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REF: IKED SROCC SERIAL 30/2021 COMPA
THE CONCEPT OF UAV INTEGRATION WITH EXISTING NETWORK CENTRIC
OPERATION (NCO) AND ELECTRONIC WARFARE (EW) PLATFORMS FOR
MILITARY OPERATIONS IN MALAYSIAN ARMED FORCES (MAF).
Reference:
A.
MAFJP 0.01 - Chapter 4 (Service Paper).
B.
Malaysian Armed Forces Joint Procedural (MAFJP 0.01) 2012.
C.
The Admin Instructions of Commandant Paper Writing for Signal Regiment Officer
Communication Course Serial 30/2020 on 09 Aug 21.
INTRODUCTION
1.
Geographically Malaysia is divided into two land masses by South China Sea (SCS),
with Peninsular Malaysia on the West while Sabah and Sarawak states in the East. Protecting
and defending the national interest has become the ultimate aim for Malaysia and this task
mainly carried out by Malaysian Armed Forces (MAF). Territorial incursion has been
identified as a new critical threat that could interface with national capacity development in the
long run. If the nation fails to address this threat accordingly, it will leave a catastrophic effect
on the Malaysian’s sovereignty and national interest (Gettinger, 2020).
2.
This geographical demarcation into two distinctive regions makes it rather unique as
well as challenging for the Malaysian Armed Forces (herein referred to as the MAF) to conduct
its operations efficiently and effectively. In order to achieve this, the MAF needs a robust,
secure and extensive defence capability that ultimately ensures ‘mission effectiveness’. To this
regard, the MAF has identified Network Centric Operations (NCO) as a critical element in the
MAF’s Joint Operational capability enhancement and a prime mover in the MAF capability
development efforts to reach beyond the boundaries of the land and maritime border (as well
as to survive outside these areas). In order to fully appreciate the importance of this NCO
‘Value Chain’, it is crucial to have a clear understanding of the operational battlespace, the
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strategic considerations influencing this domain and the threat assessments affecting the
country as a whole. Besides this, it also complements the way the MAF goes about carrying
out its business of war fighting. This section will also provide a brief introduction to all of these
elements.
3.
Presently, MAF is taking vigorous action monitoring our national border regardless on
land, sea and air. Due to vast coverage, the fastest way of providing Intelligence, Surveillance
and Reconnaissance (ISR) to those areas is by conducting maritime patrol from air using Royal
Malaysia Air Force (RMAF) existing platform. ISR is defined as all systems and personnel
which gain data from the enemy, terrain and environment by reconnaissance and surveillance
through visual, aural, electronic, photographic or other means and develop the intelligence that
is needed for the planning and conduct of operations (Malaysian Army Doctrine MD 3.0 TD
Operations (Provisional), 2005).
4.
Therefore, to minimize the capability gap, MAF should be eyeing for a high impact,
low risk to human, low cost and long endurance ISR platform as the solution. The UAV is an
acronym for Unmanned Aerial Vehicle also known as UAV, which is an aircraft with no pilot
on board had been used by the military since the World War I (Elizabeth, 2018). UAV is an
important part of the Unmanned Aerial System which incorporates UAV, contact link and
ground control stations. The emergence of technology not only removed the limits of UAV
activities in the military but widened their wings in industrial uses related to agriculture,
scientific activities, social activity, servile, delivery of goods, image recognition and much
more (Singhal et al., 2018)
5.
Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) are used for both defensive and offensive purposes.
Different sizes and capabilities of UAV support a variety of different applications. Improved
networking capabilities have enlarged the boundaries of UAV operations. We know that it is
cheaper and less dangerous to use UAV in many missions formerly reserved for manned
aircraft.
6.
EW is the use of the Electromagnetic Spectrum (EMS) to deny the use of this medium
by an enemy, while optimizing its use by friendly forces. It can be also defined as a military
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action whose objective is control of the EMS. The three main subdivisions are Electronic
Attack (EA), Electronic Protection (EP) and Electronic Warfare Support (ES).
Figure 1: Operational Concept for UAV
7.
The NCO environment exhibits merging points between UAV and EW, and using this
relationship we can improve the effectiveness of both. Employment of UAV for EW is not
new, and in fact is becoming more common.
AIM
8.
The aim of this paper is to study the concept of UAV integration with existing NCO
and electronic warfare EW platforms for military operations in MAF.
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SIGNIFICANT OF STUDY
9.
This study enhances to study on the concept how to integration UAV with existing
NCO and electronic warfare EW platforms for military operations in MAF. The Final outcome
would contribute a precise study is to identify the concepts for employment of UAV for
Electronic Warfare and examines how they have changed, and will continue to change
strategies and combat tactics.
SCOPE
10.
This study will examine the application on the importance role of UAVs in MAF. It
will also highlight how UAV implementation in ISR may increase the effectiveness of MAF
operation. The scope of this paper as follows
a. History of UAV.
b. History of NCO.
c. History of EW.
d. UAV Categories.
e. UAV classification on defence strategies.
f. Concept of UAV IN MAF.
g. Integration concept of NCO and EW with UAV.
h. Discussion and Analysis.
i. Conclusion.
j. Recommendation.
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LITERATURE REVIEW
HISTORY OF UAV
11.
The idea of using an unmanned aircraft against enemies has been in the mind of humans
since long before the Wright brothers invented the airplane. This concept is present in ancient
history. Winged weapons being used by gods to gain an advantage over their enemies were
illustrated in Chinese writings, which mention a warlord using large kites to carry explosives
over the walls of a city and fortress nearly 2,000 years ago. This allowed him to attack his
enemy while keeping his own troops out of range.
