale
Divisibility
Monetarization
Scope of activity
interdependence
Solubility
• Basic attribute that can be considered in any policy issue.
• Peters mentioned that it presents two dimensions of the policy
problem which are, whether the issue possesses definable solution
and whether it manifests the condition of being chronic that is likely
to appear from time to time on the agenda of the government.
• A policy problem that can be resolved through a definable solution is
definitely a desirable situation but seldom happens.
• On the contrary, the absence of a finite solution to a policy problem
may lead to insolubility and may require the full attention of the
government to be able to find the best explanation to the issue.
Complexity
• The problem as either political or programmatic complexity which
brings the policy to a another level of difficulty.
• Political complexity refers to the numbers of political actors that are
engaged repeatedly in deciding over a particular policy problem.
• Programmatic complexity refers to the several aspects of the policy
problem.
• Peter identified complexity as either technical content or multiple
causation.
Question of Scale
• Refers to the magnitude and the range of effects that the policy issue
creates.
• This could also mean the disaggregation of the problem into smaller
components or takes the nature of a problem that requires
comprehensive solution or nothing at all.
divisibility
• Pertains more to the nature of goods that is required to solve the
policy problem
• James Wilson equated divisibility with a typology of policies based on
the extent on how costs and benefits are concentrated or diffused in
a society.
monetarization
• Speaks on the possibility of using money to solve or at least cushion
the impact of the problems that is identified by the policymakers.
• But not all problems can be solved by financial means.
• Divisible and indivisible policy problems
• Divisible problems are those issues which can be addressed through
the use of money and where benefits are directly approapriable to
individual citizens
• Indivisible problem require other form of government intervention
and are not heavily dependent on the use of government money.
• E.g civil rights, gender equality
Scope of activity
• Pertains to the number of processes or elements that contribute to
the creation of the policy issue.
Interdependence
• The idea reverts to the concept of functional titles where policy
problems are grouped into several areas of concerns in order to
facilitate the creation of possible solutions.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Public Policy making can be considered to be
a set of processes, including
Problem Identification (Agenda setting)
Policy formulation
Policy adoption
Policy implementation
Policy evaluation
Problems

A condition or situation in society that causes
people distress or dissatisfaction and for which
relief is sought through government action.
Eg: water pollution, transport problem in Metro
Manila, electricity and petroleum problem in
Island setting, poverty, inflation

Perception on policy problem:
Eg: for wealthy man, unemployment is not the
problem but inflation
(definition changes as per the value or condition changes)
How can problems be valid?
1.
2.
3.
People must not consider the situation as normal
or usual. Eg: rape case, child abuse, ragging in
new school/college
It is appropriate and worthy of government's
action Eg: betterment for the societies, groups or
a state
Condition must be defined as problem and
articulated by someone and brought to the
attention of the government Eg: leader
# a situation is considered as problem only if
something can be done to it.
Problem recognition
Identifying problem is not easy, it should be rather
community or societal based
 It is not a simple mechanical process, but a
sociological one in which the ‘frames’ within which
governments operate and think are of critical
significance. (Goffman, 1974, Schon and Rein
1994)
Eg:
 In context of Philippines
Transportation problems/traffic in Greater Manila,
drugs addiction, drug trafficking/ poverty

Problem recognition
Problems
• Occurs every day
in society and is a
natural process
• Degree of problem
analyzed
• Problem should
turn into issue to
create attention
• Eg: rape case,
black market
• Eg: huge traffic at
office time,
electricity crisis in
winter seasons,
fuel crisis
Discussion
(exchange of
thoughts)
• Identify which are
good and useful
• Which are
adequate and
dangerous
Formation of Ideas
and Ideologies
• Considering as
much as possible
all the policy
determinants
• looking for long
term impact
• Eg: school buses
before 8 AM, rise of
vehicle import tax,
implementing
odd/even vehicles
as per date,
encourage solar
vehicles, design
eco-friendly
wooden stove and
heater
Agenda (definition)
Kingdon (1984)…..
 Is the list of subjects or problems to which
governmental officials, and people outside
government closely associated with those
officials, are paying some serious attention
at any given time.
An agenda may be as concrete as a list of
bills that are before a legislature, but also
includes a series of beliefs about the
existence and magnitude of problems and
how they should be addresses by
government, the private sector, non profit
organizations or through joint action by
some or all of these institutions.
John Kingdon
1940
Agenda Setting



