What is Wine? Wine is an alcoholic beverage made with fermented grapes. Of course, you can ferment any fruit to make wine. But legally speaking, if it’s labeled “wine” then it must be made with grapes. Other fruit wines must append the fruit type to the label (e.g. “cranberry wine.”) Once a year, grapes are harvested to make wine. This is where we get the term “vintage.” Each vintage is characterized by unique growing conditions (rainfall, wind, frost, hail, fires, etc) that ultimately affect how the wine tastes. This is why you’ll find some vintages preferrable to 1 others. It’s useful to note that a single vintage can affect red and white wines somewhat differently. The grapes used for winemaking are not like the ones you’ll find in the grocery store. Wine grapes are smaller, sweeter, have thicker skins, and contains seeds. These attributes give wine its unique acquired taste. What’s surprising is most wine is made from grapes of a single species called Vitis vinifera. This species originated in the Caucasus Mountains of Eastern Europe. We’ve made wine with this species for about 10,000 years. 2 Today, there are about 1,400 grape cultivars used in commercial wine production. That said, only about 100 of these varieties make up 75% of the world’s vineyards. This means some wines you’ll discover are made with very rare wine grapes. With so many options out there, how do you hone in on your favorites? Well, as diverse as wine is, most wines can be categorized into 9 styles. 3 Once you try each of the 9 styles, you’ll have a pretty good idea of what you like and don’t like. Sparkling wines are characterized by carbonation caused from a second fermentation. This gives bubbly wines distinct yeasty and bready aromas. Sparkling wines come in all styles (white, rosé, and red) and sweetness levels. The label terms “Brut,” “Extra Brut,” and “Brut Nature” are the most dry (e.g. not sweet.) WHAT TO TRY CAVA CHAMPAGNE CRÉMANT CAP CLASSIQUE PROSECCO LAMBRUSCO 4 SEKT AMERICAN SPARKLERS Full-bodied white wines are great wines for red wine lovers because of their rich smooth taste and subtle creamy notes. What makes white wines so rich? Aging white wines in oak barrels causes several interactions to occur that increase body. So, be sure to look up the aging program to ensure the wine has had some barrel aging (usually from 6–12 months.) WHAT TO TRY CHARDONNAY VIOGNIER MARSANNE ROUSSANNE 5 GRENACHE BLANC SÉMILLON AGED RIOJA BLANCO Aromatic grapes include some of oldest wine varieties in the world. In fact, Cleopatra was noted to love of Muscat of Alexandria–a rich, aromatic sweet wine from Greece. Expect explosive, perfumed aromas that spring out of the glass. Aromatic whites are available in dry or sweet styles, but often taste a touch sweet because of their sweet aromas. WHAT TO TRY RIESLING TORRONTÉS 6 MOSCATO* MUSKATELLER* MOSCATEL* GEWÜRZTRAMINER MOSCHOFILERO Rosé is made by “dying” the wine for a short time with red grape skins. Rosé first became popular in the late 1700’s when French Bordeaux wines imported to England had a pale color and were called Claret. Nearly any red grape can be made into rosé. Also, it’s possible to blend in white wines to add acidity and complexity. The world’s largest rosé region is Provence, France WHAT TO TRY PROVENCE ROSÉ 7 SANGIOVESE ROSÉ GARNACHA ROSÉ PINOT NOIR ROSÉ SYRAH ROSÉ CABERNET FRANC ROSÉ BEAUJOLAIS ROSÉ WHITE ZINFANDEL (SWEET) Light-bodied red wines are typified by their translucent color, light tannin, increased acidity, and delicate, floralherbal aromas. Light-bodied red wines are very versatile food wines – they make a perfect match with poultry. This style is growing in popularity given that it pairs with a wide variety of cuisines. WHAT TO TRY 8 PINOT NOIR GAMAY BEAUJOLAIS* FRAPPATO CINSAULT NERELLO MASCALESE SCHIAVA ZWEIGELT LAMBRUSCO** *A French regional wine of 100% Gamay **Sparkling style Not too light nor too heavy, this is the “baby bear” red wine style. There are a wide array of choices (and thus, flavors) in this red wine category. 9 Tannin is moderate, and expect most to have slightly higher acidity. The aforementioned traits make for a wine that can pair with most foods (but avoid super delicate dishes.) Additionally, many of these wines have the structure to age well. WHAT TO TRY MERLOT GRENACHE SANGIOVESE TEMPRANILLO BARBERA CABERNET FRANC DOLCETTO CARMÉNÈRE BLAUFRÄNKISCH VALPOLICELLA BLENDS MENCÍA MONTEPULCIANO NEBBIOLO XINOMAVRO 10 ZINFANDEL Full-bodied red wines are the deepest, darkest, and highest in tannin of the red wines. Despite what you might have heard about it, tannin is what gives wine antioxidant properties. Additionally, it ensures many of these wines will age for decades. Bold red wine pairs well with fatty, umamidriven foods because of their high tannin. Truthfully though, you might want to ditch the food altogether – they drink well solo. WHAT TO TRY CABERNET SAUVIGNON SYRAH (AKA SHIRAZ) BORDEAUX BLEND MALBEC SYRAH 11 MONASTRELL NERO D’AVOLA PETITE SIRAH PINOTAGE SAGRANTINO TANNAT TOURIGA NACIONAL In the 1800’s, sweet wines were more popular than dry wines. In fact, several of the most exalted wines in the world, from Sauternes in Bordeaux to Tokaji Aszú from Hungary, will age just as long as bold red wines (or longer!) The dessert wine style is actually a catchall for some of the more rare wines of the world. Each is made with a unique method and range from dry to sweet. 12 WHAT TO TRY SHERRY PORT SAUTERNAIS ICE WINE MADIERA MARSALA MOSCATEL DE SETÚBAL VIN SANTO MUSCAT OF ALEXANDRIA The global, wine production statistics maintained by the International Organization of Vine and Wine (OIV). According to it, more than 267 13 million hectoliters (hl) of wine was produced worldwide in 2016. Italy is the world’s leading wine producer, with the United States coming in at number four. The list of top 10 countries in wine production and the volume of wine produced are as following: Italy: 50.9 ml France: 43.5 ml Spain: 39.3 ml United States: 23.9 ml Australia: 13 ml China: 11.4 ml South Africa: 10.5 ml Chile: 10.1 ml Argentina: 9.4 ml Germany: 9 ml History of Wine Production Vitis vinifera var. Sylvester’s consider as the wild ancestor of the wild grape found in Europe. It is a species native to the area lying between the Caspian Sea and the Mediterranean Sea in the Eurasian region. The discovery of this species in areas outside this natural area consider as evidence that it cultivated. The Unique Case of Chinese Wines The earliest evidence of wine production has been found in the Jehu region of China, dating back to the Neolithic era. The proof of wine production 14 involving fruit, honey, and rice dates back to around 7000 BC. The seeds of both grape and hawthorn have found at the site. Scripture-based evidence of the use of grapes has associated with the Zhou Dynasty, dating back to around 1046 BC. The unique thing about the earliest wine recipes in China is that the evidence doesn’t suggest any link to the European grape, but to native wild grape species. Interestingly, the region has had up to four dozens of wild grape species which not import from western Eurasia. The