12.
An aerial balloon that would use a time delay to float over enemies and launch rockets
down on top of them was designed by a French scholar in 1818. An aerial photography system
hanging from a large kite was experimented with by U.S. Army researchers as early as the
1890s during the Spanish American War. William Eddy took hundreds of photographs from
kites, which may have been one of the first uses of UAV in combat.
13.
In the following discussion of the historical development of unmanned aerial systems,
I will periodically refer to the progress made in these three areas. Where numerous similar
systems were being developed at the same time, I will describe how we reached the current
level of UAS technology.
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Figure 2: Artistic Depiction of The Aerial Bombardment of Venice in 1849. Artwork
from Aerostation - Aviation (1911) by Max de Nansouty (Cyprian Aleksander, 2018).
14.
The issue of UAV for MAF has been discussed and demonstrated since 2013. Due to
enhance the role and task of Battalion 165 Army Intelligent, assets procurement of UAV has
been discussed to improve the air intelligent for this unit. UAV assets procurement was in line
with current and future technology development. On 27 September 2013, UAV demonstration
conducted to test and adapt to the needs of Battalion 165 Army Intelligent operation (Jubli
Emas KRD Ke-50, 2020).
15.
History establishment of MAF UAV Squadron start on 15 November 2015 with
formation of the nucleus team that consist of 5 officers and 8 other rank from Army and Air
Force lead by Leftenan Kolonel Abdul Razak bin Sipit. UAV team organic to GEOINT Branch
for admin and operation (Jubli Emas KRD Ke-50, 2020).
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Figure 3: UAV Demonstration at 165 Battalion Army Intelligent (Jubli Emas KRD
Ke-50, 2020).
16.
UAV is a key component in MAF planning for transformation of the military. UAV
mainly focuses on ISR mission, Battlefield Damage Assessment (BDA), Boarder Maritime and
Coastal Monitoring, Aerial Mapping, Search and Rescue (SAR), Target Acquisition and assist
in Humanitarian Assistance and Disaster (HADR) missions (Airspace, 2008).
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17.
UAVs are important for the MAF as they provide a cost effective platform to conduct
surveillance operations. Malaysian development of UAVs over the past decade has been
dominated by two companies, Unmanned Systems Technology Sdn. Bhd. (UST), a subsidiary
of Composites Technology Research Malaysia Sdn. Bhd. (CTRM), and Sapura (Defence
Review Asia, 2009).
18.
UST’s Aludra Mk2 is currently being tested by the MAF as part of the Ops Pasir
surveillance operation off the resort islands of Pandanan and Sipadan,. As it is still being tested,
the government has no intention to procure it yet. An alternative version of the Aludra Mk2 is
currently being developed for deployment from ship decks. UST has also developed a handheld
UAV, known as the Aludra SR-08, for in FIEeld deployment.
19.
SCS, in collaboration with USM and Dian Kreatif Sdn. Bhd., developed the Nyamok
UAV, one of the ¿ rst Malaysan UAVs. SCS has also a produced a handheld UAV, known as
Agas. Despite its relatively short endurance time (30 minutes), it was reported that the Agas
UAV was being considered for as a surveillance & reconnaissance tool for the Ops Fajar
operation in the Gulf of Aden, in addition to the Fennec and Super Lynx helicopters. This was
due to the fact that the Agas UAV is easy and quick to launch, by hand or using a bungee.
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Name: Aludra Mk2
Altitude: 3,700 m
Endurance: 6 hours
Range: 150 km
Name: Yabhon Aludra
Altitude: 4,500 m
Endurance: 30 hours
Range: 500 km
Name: Aludra SR-08
Altitude: 4,000m
Endurance: 100 minutes
Range: 15 km
Name: Cyber Eye II
Altitude: 4,000 m
Endurance: 10 hours
Range: 150 km
Name: Agas
Altitude: 900 m
Endurance: 30 minutes
Range: 5 km
Name: Cyber Quad
Altitude: 1,000 m
Endurance: 40 minutes
Range: 1 km
Figure 4: Malaysian made UAVs. (Adapted from Military Photos (2009))
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HISTORY OF NCO
20.
Network centric warfare can trace its immediate origins to 1996 when Admiral William
Owens introduced the concept of a 'system of systems' in a paper published by the Institute for
National Security Studies. Owens described the serendipitous evolution of a system of
intelligence sensors, command and control systems, and precision weapons that enabled
enhanced situational awareness, rapid target assessment, and distributed weapon assignment.
In 1996, the Joint Chiefs of Staff released Joint Vision 2010, which introduced the military
concept of full-spectrum dominance. Full Spectrum Dominance described the ability of the US
military to dominate the battlespace from peace operations through to the outright application
of military power that stemmed from the advantages of information superiority.
21.
The development and application of information technology has greatly changed the
pattern and rhythm of human life, especially from the industrial age to information. Therefore,
the effort to dominate information is very critical in the effort to maintain state sovereignty.
This includes information at the strategic, operational and tactical levels. The use of ICT has
become a must to ensure the mastery of information at every level. With the superiority of
information, the ability to defend the country can be doubled and the ability of mush can be
easily weakened. This effort involves infrastructure construction and related application
development. Efforts to complement the requirements of Network Centric Operations (NCOs)
that have comprehensive collection and analysis applications should be given priority to enable
every element of defence in a network of unlimited communication systems. It was followed
by the development of a database centralized regulated by each agency involved in defending
national sovereignty. This infrastructure should be shared with the NCO.