Is a stage of policy making process
Identifying problems and suggesting the
tactical and logical alternative
Agenda for politics or policy making is created
out of the history, traditions, attitudes and
beliefs of a people encapsulated and codified
in terms of political discussion.
Agendas & Alternatives
Agenda setting is the process that determines
which issues officials pay serious attention to
at any given time.
Alternative Specification narrows the large set
of possible policy alternatives to a smaller set
from which choices are actually made.
Kingdon’s 3 Process Streams
• Problem stream involves persuading policy makers to pay
attention to one problem over others (aka agenda-setting).
Policy proposals will rise to the top of the agenda when the associated
problem is recognized as important. This depends on how it is framed or
brought to policy maker’s attention (e.g., through data or focusing events).
• Proposal stream is the process by which policy proposals
are generated, debated, revised, and put forth for serious
consideration.
More likely to be successful if perceived as technically feasible, compatible with
policymaker’s values, reasonable in cost, and appealing to the public.
• Politics stream refers to political factors that influence
agendas, such as changes in elected officials, political
climate or mood, and the voices of advocacy or opposition
groups.
Coupling the Streams
• The three streams have lives
of their own
• The probability of rising on
the agenda is increased if all
3 streams are joined
• Partial couplings between 2
streams are less likely to
result in policy changes
Policy Entrepreneurs
• Can be elected officials, career civil servants, lobbyists,
academics, journalists
• Entrepreneurs:
• Highlight indicators of the problem to dramatize it
• Push for one kind of problem definition over another – invite
policymakers to see for themselves
• Present specific policies as the solution to a problem on the
agenda
• “Soften up” by writing papers, giving testimony, holding
hearings, getting press coverage, meeting endlessly…..
• Entrepreneurs convince officials to see the problem the
way they want it to be seen—and to use the solutions they
propose.
Windows of Opportunity
Windows open when:
• Problems “float” by that advocates can attach their
policy solutions to
• The political stream is advantageous
Windows don’t stay open long. Policy entrepreneurs
can push their solutions when windows of
opportunity open.
• Make the critical couplings when policy windows open
• Political connections and negotiating skills add to ability
to move policy forward
Actors involved in political agenda setting
Many individuals and institutions are involved in
shaping policy agenda, including: Political administrative officials such as Prime
Minister and other Ministers such as Minister of
finance
 Legislators
 Academicians
 Development partners (donors)
 Civil society organizations (NGOs, INGOs)
 The Media as well as the Public
Types of Agenda Setting


Early Univariate Model
MultiVariate Model
Early Univariate Model
It is the traditional model of agenda setting
It considered Economical, technological,
political, social and media as determinants.
Government
Social,
technologic
al,
economic
Condition
arises
Issue
s
affects
Political/
Economic
al Cycles
Early Univariate Model
1.
2.
3.
4.
Economics and Technological Determinism
(The Convergence Theses)
Interplay of Politics and Economics (Political
Business Cycle)
Ideas and Ideology (Policy Paradigms and
Policy Moods)
Interest Groups and Media (The Issue
Attention Cycle)
Economics and Technological
Determinism (The Convergence
Theses)


Problems and issues are originated at the
development level of the society and is
common to other states too.
The study of Sharkansky, 1971 shows that
Eg: Telecom, ATM Cards,
Agricultural Equipments
Percentage of per capita income
Median education level
Industrial employment
Levels of expenditures
Service outputs in education, health
Technological deficient or
advancement
Interplay of Politics and Economics
(Political Business Cycle)



Established in 1980s
Economics: is an area of the production,
distribution or trade, and consumption of
goods and services by different agents in a
given geographical location.
The economic agents can be individuals,
businesses, organizations, or governments.
Politics: Politics is the theory and practice of
influencing people through the exercise of
power, E.g. governments, elections and
political parties.
In Theory:
Unbiased
Information and
Recommendati
on
Elected
politician
Ideal Economist
In Practice:
Strong Relationship
Economy
Politics
Decision and
Implementation
Factors affecting economy and politics








Unemployment
Inflation
Political scholars came up with
Public investment
their idea that both political and
economical factors are important
Labor forces
determinants of agenda setting so,
should be studied together.
Higher cost of strikes
Wages (higher/lower)
Output
Social securities
Case of developing countries:
Before Election
Heavy spending
And cut off tax
Inflationary gap
Higher
employment
opportunities
and good
business
condition
To overcome
inflationary gap
High Price
Ideas and ideology: Policy Paradigm and Policy
Moods

Before 1980s – social, economical and
political ideas only
beliefs
Attitude
s
tradition
Significant effect on the decision making
Individual Idea
Efforts have been made by economist, psychologist and others to reduce
these sets of ideas to a rational calculation of self interest
Interest Group and the Media: The IssueAttention Cycle

Examined as a linkers:
Media coverage of issues and its impact on public
opinion
Transformation of ground reality to the
government via various modes like newspaper, tv
shows, tv programs, documentaries etc.