Eurasian grapes came to China only in the second century BC. The first evidence of wine production in Western Asia dates back to 5400 to 5000 BC Hajji Faro’s region in Iran. Types of Wines Two main types of wines are produced the world over – the white wine and the red wine, made from the white and black grapes. However, there are many sub-varieties of wines, made based on the sub-species of grape vines that grow in different regions. These include the following different wine types: Riesling (White Wine): This type of wine is produced from grape vines growing in the German area of Rhine and Mosel. The subvariety has also been imported to other parts of the world, including USA. It stands out for its balance of slight sweetness and firm acidity. Gewürztraminer (White Wine): This type of wine comes from grapevines growing in Alsace in Germany. It is also found in New 15 York and the West Coast (USA). It stands out for its excellent aroma which is a blend of rose petal, allspice, lychee and peach. Chardonnay (White Wine): This wine has been one of the most popular varieties that can be made in both still and sparkling varieties. It originates from the Burgundy region in France and can be found grown in other parts of the world too. It stands out for its deeper velvety and wider-bodied taste compared to other dry white wines. It has vibrant citrus flavors. Sauvignon Blanc (White Wine): This type of grape vine comes from the Bordeaux region in France, and mainly concentrated in the Loire Valley. It is also grown in New Zealand and Australia. Its taste has herbal character with suggestions to fresh mown grass or bell pepper and the flavor can include hints of sour green fruits such as pear, apple, gooseberry, mango, melon or blackcurrant. Syrah (Red Wine): This red wine variety comes from the Rhone Valley in France, but also grows in Australia and California. It stands out for its flavors and aromas of wild black-fruit with touches of black pepper spice. Merlot (Red Wine): It is a soft wine that is often the introductory redwine for new drinkers. It has herbal and black-cherry flavors and is a valuable addition to the Bordeaux blend. Cabernet sauvignon (Red Wine): this is considered as one of the best grape vine varieties in the world. It has its origins in France and can grow in many places. It is a full-bodied wine with notable bellpepper notes, but it changes its character with age. Pinot noir (Red Wine): This is among the rarest red wine grapes due to its peculiar characteristics. It has fresh and delicate character and 16 very fruity aromas, even with notes of damp earth and tea-leaf. It is native to France’s Burgundy, but is also found in California, Australia, New Zealand and Oregon. Wine Making Process There are 5 basic steps involved in making wine from the grapevine. There can however be some variations in the process depending on the type of wine that needs to do. The 5 basic steps are as following: Picking the Grapes: Usually, white grapes are picked before the red grapes. Grapes are picked and collected in lugs or bings and then moved to the crushing pad. Grapes can be harvested by hand or machine. Night harvesting is considered to help pick grapes with stable sugar levels. Crushing the Grapes: A de-stemmer is used to remove stems from the grape clusters. The grapes will be placed on a sorting table before it is sent to the de-stemmer and then to the crusher. In the crusher, the grapes get separated from the seeds and skins. White wine is typically forwarded to a press to extract the juice and red wine is lightly crushed after de-stemming. Fermentation: It is this stage in the wine production process where the sugar gets converted into alcohol. There are different techniques involved based on the kinds of grapes which are involved. This can include adding yeast to the vats, pumping over the cap, and pressing the grapes after the fermentation process gets completed. Aging the Wine: A wide range of techniques are used to create intense flavors in the wine. It can include aging for a few months or 17 many years, aging in oak or stainless steel, aging in used barrels or new oak, aging in French oak/American oak barrels, aging in ‘toasted’ barrels. Once this process gets completed, wines bottle for consumption. Dry red wines can take anything from 18 to 24 months to age. On the other hand, some varieties of white wines can be ready in just a few months. Winemaking often considers as an art form, where the flavor can be significantly impacted by what techniques use at each stage. In fact, it is such a subtle “form of art” were even talking to the vines is considered to have a positive impact on the produce. Literature Review Red wine is characterized by the presence of phenolic compounds that contribute to colour,mouthfeel and astringency (Gawel 1998). These compounds occur naturally in grapes of red Vitis vinifera cultivars and winemakers aim to extract them into the wine through various methods of maceration. Post-fermentation extended maceration (EM) is one such method that involves leaving the skins and seeds, or pomace, and wine in contact for a period of time beyond the completion of primary fermentation (Peynaud 1984). Beneficial changes to mouth-feel, tannin concentration and structure are sought by winemakers who employ post-fermentation EM (Pers. Comm. PJ Charteris, Brokenwood Wines, March 2010). However, the traditional use of EM has been based on anecdotal evidence, with little understanding of the chemical consequences and outcomes. 18 As winemakers primarily employ post-fermentation EM to manipulate phenolic extraction processes and the organoleptic profiles of red wine, this review focuses on phenolic wine compounds specifically in the context of extraction, maceration and organoleptic properties. The existing understanding of post-fermentation EM consequences and their application to commercial winemaking practices is also assessed, along with methods of phenolic measurement and analysis. Grape and Wine Phenolics Red wine contains a complex chemical mix of grape-derived phenolics, along with those modified through maceration and fermentation. The extraction of these phenolics during vinification is an important process in determining final wine quality (Boulton et al. 1996, Lu and Foo 1999, Kennedy and Peyrot des Gachons 2003). There are several important phenolics that exist in grapes and wine, which contribute variously to colour, astringency and mouth-feel. Importantly, the phenolic composition of grapes will vary depending on variety, growing season, vine health and vineyard management (Auw et al. 1996, Gawel 1998, de Freitas et al. 2000, RomeroCascales et al. 2005). In addition, under the conditions found in red wine (pH 3.2-3.6, 11-16% v/v ethanol) phenolics will undergo complex reactions and modifications over the course of maturation, resulting in changes in the sensory properties of the wine (Gawel 1998, Guadalupe and Ayestaran 2008). Grapes phenolics are found in skin and seed tissues, in differing concentrations and forms based on cultivar and season (Sun et al. 1999). Their composition in