22.
The MAF NCO is a concept which utilizes the application of ICT in the Information
Age to speed up communications and increase situational awareness through networking, thus
improving both the efficiency and effectiveness of MAF operations. This acquired capability
allows the MAF combat units to be smaller in size, able to operate more independently and
effectively, and undertake a different range of missions compared to non-networked forces. In
the MAF NCO environment, data from networked sensors will be processed into information.
It is intended to increase collaboration through enabling the free flow of information across the
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battlespace so that acquired data is shared, processed into information and then provided
quickly to the personnel or system that requires it. The EJTF of the MAF is the premier
organization that has been designed, organized and structured to meet the requirements of this
NCO ‘Blueprint’.
Figure 5: The implementation of NCO can allow for integrated communications and
information sharing between various military assets, for air, sea and land, which employ
varying communications platforms and protocols.
23.
The program involves integration with the MAF’s existing systems and assets, and
enhances platform capabilities in addressing both traditional and non-traditional threats. It is
also an MAF capacity development plan to provide more credibility to the armed forces and
versatility to carry out their roles and responsibilities to meet the challenges of the changing
geostrategic security environment, technological innovations and the concept of the operation
of the present and future military organization.
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24.
A significant part of the implementation of 4D MAF plan involves the development of
the MAF’s C4ISR capabilities. At present, existing C4ISR capabilities are adequate for the
MAF to conduct its operations. However, the MAF is in the process of embracing the concept
of network centric operations (NCO) (also commonly known as network centric warfare
(NCW)) to improve its C4ISR capabilities into a more effective war fighting capability.
25.
NCO allows for a robustly networked force to share information by means of secure
infrastructure that enables self-synchronization and, ultimately, more effective military. The
implementation of NCO is based on four tenets: a robustly networked force improves
information sharing; information sharing enhances the quality
of information and shared
situational awareness; shared situational awareness enables collaboration and selfsynchronization, and enhances sustainability and speed of command; and these, in turn,
dramatically increase mission effectiveness.
HISTORY OF EW
26.
Contrary to common perceptions, the history of EW actually begins earlier than the
Second World War. In fact, we can see the use of electronic warfare as early as 1861 in the
U.S. Civil War. After the invention of the telegraph by Samuel F.B. Morse in 1837, telegraphy
became the primary means of communication; overland cables became widespread. With the
coming of the Civil War in 1861, therefore, telegraph wires became one of the most important
targets for cavalry. Because Union forces used the telegraph extensively, they had more
problems with these cavalry raids than the Confederate forces. Confederate cavalry switched
military telegraph traffic to the wrong destinations, transmitted false orders to Union
commanders, and cut the wires to deny information to Union forces. The cavalry of both sides
tried to disrupt the other side’s ability to employ effective communication. These tactics are
the first examples of signals intelligence, jamming, and deception.
27.
EW is one of the elements of warfare whose main objective is the domination of the
use of the EMS by one's own team and allies while hindering the effectiveness of its use by the
enemy. The use of spectrum is increasing with the increasing level of microwave electronic
technology and computerized data processing technology, especially in terms of its use in the
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military field. These developments have made ATM aware of the importance of the role of EW
in conventional warfare in modern times. Therefore, ATMs need to take steps to enhance EW
capabilities.
28.
Military operations are executed in an information environment increasingly
complicated by the electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum portion of the
information environment is referred to as the electromagnetic environment (EME). The
recognized need for military forces to have unimpeded access to and use of the electromagnetic
environment creates vulnerabilities and opportunities for electronic warfare in support of
military operations. Within the information operations construct, EW is an element of
information warfare; more specifically, it is an element of offensive and defensive counter
information.
29.
NATO has a different and arguably more encompassing and comprehensive approach
to EW. A military committee conceptual document from 2007 (MCM_0142 Nov 2007 Military
Committee Transformation Concept for Future NATO Electronic Warfare) recognised the
EME as an operational manoeuvre space and war fighting environment/domain. In NATO, EW
is considered to be warfare in the EME. NATO has adopted simplified language which parallels
those used in the other war fighting environments like maritime, land and air/space.
Primary EW activities have been developed over time to exploit the opportunities and
vulnerabilities that are inherent in the physics of EM energy. Activities used in EW include:
electro-optical, infrared and radio
deception; radio
jamming, radar
frequency countermeasures;
jamming
and
EM
compatibility
deception and electronic
and
counter-
countermeasures (or anti-jamming); electronic masking, probing, reconnaissance, and
intelligence; electronic security; EW reprogramming; emission control; spectrum management;
and wartime reserve modes.
30.
On the 15 July, 14 Malaysian personnel, from the Airforce, Army and Navy and
industry graduated from the AMS Dundridge College. Since February they have received a full
range of EW courses and completed their training by undergoing the Instructional Techniques
course which will give them the necessary skills to teach their new-found knowledge to other
students in Malaysia. The school will be fitted with state-of-the-art laboratories and classrooms
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for teaching a wide range of EW operations and procedures. The laboratories will be furnished
with an extensive equipment suite including the AMS Elusion EW Trainer, a radar simulator
and a communications trainer. All classrooms will be networked and Dundridge College will
provide courseware and lesson material.
31.