Stimulates government:
To act on specific issues framed by the media as
actionable and researchable by government
activity.
Interest Group and the Media: The IssueAttention Cycle





Provide information to the public
Influence and shape public opinion
Link the government and the public
Act as a watchdog of the government
Influence agenda setting
Eg: cyber crime, child abuse, poor drinking water
supply, corruption
Multivariate Models

Multivariate Models of Agenda Setting:
Complex models.
Univariate model identifies single cause but the
multivariate models identify multiple causes.
Attempts systematically to combine the
variables.
More accurate theory of agenda setting.
Example
Health
Professional
Associations
Consumer Interest
groups
& Other NGOs
Governmen
t
Scientific Bodies
& Researchers
Food
Industry
Farmers/Commodity groups
The Funnel of Causality
Developer of the model 1973 - Anthony King in Great Britain.


1974 - Richard Hofferbert in United States.
1976 - Richard Simeon in Canada.
Aim:
To capture the general relationships existing
among interests, institutions, ideas, politics and
economic conditions in the process of agendasetting.
The Funnel of Causality …

Variables existed within a funnel.

Each variables was nested within another.

Factors are involved to create and negotiate social
or policy problems.

Synthetic model of causality.

Series of variables:
Socio economic
Physical environment
Distribution of power in society
The Funnel of Causality …
The Funnel of Causality …
Agenda Setting Patterns


Major breakthrough occurred in early 1970s.
Scholars such as Roger Cobb of Brown University,
Jenni Keith Ross of Swarthmore College
&
Marc Howard Ross Bryn Mawr College.

Two types of public agenda:
Systemic or informal public agenda
(Society agenda, Issues commonly perceived by political
community members).
Institutional or formal state agenda
(Once a government has accepted that something needs to
be done).
Phases of Agenda Setting

Four Major phases of agenda setting
(Between Systemic and Institutional)
First initiated.
Solutions are specified.
Support for the issue is expanded.
if successful the issue enters the institutional
agenda.
Models of Agenda Setting
Three basic patterns or models of agenda
setting:

Outside initiation model.

Mobilization model.

Inside initiation model.
Models …

Outside Initiation Model:
Associated with liberal pluralist societies.
Issues arise in nongovernmental groups.
Then expanded sufficiently to reach.
Firstly it is the public agenda and.
then formally the political agenda.
Key role is played by social groups.
Models …

Mobilization Model
Associated with totalitarian regimes.
The decision makers try to expand an issue
from a formal to a public agenda.
Issues are simply placed on the formal agenda
by the government with no necessary preconsiderable debate.
But the public may be well kept in the dark
about the policy and its development until its
formal announcement.
Models …