the grape will also change based on fruit 19 maturity; this has given rise to the concept of “phenolic ripeness” as a criterion for optimum harvest (Ristic and Iland 2005, Adams 2006, Rio Segade et al. 2008). Monomeric Flavonoids and Non-Flavonoids The two main classes of phenolics found in grapes and wine are the flavonoids and nonflavonoids. Non-flavonoids such as hydroxycinnamic acid are prevalent in red and white wine grapes, but since they do not contribute to wine colour or astringency in red wines (Verdette et al. 1988), they are of little interest in this study. Flavonoids share a basic C6-C3-C6 structure, consisting of an “A” and a “B” aromatic ring, which are joined by a three carbon chain closed by oxygen, to form a heterocyclic ring, as shown in Figure 11. This class of compound includes flavan-3-ols, flavonols and anthocyanins (Gawel 1998). The monomeric flavan-3-ol class is of particular importance in red winemaking, as these molecules contribute to bitterness and astringency (Gawel 1998, Brossaud et al. 2001). They are found in both skins and seeds of grapes and in wine, however Downey et al. 20 (2003) found that seeds contained 15 times the amount of monomeric flavan-3-ols than skins with respect to fresh weight. The molecular structure of several important flavan-3-ols Structure of the main monomeric flavan-3-ol class compounds found in V. vinifera cultivars (from Cheynier et al. 2006). Anthocyanins are a highly reactive class of flavonoids that contribute to the colour of red wine. The expression of anthocyanin colour is highly pH dependent and ranges from red at low pH to blue at higher pH (Eiro and Heinonen 2002). They are also susceptible to bleaching through reactions with bisulphite (Peng et al. 2002). The structure of the main anthocyanin compounds found in red wine is shown below (Figure 1.3). In red V. vinifera cultivars these compounds are found as glucosides, bound to glucose at carbon 3 of the centre ring. The sugar residues of anthocyanins may be acylated in some varieties, to give 15 main forms of anthocyanins (Cheynier et al. 2006). Malvidin-3-glucoside is by far the most prevalent form, making up more than 80% of all anthocyanins in Pinot Noir berries (Mazza 2005) and 35% in Shiraz (Ristic et al 2007). Importantly, it has been 21 shown that as monomeric units, anthocyanins do not markedly contribute to astringency or bitterness (Gawel 1998) Structure of the main classes of anthocyanins as glucosides found in V. vinifera cultivars (from Cheynier et al. 2006). Anthocyanins may also be incorporated into other compounds that contribute to wine colour. These include pigmented polymers formed through reaction with other phenolics (discussed in section 1.2.2) as well as pyranoanthocyanins or “wine pigments”, created through reactions with yeast metabolites during fermentation (Bakker and Timberlake 1997, Birse 2007). Examples of such compounds include; visitin A, formed from reactions with pyruvic acid, and visitin B through reactions with acetaldehyde (Birse 2007). These pigments are more colour stable than free anthocyanins to the effects of pH (Bakker and Timberlake 1997). Proanthocyanidins and Tannins 22 This class of compounds includes various polymers of flavan-3-ol monomers linked by C4-C6 or C6-C8 bonds, shown in Figure 1.4 and 1.5. The number of flavan-3-ol monomer subunits that make up a proanthocyanidin molecule is referred to as the degree of polymerisation (Gawel 1998, Kennedy and Jones 2001). While proanthocyanidins contribute significantly to wine astringency (Gawel 1998, Cheynier et al. 2006), it is accepted that they contribute more astringency and less bitterness to wine than monomeric flavon-3-ols, and the perception of astringency increases with the size (polymerisation) of the molecule (Brossaud et al. 2001, Vidal et al. 2002). They occur naturally in grape seeds and skin, however Downey et al. (2003) found that 75% of the extractable proanthocyanidin in Shiraz was from the seeds. It has also been shown that skin proanthocyanidin has a higher degree of polymerisation than seed proanthocyanidin in many varieties, suggesting a potential difference in organoleptic properties between skin- and seedderived proanthocyanidins (Gawel 1998, Downey et al. 2003, Cheynier et al. 2006). 23 In wine, proanthocyanidins and monomeric flavan-3-ols undergo condensation reactions to form large polymers, commonly referred to as condensed tannins. These can have high degrees of 24 polymerisation and eventually become insoluble in wine (Gawel 1998, Cheynier et al. 2006). Anthocyanin units may also be included in the polymerisation of tannins, forming polymeric pigments that contribute significantly to red wine colour (Jurd 1969, Somers 1971, Gawel 1998, Gomez-Plaza et al. 2001, Peng et al. 2002, Cheynier et al. 2006). Harbertson et al. (2002) found only small concentrations of polymeric pigments in Shiraz, Cabernet Sauvignon and Pinot Noir fruit, suggesting that these compounds are primarily formed during the winemaking process. Depending on composition, these pigments variously express red, orange and brown colours (Cheynier et al. 2006), which are more pH stable than monomeric anthocyanins (Somers 1971, Gawel 1998) and are resistant to bisulphite bleaching (Cheynier et al. 2006). In the maturation of young red wines, monomeric anthocyanins are variously bound and converted to different coloured and non-coloured forms (Somers 1971, Birse 2007). Thus, polymeric wine pigments become the prevalent source of colour as the wine ages (Somers 1971, Peng et al. 2002). Maceration in Red Winemaking The extraction of phenolics from grapes is a key aspect of red winemaking, as mentioned previously; phenolic compounds are primarily located in the skins and seeds of V. vinifera grapes. The movement of phenolics from these solid grape tissues into the juice must or wine is referred to as maceration and the rate of extraction can be increased through various methods (Robinson 2006). For example, agitation of the must prior to, during, and after primary 25 fermentation has long been known to increase the extraction of phenolics (Ough and Amerine 1961, Kennedy and Peyrot des Gachons 2003). Pre-fermentation maceration, or “cold soaking” is used by winemakers to improve wine colour intensity through increased anthocyanin extraction (Nemanic et al. 2002, Parenti et al. 2004), but without increased tannin extraction from seeds (Peyrot des Gachons and Kennedy 2003). Additionally, winemakers are able to implement various maceration techniques during red wine fermentation, such as plunging or pump-overs (Boulton et al. 1996). Zoecklein (1991) suggests that these methods of extraction will have different effects. Namely pump-overs may extract less colour due to uneven leaching of the cap but may extract rough, bitter tannins due to the harsh treatment of the must (which increases the level of fine solids in the wine), while plunging results in a more gentle, even extraction of phenolic compounds (Zoeckline 1991). Importantly, the rate of extraction and types of phenolic compounds extracted by maceration techniques can change