MAF keep a veil of secrecy over the EW unit and its equipment and its strenght are
unknown. Although it is rumoured that already MAF have 2 units of Fuchs (Fox) electronic
warfare (EW) vehicles and three mobile analysis containers. Allegedly MAF EW force will
use the vehicles' sensor stations locate electromagnetic signals. They will also be able to
quickly decode intercepted messages and send them to the containers for analysis by signals
specialists before being sent to higher command levels.
UAV CATEGORIES
32.
UAV generally is a powered vehicle that does not carry a human operator, can be
operated autonomously or remotely, can be expendable or recoverable, and can carry a lethal
or nonlethal payload. Ballistic or emiballistic vehicles, cruise missiles, artillery projectiles,
torpedoes, mines, satellites, and unattended sensors (with no form of propulsion) are not
considered unmanned vehicles. Unmanned vehicles are the primary component of unmanned
systems.
33.
UAVs were originally developed through the twentieth century for military missions
too "dull, dirty or dangerous for humans, and by the twenty-first they had become essential
assets to most militaries. As control technologies improved and costs fell, their use expanded
to
many
non-military
deliveries, agriculture,
applications.
policing
and
These
include aerial
surveillance,
photography, product
infrastructure
inspections,
science, smuggling, and drone racing.
34.
UAVs use a radio for control and exchange of video and other data. Early UAVs had
only narrowband uplink. Downlinks came later. These bi-directional narrowband radio links
carried command and control (C&C) and telemetry data about the status of aircraft systems to
the remote operator.
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35.
In most modern UAV applications, video transmission is required. So instead of having
separate links for C&C, telemetry and video traffic, a broadband link is used to carry all types
of data. These broadband links can leverage quality of service techniques and carry TCP/IP
traffic that can be routed over the Internet.
Table 1: Representative Classification Matrix of UAV.
36.
UAV categories are imperative for segregation of the roles and UAV acquisition
program to ensure standardization for UAV types across throughout MAF. Categories can
improve MAF operational training and command and control by providing a common reference
for grouping UAV. UAV group in a number of ways based on vehicle features such as aircraft
type (fixed wing or rotorcraft), flight altitude (high, medium, low), weight and speed.
Essentially larger plane use larger engines that offer higher speed, greater endurance and higher
payload power than smaller vehicles. Maintenance and operation cost, and therefore research
budgets often scale with size. The grouping methodology like assets serves to assist MAF and
civil authorities define standard such for machinery, airworthiness and skills development. A
representative classification matrix as per shown in Table 1.
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Figure 6: UAV Classification
UAV CLASSIFICATION ON DEFENSE STRATEGIES
37.
UCAV stands for unmanned combat aerial vehicles. This category contains aircraft that
are highly maneuverable and are able to engage in air to air combat and also provide precision
weapon delivery to surface targets, see Figure 6.
Figure 7: UCAV – MQ1 B Predator
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38.
UAV are one of the biggest threats that war fighters face. They can be flown manually,
but these days, many are flown by a remote operator, or even autonomously by onboard
computers. UAV also include an operator or computer and a communication system that allows
the two pieces to work together. The wide variety of UAVs can be classified accordingly based
on role, range, weight, endurance, maximum altitude, wing loading and engine type. It can be
categorized for better defence strategies:
a.
Information
(ISTAR).
Surveillance Target Acquisition
and
Reconnaissance
ISTAR stands for information, surveillance, target acquisition, and
reconnaissance. ISTAR is a practice that links sensors functions together in order to
enhance battlefield functions in order to assist the combat force and manage the
information collected. UAVs enhance the ISTAR scheme through IMINT, which
provide comprehensive display of the battlefield. UAVs have proved their importance
in ISTAR system in all the modern wars. The UAVs have reduced significantly the
risks of collecting imagery from the battlefield, excluding the human pilot from the
equation.
b.
Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle (UCAV). An unmanned combat aerial
vehicle is an UAV equipped for striking targets. It was develop in order to reduce the
risk of the human pilots being behind enemy lines. The combat UAVs are capable of
neutralizing targets deep in the battlefield with extreme precision and minimal collateral
damage. Combat UAVs have been successfully used in battle in Afghanistan, Pakistan,
Yemen and many other battlefields. It has proved efficient and precise and the use of
combat UAVs it’s widespread along modern operational environments.
c.
Multi-Purpose UAV. Multi-purpose UAVs are a combination of ISTAR and
Combat UAVs. The complexity of the system is an engineering challenge that was
launched in 2002 by the US army. The challenge was to equip the aircraft with a high
sensitivity imagery sensor and to make it capable of carrying a large amount of
ammunition. General Atomics Aeronautical Systems has answered the challenge with
MQ-1C Gray Eagle.
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d.
Radar and Communication Relay. UAVs are essentially an aerodynamic
balloon filled with helium and air and are used for low-level surveillance system that
uses aerostats as radar platforms, provide low-level trafficking or also provide
television and radio signals.
e.
Aerial Delivery and Resupply. The UAV in aerial/supply delivery category
are manufactured for pin-point transmission of small cargo items such as ammunition
and food supplies to Special Forces. The only UAV in this category is the CQ-10 Snow
Goose.
CONCEPT OF UAV IN MAF
39.