Inside Initiation Model
Associated with corporatist regimes.
Influential groups with special access to
decision makers initiate a policy and do not
necessarily want it to be expanded and
contested in public.
This can be due to technical as well as political
reason.
In this model initiation and specification occur
simultaneously as a group or government
agency.
Policy Windows
Policy Monopolies
& Agenda-Setting
Styles
Model of
Policy Windows
Agenda-setting
Three sets of variables
1. Problem Stream
2. Policy Stream
3. Political Stream
John Kingdon (1984)
The variables / streams
1) Problem Stream
Refers to the perception of problems.
2) Policy Stream
Consists of experts and analysts examining the problems and
proposing solutions.
3) Political Stream
Composed of factors such as swings of national mood,
administrative or legislative turnover, and
pressure campaigns of interest group.
Interaction & intersection of streams
Opening of Window for Agenda-setting
Policy
stream
Proble
m
stream
Political
stream
Types of policy windows
Political
Windows
Problem
Windows
Routinized
political
windows
Spillover
problem
windows
Discretionary
political
windows
Random
problem
windows
John Kingdon (1984)
Policy windows
1.Routinized political windows
In which institutionalized procedural events dictate predictable window
openings
2.Spillover problem windows
In which related issues are drawn into an already open predictable
window
3.Discretionary political windows
In which the behavior of individual political actors leads to less
predictable window opening
4. Random problem windows
In which random events or crises open unpredictable windows.
(1)
Routinized
political
windows
High
(2)
Spillover
problem
windows
(3)
Discretionary
political
windows
Degree of Institutionalization & Predictability
(4)
Random
problem
windows
Low
John Kingdon (1984)
Policy monopoly model
Policy
Monopoly
Policy
Subsystem
Technical
Problem
Policy
Subsystem
Social/Political
Problem
Baumgartner and Jones (1991)
Agenda-setting style
Peter J. May (1991)
The central question in agenda-setting
It is not the type of regime involved;
Rather, it is1) the nature of the policy subsystem involved
with the problem,
and
2) the level of public support for its resolution.
Four types of
Agenda-setting style
Nature of
Public Involvement
Initiator
of
Debate
High
Low
Social
Actors
Outside
Initiation
(Model/style-1)
Inside
Initiation
(Model/style-2)
State
Consolidation
(Model/style-4)
Mobilization
(Model/style-3)
Peter J. May (1991)
Conclusion
Agenda-setting is not an automatic phenomenon.
It has lot of variables to depend on.
Emergence of issues depends on the policy windows,
and agenda-setting process very much depends on
the policy subsystem found in the concerned area.
But, ultimately government plays the key role as it
follows different strategies to channelize the policy
discourse in directions they would like them to go.
Agenda Setting
• Once the problem is correctly identified or framed, the subsequent step to
the first of the policymaking process is bringing the issue to the attention
of the government.
• Requires the participation of different interest groups and the policymakers
for their complimentary support.
• According to Susan Buck, is a process that is resorted to by a considerable
number of citizens who strive to get their issues for consideration in the
government.
• Buck identified three essential grounds as to why citizens strive to get the
attention of government on their valued interests:
• Legitimacy of public policy
• Universality of government policies
• Ability of the government to force compliance on a given policy.
Agenda Setting
• Maddison and Dennis refers the process of transforming a private
concern into a policy issue, commanding resources of the government
and becoming part of the policy cycle.
• Maddison and Dennis identified four conditions in order to make it to
policy agenda of the government.
• These conditions include the following:
•
•
•
•
There must be an agreement about the problem
There must be the prospect of a solution
The issue must be appropriate for government expenditure
Must satisfy the question ‘for whom is the issue a problem”
Agenda Setting
• Thomas Birkland defined agenda setting as the process by which
problems and alternative solutions gain or lose the public and elite
attention.
• Group competition to set the agenda is fierce because no society or
political institutions have the capacity to address all possible
alternatives to all possible problems that arise at any one time.
Definition of Agenda Setting
Policy Scholar
Definition
Sarah Madisson and Richard Dennis
Agenda setting is the process of transforming a private concern into a
policy issue, commanding the resources of the government and
becoming a part of the policy cycle.
James Hilgartner and Charles Bosk
Group competition to set the agenda is fierce because no society or
political institutions have the capacity to address all possible alternatives
to all possible problems that arise at any one time.
Barbara Nelson
Is the course by which issues are adopted for public consideration and
perhaps remedy
Roger Cobb, Jennie Keith-Ross, Marc
Howard Ross
Refers to the process by which demands of various groups in the
population are translated into items vying for the serious attention of
public officials.
Meaning Policy Agenda
Policy Scholar
Definiton of Policy Agenda
Laurence O’Toole
described policy agenda as the list of issues for public
consideration at a particular time. Thus, policy agenda
are limited by calendars, politics, and the time and
attention of policymakers, and that can change over
time.
Kindom
The list of subjects or problems to which governmental
officials and people outside of government closely
associated with those officials are paying some serious
attention at any given time.
Types of Policy Agenda
Policy Scholar
Definition
James Anderson
Systemic agenda-is technically a discussion agenda which is made uo of issues that are wide-ranging
or abstract. This must be converted into institutional agenda for it to be considered by different
policymakers.
Institutional Agenda-composed of those issues which require immediate attention of the
government includes sensitive issues to which policymakers may feel obliged to respond without
the need to compel them.
Susan Buck
Systemic agenda- is composed of those issues which the political community thinks should be the
subject of government intervention.
Institutional agenda- is more specific, concrete and limited. It is concrete in a sense that the issue is
framed accordingly and is more precise that other general issues in the institutional level.
Thomas Birkland
Agenda Universe-contains all the ideas that could possibly be brought up and discussed in a society
or a political system
Systemic agenda- stage where issues are worthy of the attention of the policymakers and at the
same time are under legitimate jurisdiction of any governmental authority
Institutional agenda- which is composed of a number of issues which are likely to be discussed by
the government
Models of Agenda Setting in the Government
• Kingdon Model
• Baumagartner and Jones Model
• Anthony Downs Model
• Anderson model