depending on the temperature and percentage of alcohol in the must (Kennedy and Peyrot des Gachons 2003, Gonzalez-Manzano et al. 2004, Sacchi et al. 2005). It has been suggested that higher temperatures increase the permeability of hypodermal cells of the skin and seed tissues resulting in greater release of phenolics, while certain phenolic compounds become soluble at different ethanol concentrations, particularly those from seeds (GonzalezManzano et al. 2004, Sacchi et al. 2005). However, one of the most important factors in phenolic extraction has been suggested to be the length of contact time 26 between the phenolic-containing tissues and the juice, must or wine (Singleton and Trousdale 1983, Zoecklein 1991, Auw et al. 1996, Kennedy and Peyrot des Gachons 2003). It is on this principle that winemakers base the use of extended maceration post-fermentation (Zoecklein 1991, Sacchi et al. 2005). Post-fermentation Extended Maceration Practices Maceration of the skins, seeds and wine beyond the completion of primary fermentation is a traditional practice in many winemaking regions (Peynaud 1984). The length of postfermentation extended maceration (EM) is generally decided based on regular tasting to determine when the required level of phenolic extraction and modification has occurred, and may last for up to six weeks for Cabernet Sauvignon in California (Peynaud 1984, Zoecklein 1991). In a survey of Australian winemakers conducted in 2005, Joscelyne (2009, p. 44) found that postfermentation EM was thought to significantly affect the structure, mouthfeel and palate length of the wine. Anecdotally, this technique is indeed used by winemakers to improve the mouthfeel and tannin profile of a wine through increasing tannin intensity and length, while reducing harsh or bitter, astringent tannins that may be present after primary fermentation (Pers. Comm. PJ Charteris, Brokenwood Wines, March 2010). In a study conducted with Cabernet Sauvignon, Scudamore-Smith et al. (1990) found that post-fermentation EM techniques produced wine that was less fruity but acceptably astringent for longer cellaring. However, Zoecklein (1991) suggests that fruit from young vines 27 (less than 10 years old) or unripe fruit will not benefit from postfermentation EM, as tannins may be perceived as “green” and “immature” and further extraction by this method will be detrimental to wine quality. Chemical Implications As suggested above, many winemakers use post-fermentation EM to improve the organoleptic characteristics of their wine, primarily the mouthfeel and structure. Studies surrounding the chemical implications of such practices have found some effect on the phenolic composition of the wines produced. Zitzlaff (1989), Scudamore-Smith et al. (1990), Kovac et al. (1992), Auw et al. (1996), de Freitas et al. (2000), Gomez-Plaza et al. (2001) and Zimman et al. (2002) all found that post-fermentation EM increased the extraction of phenolic compounds into wine, specifically (+)catechin, (-)-epicatechin and proanthocyanidins. Scudamore-Smith et al. (1990), Sipiora and Gutierrex Granda (1998) and Mazza (2005) found that these increases were greater with longer maceration times. Due to the much higher concentration of phenolics in the seed tissue of grapes (Sun et al. 1999) and the general inability to extract these in a fermenting must with low alcohol concentration (Zou et al. 2002), the higher concentration of such compounds in postfermentation EM wines is generally attributed to the increased extraction of seed-bound phenolics (Kovac et al. 1992, Zimman et al. 2002, Harbertson et al. 2009). In a study with Cabernet Sauvignon wines undergoing 7 days post-fermentation EM, de Freitas et al. (2000) found that seed-derived, low molecular weight 28 proanthocyanidins (specifically dimers B1-B8) contributed up to 66% of the total concentration of such compounds in these wines compared to 11% in wines that were pressed when dry. Apart from increasing phenolic extraction, post-fermentation EM has been suggested to affect the polymerisation behaviour of phenolic compounds in wine during maturation. In a study on Cabernet Sauvignon wines undergoing post-fermentation EM for 14, 23 and 44 days, Kudo and Sodeyama (2002) found wines with longer pomace contact had an increased molecular weight shift toward larger phenolic molecules when measured by size-exclusion HPLC than those with less pomace contact time. The authors suggest this may be from enhanced extraction of phenolics from the pomace, thus increasing the rate of tannin polymerisation reactions. GomezPlaza et al. (2001) also found that extended pomace contact resulted in an increase in proanthocyanidin dimers B2, B4 and B5 over twelve months of maturation in bottle. Post-fermentation EM has also been shown to influence red wine colour. Scudamore-Smith et al. (1990), Kovac et al. (1992) and Sipiora and Gutierrez-Granada (1998) found that free anthocyanin concentration decreased with increased pomace contact time post-fermentation. However, these studies, along with that of Gomez-Plaza et al. (2001), found that the wine colour density – a spectrophotometric measure of total wine colour (Somers and Evans 1977) – immediately after pressing was greater in wines made with post-fermentation EM. Gomez-Plaza et al. (2001) presented data that suggests that longer pomace contact results in greater anthocyanin extraction, combined with increased stable pigment polymerisation, giving greater colour density. 29 However, Scudamore-Smith et al. (1990) found that after maturation (400 days) the colour density of post-fermentation EM wines and those pressed at dryness was similar, suggesting that post-fermentation EM will produce wines with greater colour density only at a younger age. Auw et al. (1996) and Gomez-Plaza et al. (2001) found that wine colour hue – the degree of brown colour relative to red colour in the wine (Somers and Evans 1977) – was lower in post-fermentation EM wines up to 12 months after processing, suggesting that this technique results in earlier, and increased production of stable pigmented polymers. Zimman et al. (2002) also found that polymeric pigments provided a greater contribution to wine colour in Cabernet Sauvignon wines with 20 days post-fermentation EM than those pressed at dryness. Harbertson et al. (2009) showed that a 20 day post-fermentation EM treatment increased the concentration of “large polymeric pigments”, defined as those that precipitate with protein (Harbertson et al. 2003), at both pressing and 185 days maturation. However, at 185 days, the total polymeric pigment concentration (sum of “small” and “large” polymeric pigments”) was similar between control and post-fermentation EM wines. Findings such as these have led to the conclusion that the increased extraction of phenolic compounds through post-fermentation EM provides greater potential for polymerisation between anthocyanins and polymeric phenols to occur, thus conferring improved colour stability to the wine at a younger age (Zoecklein 1991, Auw et al. 1996, Harbertson et al. 2009). 