The technology that is being incorporated into the UAV systems is continually
advancing. State-of-the-art technologies such as Synthetic Aperture Radars, increasingly
capable microprocessors, increased datalink rates, radar-absorbing materials, the use of high
bandwidth communications, and SATCOM equipped navigation systems, are being integrated
onto the platforms making them a key asset to militaries worldwide. Another key reason for
UAV mission success is the UAVs’ low flying altitude and slow speed that makes them
difficult for traditional enemy sensors to detect or recognize. UAVs may not be limited to the
operating restrictions placed on manned aircraft – they have been sent on missions over enemy
territory, against sophisticated integrated air defence systems – missions that would have to be
thought twice about for manned aircraft due to cost or liability. With UAV operations, loss of
human life is not a consideration making the decision to perform a high-risk mission easier.
40.
The Malaysian Armed Forces (MAF) is in the process of embarking to implement the
Fourth Dimension MAF (4D MAF) capability plan in order to be able to meet modern security
challenges. The 4D plan is aimed at transforming the MAF into a fully integrated and balanced
force, giving emphasis on jointness and interoperability among the triservices; the Malaysian
Army, the Royal Malaysian Navy (RMN) and the Royal Malaysian Air Force (RMAF). This
will ensure that the MAF has the necessary assets, resources and capabilities to defend the
nation and its strategic interests against external aggressions, and to support civil authorities in
maintaining internal security.
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41.
The primary role of the UAV is to conduct ISR mission which can produce consistent,
relevant and timely intelligence to higher commander. Therefore, in the joint operation
environment, the UAV is capable of supporting and providing a valuable contribution at all
levels of ISR operation:
a.
Strategic Level. Provide intelligence required by senior government and
military leader to formulate national strategy, policy and plans. UAV is capable of
providing precise, timely and predictive intelligence to enable decision makers to take
appropriate action before crisis occur or unfold.
b.
Operational Level. Produce intelligence important to implement and planning
theatre wide operation to fulfil the commander intent. Intelligence analysis helps to
detect or discover, identify, locate and describe the vulnerable, vital elements of an
adversary’s physical and virtual structure.
c.
Tactical Level. The tactical UAVs are specially designed to be used in the
organic battalion level or in Special Forces. These UAVs are great assets for purposes
of medium range surveillance. They have a vital role in filling the gap between the
range of functions of the short-range micro-UAVs and the strategic UAVS, which
comprise of the MALE and HALE. These drones achieve this by having a combination
of flexibility, endurance as well as ruggedness. Basically, they are a good middle
ground between small drones and strategic drones.
42.
The Mission Commander is responsible for the safety of the UA, whether AV is in the
air or on the ground from the time he accepts the UAV until such time that the flight or series
of flights are completed and the UAV has been secured. PIC who is not flying as Mission
Commander is responsible to assist the Mission Commander in the safe operation of the UAV.
The degree of responsibility given to a second pilot will vary according to the UAV type and
the qualification of the second pilot. Normally, the second pilot is responsible to the Mission
Commander for the safe navigation of the UAV, and it is his duty to inform the Mission
Commander whenever he considers that the safe navigation of the UAV is being jeopardised.
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43.
UAV deemed to be crucial in fulfilling its duties as a tool for intelligence gathering.
Intelligence is an exhaustive process in which required high degree of information’s accuracy
and the ability to disseminate the information in the fastest manner.
Figure 8: UAVs Concept (I. Ibrahim, 2019).)
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INTEGRATION CONCEPT OF NCO AND EW WITH UAV
44.
In the previous chapters, I gave general information about EW and UAV, and also
discussed the historical perspective in both areas. It is clear that UAV have been used in the
battle area for electronic warfare purposes since the Vietnam War. With improving technology,
UAV become more involved in the EW arena. EW systems have become a vital aspect of
modern combat, leveraged by another recent newcomer to the battlefield, advanced Remotely
Piloted Vehicles (RPV) and drones. RPV and drones can employ a variety of electronic
countermeasures, in addition to implementing their own jamming, intercept, and other SIGINT
attacks.
45.
The operational concept of NCO was initially developed for military operations, it has
been, directly and indirectly, employed in various commercial areas with great success, such
as banking, public transportation coordination and commercial fight ticket booking. The
military implementation of NCO can allow for integrated communications and information
sharing between various military assets, for air, sea and land, which employ varying
communications platforms and protocols (Figure 1). This will enable effective command and
control of all assets, ranging from individual troops and units to the division, battle¿ eld and
theatre levels.
46.
Developing Drone and RPV systems are extremely complex, especially in a
government and military context, due to the complexity of the development stages, and systems
integration complexity. Project management and technical challenges present themselves in
terms of resource management, power management, security, communications, and other
challenges related to testing, simulation, and regulatory compliance.
47.
A typical platform consists of systems involving control, monitoring, and data
processing, as well as the physical parts of the take-off and landing system. Beyond creation
issues, factors that affect the maintenance performed on RPV and drones include the repair of
defects incorporated in the software during the development process or because of changes in
the agreed-upon requirements, or a desire to improve performance.
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48.
There are also many things to consider when developing electronic warfare solutions
to put into these platforms. Modern radio intercept involves real-time spectrum analysis, to see
and evaluate everything that’s out there, with the ability to navigate complex and crowded RF
environments. Modern countermeasures not only require agile RF systems, but also advanced
software suites to perform the actual work involved.
49.
Payloads are the determining factor for the role of UAV on the battlefield. With recent
developments, EW payloads are getting smaller so that they can be inserted in mini or even
micro UAS. This has a major effect on the planning process for UAV employment. We can
classify five general payload types that account for the majority of current and projected UAV
applications: information collection (sensing), communications support, navigation support,
weapons delivery and electronic warfare. While the first three are used for both military and
civilian applications, the last two are limited mainly to military purposes.
