Cardiovascular
Decreased cardiac output.
Increased heart rate, contractility, arterial
and venous vasoconstriction, and shunting
to vital organs.
SBP ≤ 90 mm Hg.
Prolonged capillary refil.
Neurological
Change in level of consciousness
Pulmonary
Due to cardiovascular changes, and thirdspacing of fluid, oxygen therapy may be
required.
Monitor for PE.
Limit myocardial oxygen demand.
Renal
Activation of the renin response, retention
of sodium and water.
Stimulation of the anterior pituitary and
adrenal glands with ATCH released to raise
blood sugar and release of catecholamines.
Urinary output diminished or absent
Haematological
Switch to anaerobic metabolism with
increased lactic acid production – elevated
serum lactate.
Base deficit.
Serum creatinine elevated.
Third-spacing of fluid.
Gastrointestinal
Increased oedema in the intestines,
Third-spacing of fluid.