30 The Major Types of Wine BY THE NUMBERS Let’s zoom out a little to get perspective on what grapes are at the top. The grapes included here are the most planted varieties. They represent a large portion of what’s available in the market. Chances are, you might already be familiar with what’s listed here. That said, there are a couple of unfamiliar wine grapes included which are used primarily for brandy (Cognac, etc) or balsamic vinegar production! CABERNET SAUVIGNON Cabernet Sauvignon (“cab-err-nay saw-vin-yon”) is the most planted wine variety in the world. Wines are rich, red, and robust. This grape originated in France around the region of Bordeaux. Cabernet Sauvignon (“cab-err-nay saw-vin-yon”) is the most planted wine variety in the world. Wines are rich, red, and robust. This grape originated in France around the region of Bordeaux. FLAVORS BLACK CHERRY, BLACK CURRANT, CEDAR, BAKING SPICES, GRAPHITE 31 The rich flavor and high tannin content in Cabernet Sauvignon make it a perfect partner to seasoned grilled meats, peppery sauces, and dishes with high flavor. MERLOT (“murr-low”) Despite what some say, Merlot is actually very closely related to Cabernet Sauvignon. Wines are usually considered slightly more fruity than Cabernet Sauvignon but can age just as long. 32 Merlot tastes great alongside roasted dishes like pork shoulder, broiled mushrooms, or braised short ribs. Try complementing Merlot’s fruit flavors with chimichurri sauce. FLAVORS CHERRY, PLUM, CHOCOLATE, BAY LEAF, VANILLA AIRÉN 33 Spain’s most widely planted grape is primarily used for brandy. That said, a few producers have revitalized the old, drought-resistant bush vines for winemaking. Still, it’s quite hard to find outside of Spain. FLAVORS APPLE, PINEAPPLE, GRAPEFRUIT, BANANA, ROSE Madrid-inspired tapas and warm weather. TEMPRANILLO 34 Spain’s top variety, made famous by the region of Rioja, where wines are classified by how long they age in oak. A well-made Tempranillo will age over 20 years. FLAVORS CHERRY, DRIED FIG, CEDAR, TOBACCO, DILL Bolder, aged Tempranillo wines pair nicely with steak, gourmet burgers, and rack of lamb. Fresher styles match well with Mexican street food and even tomato dishes CHARDONNAY 35 Chardonnay originated from the Burgundy region of France and produces a wide range of styles from bold, buttery, oak-aged still wines to lean, Blanc de Blancs sparkling wines. FLAVORS YELLOW APPLE, STARFRUIT, PINEAPPLE, VANILLA, BUTTER, LEMON If you keep spice and flavor intensity slightly lower and choose dishes with creamy, buttery flavors then you will be delighted. This is a wine worthy of lobster. SYRAH 36 Also known as Shiraz in Australia, this grape produces boisterous, rich, and peppery reds. Syrah originated close to the Northern Rhône of France. FLAVORS TART BLUEBERRY, BLACK PLUM, CHOCOLATE, TOBACCO, GREEN PEPPERCORN Darker meats and exotic spices bring out the fruit notes of Syrah. Try it with lamb shawarma, gyros, Asian five-spice pork, and even Indian tandoori meats. GRENACHE 37 Also known as Garnacha in Spain, this grape produces juicy, spice-driven, medium-bodied red wines with red berry flavors and elevated alcohol. Evidence suggests Grenache is originally of Spanish origin. FLAVORS STEWED STRAWBERRY, GRILLED PLUM, LEATHER, DRIED HERBS, RUBY RED GRAPEFRUIT The high intensity flavors of Grenache match well with roasted meats and vegetables spiced with Asian five-spice and cumin. SAUVIGNON BLANC 38 A popular and unmistakable white that’s loved for its “green” herbal flavors and sky high acidity. This French origin grape turns out to be one of the parents of Cabernet Sauvignon. FLAVORS GOOSEBERRY, HONEYDEW MELON, GRAPEFRUIT, WHITE PEACH, PASSION FRUIT A wonderful choice with herb-driven sauces over chicken, tofu, or fish dishes. Try matching Sauvignon Blanc with Thai and Vietnamese cuisine. TREBBIANO TOSCANO (AKA UGNI BLANC) 39 Also known as Ugni Blanc in France, this grape is primarily used in the production of Cognac, Armignac, and balsamic vinegar in Italy. FLAVORS LEMON, HONEYDEW MELON, GOOSEBERRY, CRUSHED ROCKS, LIME PEEL As a dry white wine, Trebbiano pairs well with hard Italian cheeses, seafood pastas, white pizza, roast chicken, and pesto. PINOT NOIR 40 The world’s most popular light-bodied red is loved for its red fruit and spice flavors that are accentuated by a long, smooth, soft-tannin finish. FLAVORS CHERRY, RASPBERRY, MUSHROOM, ALLSPICE, HIBISCUS A very versatile food pairing wine given it’s higher acidity and lower tannin. Pinot Noir pairs particularly well with duck, chicken, pork, and mushrooms. METHODOLOGY 41 The single most important step towards improving your palate. Active tasting is a learned skill. This method will give you the framework to improve your ability to assess wine quality. Practice makes perfect! Be sure to use this method each time you taste a new wine LOOK A visual inspection of the wine under neutral lighting SMELL Identify aromas through orthonasal olfaction (e.g. breathing through your nose) TASTE Assess both the taste structure (sour, bitter, sweet, etc) and flavors derived from retronasal olfaction (e.g. breathing with the back of your nose) 42 THINK Take a pause to solidify the taste profile of the wine into your long term memory HOW TO TASTE | STEP 1: LOOK Hold a glass of wine over a white background under neutral lighting and observe. 1. Identify the hue 2. Inspect intensity (how opaque is it?) 3. Check viscosity (watery or viscous?) HUE Here are some common hints you can look for in the color and rim variation – 43 Often Nebbiolo and Grenache-based wines will have a translucent garnet or orange color on their rim, even in their youth. Pinot Noir will often have a true-red or trueruby color, especially from cooler climates. Malbec will often have a magenta-pink rim. INTENSITY How intense and opaque is the color in the glass? Can you see sediment in the wine? These are general clues that can help you identify the variety and concentration of the wine. VISCOSITY The tears that form on the side of the glass (“wine legs”) can tell us if the wine has high or low alcohol and/or high or low sugar. The thicker and more viscous the legs, the more alcohol or residual sugar in the wine. 44 HELPFUL TIPS As white wines age they oxidize and change color, becoming deeper yellow. A fully oxidized white wine is brown. As red wines age, they lose color, becoming more transparent and faded with a more orange or tawny-colored rim. If you see sediment in the wine, it’s not bad for you! It’s just a sign of an unfiltered wine. Most consider this a highly desirable trait. HOW TO TASTE | STEP 2: SMELL 45 Aromas in wine can reveal almost everything about a wine including grape variety(ies) used, oak or aging regime, region, and even vintage. A well-trained nose can pick out each of these details. In fact, it’s one of the primary challenges to becoming a Master Sommelier. Your goal with this step is to isolate a wine’s individual aromas so that you can use them as clues to define what the wine is, how it was made, and where it came from. For example, knowing that the smell of vanilla indicates a higher presence of vanillin suggests the wine was likely aged in oak. HELPFUL TIPS Find Your Position Hold your glass right under your nose and slowly move it away (while sniffing) until you can pick out individual aromas Swirling Wine in your glass concentrates the aromas and can help you pick out flavors more easily Overloaded? If your nose is overloaded, smell your forearm. It helps reset your nose. Tasting is generally more about the texture than flavor, so pay attention to that first. 