GENERALIZED UAV AVIONICS ARCHITECTURE
50.
In Figure 9, the elements of a modern UAV avionics suite are shown, deliberately
drawn to emphasize similarity to the modular, integrated avionics of complex manned aircraft.
Only the most advanced multifunction UAV will incorporate all of these avionics elements as
depicted. “The basic features of modular fault tolerant hardware, high capacity fiber optic
interconnects, and shared high performance digital signal and data processing are
characteristics of any design that seeks to take maximum advantage of available technology to
achieve high performance, reliability, and affordability.”
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Figure 9: Generalized UAV Avionics Architecture
a.
Radio Frequency (RF) Payload Apertures. Radar, spectral surveillance
functions that include RF radiometry and signal monitoring, and specialized apertures
such as interferometers that are used in order to make an accurate determination of the
direction of the coming signal use payload antennas. Broadband data links for
SATCOM, line of sight (LOS) or relayed data communications required by the payload
are also found in this area.
b.
RF Support Electronics. This is associated transmit and receive electronics,
communicating via a high speed digital typically fiber optic network. These are placed
behind the antennas.
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c.
Vehicle Management. Highly reliable flight, propulsion, and utility controls
with the capacity to execute sophisticated adaptive control. Signals from flight data
sensors are also processed here.
d.
Navigation. Used for obtaining vehicle position. Accuracy of this application
is vital. One highly accurate and popular solution is an Inertial Navigation Unit (INU)
integrated with a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver.
e.
EO/IR Apertures. Sensors like optical or IR cameras, multi- or hyper-spectral
sensors, and active devices.
f.
EO/IR Support Electronics. Signal conditioning, preprocessing, and analog-
to digital conversion support The EO/IR apertures.
Figure 10: UAV wave data communication concept
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Figure 11: UAV satellite data communication concept
51.
The main focus of this chapter is the EW and EW related payloads. UAS can contribute
in all aspects of Electronic Warfare, from jamming and Suppression of Enemy Air Defence
(SEAD) to Electronic Warfare Support (ES), and Signals Intelligence (SIGINT). The inherent
range advantages enjoyed by EW/ES payloads make them the natural sensor of choice for
cross-cueing payloads with shorter ranges and/or more restricted fields of view such as SAR
or EO/IR sensors. EW fits for UAS can also include SIGINT payloads, or defensive sensors
that can perform a SIGINT role. For example, a radar warning receiver (RWR) can be a source
of vital information, particularly when related to imagery information to form a more complete
or accurate situational awareness picture or when updating the electronic order of battle. The
key is the integration of the inputs from all of the vehicle's sensors, or in the case of smaller
more distributed systems that use a heterogeneous mix of sensors, all of the sensors on all of
the vehicles.
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ELECTRONIC WARFARE SUPPORT (ES) AND SIGINT PAYLOADS
52.
ES and SIGINT sensors can supply very valuable information, especially when this
information is a part of or related to imagery information used for forming a trustworthy
situational awareness picture or for updating the electronic order of battle. Integration of the
inputs from all of the sensors is the key to success. Furthermore, these sensors require less
power because they do not transmit, but just receive and process signals. ES payloads are
appropriate considering the constraints of mini UAV.
53.
Studies, research and flight demonstrations prove that UVA can be utilized successfully
for EW and SIGINT missions. “SIGINT sensors, for example, could be used to cue other
sensors on a UAV, and they offered much longer detection ranges than EO/IR and SAR
sensors.” UAV are an ideal platform for carrying EA payloads. The UAV can approach closer
to the target emitters compared with aircraft because of their smaller RCS; therefore they need
less power for effective jamming.
54.
UAV can play a very important role in the prosecution of EW campaigns. In this case
EW has a vital role in the protection of UAS. To exploit this relationship, small sized but
effective EW equipment is needed. For example, a communications jammer or an electronic
surveillance (ES) receiver can be used as the main payload. A RWR can be used as a UAV
payload for threat warning.
55.
There is a great variety of payloads that can be used on UAV. Communications and
electronic intelligence payloads; communications and radar jammers; electro-optic, infra-red,
and MAW sensors; MTI and SAR radars; BDA sensors; communications relays; EW selfprotection suites; chemical, biological, and nuclear detectors; target designators; and “horizon
extenders” are some of the payloads that can be mounted on UAV for EW purposes
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Figure 12: Geolocation error ellipses for 0.5 deg. rms DF sensors onboard 2 platforms
with stand-off range of 100km. AOI (100km x 100km) is bounded by blue line.
Figure 13: Geolocation error ellipses for 5 deg. rms DF sensors onboard 8 platforms
with stand-in capability. AOI (100km x 100km) is bounded by blue line.
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MERGING CONCEPT UAV WTH MAF EQUIPMENT
56.
UAV and unmanned vehicle SATCOM is primarily used for providing BVLOS
(beyond visual line of sight) capabilities. Standard line-of-sight datalinks will be rendered
unworkable at great distances due to the curvature of the earth, and drones may also fly out of
range of ground networks such as 4G and other cellular services. A satellite can be used to
relay and amplify radio or microwave frequency signals between the vehicle and its base
station.
57.
SATCOM satellites are usually in geostationary orbit, where they appear at a constant
position in the sky, or in Low Earth Orbit (LEO), where they appear to move. LEO satellites
are at a lower altitude than geostationary satellites, meaning that they will provide less latency,
but geostationary satellites have the advantage of not needing to be tracked.