46 To simplify this incredibly complex interrelationship (unless you’re studying fermentation science), we can sort aromas into three categories: Primary Aromas are derived from the interaction between the grape and yeast and can include fruit, flower, and herb-like flavors. Secondary Aromas are derived primarily from yeast and other microbes and may include aromas like yeast, cheese, cream, sourdough, or beer-like smells. Tertiary Aromas are derived from aging and oxidation (including aging in oak barrels) and may include vanilla, maple, browned butter, and nut-like aromas. HOW TO TASTE | STEP 3: TASTE 47 When we taste we’re essentially touching wine and sensing how it feels. Thus, a large part of the tasting portion is dedicated to texture. This step ultimately reveals a wine’s physical traits including sweetness, acid level, tannin, and alcohol. The moment you taste wine the flavor evolves on your palate until it’s no longer present. Some wines will continue to deliver taste sensations on your palate long after you’ve swallowed. 48 Sweetness: The first thing to look for. Is the wine sweet or is it dry? Most people taste sweetness towards the front of the tongue where they have the highest proportion of tastebuds. Acidity: How sour is the wine? Does it make your mouth water? All wines lie on the acidic side of the pH spectrum. A wine with a low pH (e.g. high acidity) will cause your mouth to salivate and tingle more than a wine with a high pH. Tannin: How astringent or mouth-drying is the wine? This is a trait found is most red wines and less so in white wines. You can feel tannins on the middle and sides of your tongue as a mouth-drying, bitter 49 sensation. As negative as these taste traits may sound, tannins in wine are one of the few wine traits that are actually good for you! Alcohol: When you swallow, pay attention to the warming sensation in your throat. This is how most of us sense the alcohol level in wine. High alcohol wines often have a burning sensation and because of this are often described as tasting “hot.” Body: How “big” is the wine on your palate? Does it fill your mouth with flavor and richness or is it lean and lithe? While body is not a scientific term, it can really help describe what we like/dislike in wine. Finish: What flavor or taste does the wine finish with? Is it bitter? sweet? smoky? oily? salty? It’s interesting to note that the finish is one of the deciding factors behind what consumers like. Length: How long does it take until you can’t taste the wine on your palate? Even a very light-weight wine can have a long length. Layers: Does the wine’s flavors and textures change over the course of a single taste? If so, the wine is “layered.” HOW TO TASTE | STEP 4: THINK 50 Developing a highly tuned wine palate takes time. You can accelerate the process by thinking carefully after tasting a new wine. The goal is to pick out the key characteristics of a wine in the way it looks, smells, and tastes. What makes this wine different than others? Your wine repertoire is as big as you choose to make it. By continually trying new wines, new vintages, and new wine regions you’ll create a diverse wine repertoire. What’s cool is that it really doesn’t matter if you spend a lot or a little on a bottle of wine. What’s more important is that you’re actively tasting new wines. BALANCE Does the wine’s taste characteristics of acidity, alcohol, and tannin work in balance with one another? Or does the wine have a trait that tends to dominate the others? While balance is not necessarily an indicator of 51 quality, you’ll find many highly rated wines are noted for being balanced. COMPLEXITY Does the wine have an endless number of flavors and textures to identify? Or does the wine only have one or two major flavors? Generally speaking, wines with high complexity are considered higher quality. READING WINE RATINGS Often times you’ll find a point-score associated with a bottle of wine. The most common rating scale is the 100-point system (developed by Robert Parker). Additionally, there is a 5-star system (used on Vivino) and a 20-point scale (more common in the UK). A high rating doesn’t gaurantee that you’ll love a wine. Instead, a good rating is a general indication of quality within a style or a good quality-to-price ratio. Thus, make sure you like the style of wine first before using ratings to hone in on a purchase choice. 52 TIPS ON SERVING & STORING WINE SPARKLING WINES Serve “Ice Cold” (38–45 ºF / 3–7 ºC) Store open 1–3 days* (store in fridge) LIGHT WHITE & ROSÉ WINES 53 Serve “Cold” (45–55 ºF / 7–13 ºC) Store open 5–7 days* (store in fridge) FULL-BODIED WHITE WINES Serve “Cold” (45–55 ºF / 7–13 ºC) Store open 3–5 days* (store in fridge) RED WINES 54 Serve “Cellar Temp” (55–68 ºF / 13–20 ºC) Store open 3–5 days* (in cool, dark place) Decant for at least 30 minutes FORTIFIED & BOX WINES Serve “Cellar Temp” (55–68 ºF / 13–20 ºC) Store open 28 days* (in cool, dark place) CHOOSING GLASSWARE 55 In a perfect world, you can have one glass for every style of wine. In a pragmatic world, owning 1–2 glass types is sufficien You can drink wine from whatever vessel you want, be it a wine glass, coffee mug, mason jar, or dixie cup! That said, certain glasses do work better than others on certain wines. Here are the major things to consider when choosing glassware: Most importantly, in order to sense the different aromas in wine, you’ll need added space in the glass above the liquid. You’ll find that most quality glasses have increased volume capacity ranging from about 11 to 22 ounces. (325 ml to 620 ml) For most white wines, a slightly smaller bowled glass with a smaller diameter opening is preferred. Here’s how these two traits affect aromas: Preserves floral aromas Maintains a cooler temperature 56 Better expresses acidity in wine Delivers more concentrated aromas Conversely, full-bodied white wines like oakaged Chardonnay, Viognier, White Rioja, and orange wines are better with a larger bowl. The choice of a red wine glass has a lot to do with mitigating the bitterness of tannin or spicy flavors to deliver a smoother tasting wine. We’ve observed red wine glasses tend to have a larger bowl shape and larger diameter opening. Here are a few pointers: A globe-shaped glass is ideal for more aromatic, light-bodied red wines such as Pinot Noir or Gamay. A large glass with a wider diameter opening is better for big, bold, red wines with high tannin such as Cabernet Sauvignon. A large glass with a smaller diameter opening is generally better for spicy and peppery red wines such as Syrah, Zinfandel, or Sangiovese. 57 Even though the science of flavor pairing is complex, anyone can learn the fundamentals and make great wine pairings. The goal with a great pairing is to create harmony between food and wine. The first thing to do to achieve this is to start thinking of wine more like an ingredient. CONGRUENT PAIRING A congruent pairing amplifies shared flavor compounds found in both the wine and the food. For example, Syrah and black pepper have a shared compound called rotundone. Thus, a pairing of Syrah with peppered steak would be a good example of a congruent pairing. Buttered Popcorn and oaked Chardonnay (both are “buttery”) Barbecue Pork and Zinfandel (both have rich, smokey, “spiced” flavors) Bresaola and Chianti Classico (both have meaty, earthy notes) 58 CONTRASTING PAIRING A contrasting pairing creates balance with extreme opposites. In most cases, the wine acts as a palate cleanser to the food. For example, a rich, creamy, gooey, mac and cheese can be contrasted by a high acidity sparkling white wine. Blue Cheese and Ruby Port (pungent and creamy vs. sweet and bitter) Pork Chop and Riesling (umami and rich vs. sweet and acidic) Maple Bacon and Champagne (sweet and umami vs. sour and carbonated) Going Deeper: Climate & Soils CLIMATE TYPES AND WINE 59 Beyond average temperature, climate takes into account the weather patterns and atmospheric conditions that can help – or hurt – wine grapes. These factors include rainfall, humidity, wind, frost, hail, and quality of sunlight. Each attribute can affect everything from a grape’s skin thickness (tannins!) to whether or not grapes will mold before harvest. Depending on who you talk to, there are dozens of ways to classify climate: by average temperature (warm/cool), by scale (macroclimate, mesoclimate, microclimate), or by general climate groups (Mediterranean, Maritime, or Continental, etc). In general, warmer climates allow grapes to fully ripen and mature, developing deep pigments, bold fruit flavors, greater sweetness, and higher alcohol content. On the flip side, cooler climates show a softer side, accentuating white wines’ minerality, maintaining juicy acidity, and ensuring a delicate dance of flavors across the palate. SOILS AND WINE Soil type – including sand, clay, dirt, pebbles, rocks, and dozens of combinations in between – plays a big role in how vines grow and the kinds of wine that they make. Soil type determines the availability of nutrients, water drainage, water retention, and can even moderate temperature in a vine’s immediate microclimate. Far from the nutrient-rich potting soil you use for house plants, grape vines actually perform better when nutrients are scarce and roots aren’t swampy. In general, more sandy, grainy soils produce wines with more aromatic intensity and more delicate body. Conversely, soils with more clay (and those with additional limestone content!) 60 tend to produce wines with more body, tannin, and stronger fruit flavors. Conclusion Today Indian consumer is well informed about wine than before. Earlier, for consumers , types of wine means red and white. But today consumers know about definition of red wine can be considered as Sula satori merlot from Nasik is smooth on the palate..They know about type of grape, area of origin, brand, taste and expert recommendation. They love to experiment the various types of wines. But..Still price holds the major contributing factor while selecting a wine for purchase. This price sensitivity can be reduced only when Indian wine consumer will be more educated about wine. It means more involvement in the wine as a product. Then consumers focus would shift from price sensitivity. Wine marketers should come up with frequent wine tasting sessions about their flagship brands. This would alter the price challenge in market to some extent. They should also emphasis on food and wine pairing with a particular combination of wine. References 1. American Wine Society, The. THE COMPLETE HANDBOOK OF WINEMAKING. Ann Arbor: G.W. Kent, Inc. 1993. This handbook is a collection of technical articles from renowned authorities from the wine trade and academia as well as from avid home winemakers. This reference textbook will prove most useful to advanced winemakers as the contents tend to be too technical for beginners. It assumes that readers have a good knowledge of winemaking techniques and processes. Wine analysis is discussed in details although discussions on the use of different types of wine yeasts and clarification agents and filtration techniques are cursory. A chapter on sparkling wine production presents the true méthode champenoise procedure for practical home winemaking use. In addition to winemaking, this book describes the elements (visual, olfactory, and gustatory) of wine tasting and how to organize and conduct wine tastings. 61 2. Barrel Builders, Inc. BARREL MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR MANUAL. St. Helena: Barrel Builders, Inc. 1995. This concise, 33-page manual is an excellent reference on how to prepare, treat and maintain both used and new oak barrels. This manual was written by experienced coopers who have been serving the California wine industry for over 20 years; their advice on barrel maintenance has stood the test of time. Although the section on barrel repairs is beyond the woodworking abilities of most winemakers, it does provide interesting reading. 3. Bettiga, Larry J., Golino, D.A., McGourty, G., Smith, R.J., Verdegaal, P.S. Weber, E.. WINE GRAPE VARIETIES IN CALIFORNIA. California: University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Publication 3419. 2003. This book is nicely illustrated along with superb photographs of grape varieties grown in California. Photographs along with morphology information for each variety make this resource invaluable. It also includes other useful information such as ripening periods and ripening dates by growing district. A must-have resource if your winemaking includes grapes sourced from California. 4. Boulton, R.B., V.L. Singleton, L.F. Bisson, and R.E. Kunkee. PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES OF WINEMAKING. New York: Chapman & Hall (International Thomson Publishing). 1996. Anyone considering a professional career in œnology should read this textbook, authored by viticulture and œnology professors from the University of California at Davis. It provides highly technical and in-depth discussions of modern winemaking practices and equipment. The book is structured for use as a teaching aid and is geared to professional 62 winemaking. It assumes a solid technical background in pure and applied sciences, namely, chemistry, biochemistry and microbiology. Advanced home winemakers wanting to further their technical knowledge of winemaking will find this book indispensable. 5. Clarke, Oz. OZ CLARKE’S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF GRAPES: A COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE TO VARIETIES AND FLAVORS. New York: Harcourt, Inc. 2001. Oz Clarke is one of the world’s leading wine experts and writers. This 320page book, covering varieties from Albariño to Zinfandel, is an excellent complement to a similar work, VINES, GRAPES & WINES, by Jancis Robinson. It is well presented with beautiful photographs and illustrations along with very useful “consumer information” for varieties, such as the best producers and recommended wines. An important and useful aspect of this book is the description of differences of varieties from various winemaking regions throughout the world. 