Figure 13: UAV network and connectivity architecture in MAF
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58.
Satellite communications are split into different frequency bands. In increasing order
of frequency and decreasing order of wavelength, these are L-band, S-band, C-band, X-band,
Ku-band and Ka-band. Higher frequency bands usually provide greater bandwidth, but are also
more susceptible to signal degradation due to signals being absorbed by atmospheric rain, snow
or ice. X-band is typically used by the military as a compromise between these two factors.
DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS
59.
This section will discuss and analyse on the UAV development. It will discuss about
the factors that influence the importance of UAV to integrate with NCO and EW in MAF
operation, challenges of UAV and how UAV may contribute in overcoming the problems
60.
In any military operation, precise battlefield intelligence is important to know the
enemy weaknesses at every level of command. This UAV is required to obtain real time and
accurate intelligence information especially in area of operation and hostile territories that are
difficult to be accessed by troops on the ground. The real time information provided by the
UAV is essential for the commander to plan and execute mission effectively, day and night
operations. (Akcesme, 2014).
ELECTRONIC WARFARE CONSIDERATIONS
61.
There are also many things to consider when developing electronic warfare solutions
to put into these platforms. Modern radio intercept involves real-time spectrum analysis, to see
and evaluate everything that’s out there, with the ability to navigate complex and crowded RF
environments. Modern countermeasures not only require agile RF systems, but also advanced
software suites to perform the actual work involved.
a.
Electromagnetic Jamming. Jamming payloads for UAS are being produced
and integrated into a variety of UAS. Stand-in capability by UAS should be considered
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as a very important advantage. The closer the point of transmission, the less power
required. Getting closer to the target will provide a more effective capability using the
same amount of power. All kinds of jamming tactics can be used, depending on the size
of the payload. Range gate pull-off velocity gate pull-off, and multiple false targets are
some of the techniques that can be offered.
Another possible EA payload might be a GPS jammer. Jamming adversary GPS
systems would help protect high value targets. Considering that most of the new
technology weapon systems use GPS as the primary guidance system, deceiving them
can prevent friendly force losses.
b.
Electromagnetic Deception. While attacking a target, deploying decoys is a
way of using deception. Another technique would be sending decoys prior to the real
attack force, as was done during Bekaa Valley, Operation Desert Storm and Operation
Iraqi Freedom. While the adversary is reloading weapons, a very well-planned attack
would bring victory with no or little loss of friendly forces.
Repeaters can be used as a means of EA. They can provide a target of selectable
RCS to validate the masking performance of the jammer against a number of radars.
With the false target indication on the radar, other more important assets can be
protected.
c. Directed Energy. Today, there are ongoing research and test programs concerning
Directed Energy Weapons (DEW). The latest known development is mounting a DEW
on a C-130H aircraft. The directed-energy weapon is designed to fire through a rotating
belly turret in the aircraft, known as the Advanced Tactical Laser (ATL).
d. Anti-Radiation Missiles. SEAD has already been conducted by UAV. For more
effective SEAD missions, miniaturization of the weapons with the necessary
destructive power, so that they fit onto the UAV, is a vital need. For example, the
HARM missile, which can be deployed from a Predator B, may change the total concept
of SEAD operations in the future.
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e. Expendables (Flares and Active Decoys). Even though there is no known application
of UAS carrying chaff or flares, or being used as an active decoy, it seems possible. In
particular, using UAS as an active decoy is very possible to provide protection for slow
flying aircraft.
This section will discuss and analyze on the UAV development. It will discuss about the
factors that influence the importance of UAV in MAF operation, challenges of UAV and how
UAV may contribute in overcoming the problems
22. In any military operation, precise battlefield intelligence is important to the know the
enemy weaknesses at every level of command. This UAV is required to obtain real time and
accurate intelligence information especially in area of operation and hostile territories that are
difficult to be accessed by troops on the ground. The real time information provided by the
UAS
is essential for the commander to plan and execute mission effectively, day and night
operations.
(Akcesme, 2014).
23. In order to make the UAV operational success, there are several factor that need to be
consider:
a. Airspace Management. UAV operate in both national and international airspace
would be under full military control either under military or civilian control airspace. A
well coordinated management by Joint Airspace Management and Coordination Centre
(JAMCC) and RMAF Operation Centre is required prior to any UAV mission. The
airspace management remains one of the top factor impacting the UAV integration with
other airspace users. In peace time, mission planner must consider airspace management
conflicts. Therefore, for UAV operation in Malaysian Airspace, JAMCC will work in hand
with the RMAF Control Reporting Centre (CRC) and civilian aviation authority to record,
coordinate and allocate airspace segments and monitor any UAV flying activities.
b. Sector Covered by MAF Services. The roles are not limited but expected to grow
in the future. Hence, the operation must not limit the capability of UAV to a specific role
to support the multi-environment tasks.
(1) Army Roles. Malaysian Army primary Area of Operation (AO) is at core
area. The UAV is to produce tactical level imagery and intelligence to tactical and
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operational commanders in the land environment.
(2) Navy Roles. In naval application, the primary AO is off shore economic
interest and core area. The UAV can provide accurate intelligence information in
NRT to support the maritime operation and national territorial water.
(3) Air Force Roles. Air Force AO is entire Malaysia’s Strategic Area of
Interest including airspace, off shore and core area. The UAV should conduct
ISTAR role and capable of providing NRT data to commanders and intelligence
specialist at tactical, operational and strategic levels.
c. Airworthiness. UAVs operating in Malaysia must obey Department of Civil
Aviation, Malaysia (DCA) security and operational standards as those for airplane.
Airworthiness certification takes into the account system configuration, usage, vicinity and
the hardware and software on the entire system. Therefore, all UAV in MAF inventory
will be registered under “State Aircraft” meaning they are subjected to operate according
to existing Airworthiness Framework. Existing frameworks available are as follows:
(1) Registration. Class I(a) to I(c) UAV is exempted from Director General
of Technical Airworthiness (DGTA) registration, However, for class I(d), II and
III UAV, each airframe shall be registered separately.
(2) Operational Airworthiness. To ensure the safety and security of the
airspace in maintained through a careful and detail management of all the flying
craft in the airspace. The new UAV must be compliance with the operational
airworthiness framework, especially when flying in a multi platform environment.
(3) Technical Airworthiness. The UAV must be proven as fit to fly through
phases of inspection and receive a Certificate of Airworthiness from DGTA office,
which is the leading organization that monitors the standard of the flying aircraft.
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Figure 8: Audit to Maintain Continuing Airworthiness
d. Ground Crew Qualification. Malaysia took part in International Civil Aviation
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Organization (ICAO) since 1958 and needs to comply with Chicago Convention 1944.
Failure of the UAV can be fail if the operating staff lack of skill to the safety of the UAV
during the operation (SZABOLCSI, 2016). Control, Pilot Command, Pilot in Command
and second pilot must be certified to fly by Original Equipment Manufacture (OEM) and
meet the currency requirements (Interview with SO3 Land Operations, Malaysian Army
HQ dated 16 July 2020).
e. Data Management. Nowadays, the requirement of tactical UAS to gather real
time information is very critical. The UAS shall provide real time information gathering
capability over an area of interest such as Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). The UAS shall
be an autonomous system and shall capable of performing the following:
(1) Provide capability to detect, identify, monitor, observe and record events
or targets of interest for the purpose of analysis and action.
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(2) Provide targeting information of sufficient accuracy or timeliness to
adjust fires of artillery to at least accomplish second round fire-for-effect.
(3) Conduct Battle Damage Assessment (BDA).
(4) Perform coastal / maritime surveillance.
(5) Perform borders surveillance.
(6) Perform Search and Rescue / Combat Search and Rescue.
(7) Target detection, recognition and tracking of vehicles.
f. System Integration. The sensor images and data need to be received in real time
from the AV to the Global Control System (GCS). The data from imaging and nonimaging
sensor shall be collated and disseminated to relevant units or agencies. Modern
operations derive from the concept of networked force C2, as well as information and data
sharing in MAF operation, demand network-enable capabilities to achieve commanders’
desired effects. Therefore, the UAV should be able to communicate seamlessly with NCO
through Satellite Communication, X-Band/Internet Protocol Virtual Private Network
(IPVPN) and this data will be displayed into any NCO terminal at levels of command,
including the joint office.
g. Supportability. Each service is responsible to organize, train and equip assets and
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ready to perform single service function while at the same time able to fulfill the MAF
joint operation requirements. The elements of supportability that must be considered are:
(1) Engineering Support. Each service should have the capacity to perform
design integrity evaluation to produce a tolerable reliability, availability and
maintainability (RAM) concept of the UAV life cycle.
(2) Maintenance Support. UAV maintenance support should be able to
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support on base and off base maintenance. Work scope to be undertaken by service
in Organizational Level Maintenance (OLM), Intermediate Level Maintenance
(ILM) and Depot Level Maintenance (DLM) should give more advantages to UAV
in term of benefits and cost.
(3) Logistic Support. Logistic support requirement focus on the repairing
concept, which includes standard initial provisioning, refilling and maintenance
service for the assets. Sufficient equipment must be available to support the annual
UAV training and operational readiness requirement of each component unit and
its personnel.
(4) Training and Training Support. Specific mission essential task training,
meeting established standards is critical if personnel are to provide the capabilities
that support the commanders and set conditions for mission success. Training
should address joint operation and concept across all phases of joint campaign and
throughout the spectrum of service, joint, interagency and multinational operation.
Specific mission essential task training, meeting established standards is critical if
personnel are to provide the capabilities that support the commanders and set
conditions for mission success.
62.
Spectrum Monitoring over wide areas is one application for airborne RPVs and drones,
as such activities used to require arrays of soldier-maintained antenna networks deployed
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across the battlefield. Such systems are also useful in applications like radio direction finding,
providing map data for battlefield planners, in addition to direct data for counter-battery
artillery and airstrikes, sometimes also performed by drones.
63.
These platforms must not only determine spectrum occupancy, they must also perform
signal classification and often threat determination, capturing transient comms for deeper
analysis, replay, regeneration, recording RF signals of interest, and providing alarms and alerts
on signal detection. This requires the ability to determine signal characteristics, frequency
occupancy, modulation types, and other identifying aspects of the signal captured.
64.
One of the biggest challenges in developing any advanced autonomous system involves
sensor integration. Optical sensors can range from infrared to ultraviolet, and every wavelength
in-between. Wireless systems must cover significant portions of the radio spectrum, in both
active and passive modes, temperature, humidity, and pressure sensors provide environmental
data, and proximity, angle, motor encoder, and wheel-position sensors deliver critical
information to the vehicle itself for self-awareness, maintenance alerts, and navigation.
65.
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