6. Fugelsang, Kenneth C. WINE MICROBIOLOGY. New York: Chapman & Hall (International Thomson Publishing). 1997. This technical textbook on wine microbiology complements PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES OF WINEMAKING. Also geared to professional winemaking, this book provides in-depth descriptions of various bacteria, yeasts and moulds, and their role in winemaking. This textbook is very technical and requires a good knowledge of microbiology. The author is a Winemaster and Professor of Enology in the Department of Enology, Food Science, and Nutrition at California State University, Fresno. 7. Goode, Jamie. THE SCIENCE OF WINE: FROM VINE TO GLASS. Berkeley: University of California Press. 2005. 63 This engaging book is laid out in three major sections covering the hotly debated issues in the fields of science of viticulture, winemaking and human interaction with wine. It covers scientific, technological and often controversial innovations from precision viticulture and genetically modified grape vines, to reverse osmosis, spinning cones, evaporators and screwcaps, to wine flavor chemistry and health. A fun and interesting read! 8. Iland, Patrick, Ewart, A., Sitters, J., Markides, A., and Nick Bruer. TECHNIQUES FOR CHEMICAL ANALYSIS AND QUALITY MONITORING DURING WINEMAKING. South Australia: Patrick Iland Wine Promotions. 2004. This updated edition is a must-have in every winery’s library. It covers the plethora of laboratory procedures, each described in step-by-step instructions along with pertinent chemical concepts. The spiral bound laminated hard paperback format is ideal for the laboratory environment. 9. Jackisch, Philip. MODERN WINEMAKING. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 1985. This complete handbook is an excellent reference for serious winemakers. It offers one of the most complete lists of winemaking problems, and how to prevent and correct these problems. The author, a research chemist, shares his wealth of winemaking knowledge from his years of experience as winemaker, wine consultant, wine competition judge, and teacher. Readers should have a good technical background. Those interested in submitting their homemade wines into wine competitions will find a short but useful section on competition rules and judging procedures. 10. Jackson, David, and Danny Schuster. THE PRODUCTION OF 64 GRAPES & WINE IN COOL CLIMATES. New Zealand: Gypsum Press and Daphne Brasell Associates Ltd. 2001. Whether you make wine in Burgundy, New Zealand, Niagara or the Finger Lakes region, this book provides valuable information on cool-climate grape growing and winemaking. Agronomical information such as ideal soil type, vigor, pruning methods, disease susceptibility, effect of wet weather, rootstocks, and expected yields will prove very useful in identifying and selecting grapes. It covers the major V. vinifera varieties but also lesser known and obscure cool-climate varieties such as Blaufrankischer, St. Macaire, and Zweigeltrebe. 11. Johnson, Hugh and James Halliday. THE VINTNER’S ART: HOW GREAT WINES ARE MADE. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1992. Hugh Johnson is a world-renowned and authoritative wine writer. James Halliday is a wine writer and also the owner and winemaker of a small Australian winery. Together, they have authored an excellent book geared to those interested in acquiring a general knowledge of wine production without all the intricate technical details. The book is logically sequenced in three sections describing wine production from vineyard to winery to bottle. First, the effects of terroir, climate, grape variety, harvesting techniques and other viticultural factors on wine quality are described. Second, production processes for different types and styles of wine—from light-bodied white wines to full-bodied red wines and fortified wines—are outlined and explained in very simple language. Third, the chemistry and analysis of wine are briefly, but effectively, treated. Stunning photographs and superb illustrations enhance the visual dimension of this fascinating book. 12. Margalit, Phd., Yair. WINERY TECHNOLOGY & OPERATIONS: A HANDBOOK FOR SMALL WINERIES. San Francisco: The Wine Appreciation Guild. 1996. 65 This handbook should belong in every serious home winemaker’s library. Although quite technical in nature—the author has an academic background in chemistry and physical chemistry in addition to his experience in small-winery winemaking—the book is very concise and offers practical advice on all winemaking procedures. It is a truly practical handbook. For example, procedures for basic analysis of must and wine are detailed. Margalit has also authored two other excellent books for anyone considering a career in œnology and winemaking, both published by The Wine Appreciation Guild: CONCEPTS IN WINE CHEMISTRY (2004) and CONCEPTS IN WINE TECHNOLOGY (2004). 13. Olney, Richard. ROMANÉE-CONTI: THE WORLD’S MOST FABLED WINE. New York: Rizzoli International Publications, Inc. 1995. Richard Olney is a food writer with a seemingly keen interest in top-rate wineries and their highly acclaimed legendary wines. This book recounts the fascinating history and winemaking practices of Le Domaine de La Romanée-Conti (DRC), unquestionably the most famous Burgundian winery located in the Côte d’Or. It describes the winemaking philosophy and practices in the production of such premium DRC wines as La Tâche, Grands Echézeaux, Richebourg, and, of course, Romanée-Conti. Home winemakers can now get an appreciation of how these great Burgundian wines are made and the extent to which such wineries will go to achieve the highest quality standards possible. 14. Olney, Richard. YQUEM. Suisse: Flammarion. 1985. Richard Olney recounts the fascinating history and winemaking practices of Château d’Yquem, the producer of the legendary Premier Grand Cru Classé Sauternes wine. Written with the same purpose and style as his book on Le Domaine de La Romanée-Conti, YQUEM, however, is supplemented with superb glossy photographs such as the 32 vintage bottles ranging from 1858 to 1944. 66 15. Ough, C.S. and M.A. Amerine. METHODS FOR ANALYSIS OF MUSTS AND WINES. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1988. Ough and Amerine have been two of the most influential œnologists in American winemaking. Researchers, professors and writers, they have laid much of the initial groundwork in California in the post-Prohibition era to revive the winemaking industry. This book is strictly geared for those pursuing a career in professional winemaking, or more specifically, in wine analysis. The contents are highly technical and require extensive knowledge in various branches of chemistry. It does, however, provide very detailed descriptions of analytical procedures that are otherwise very difficult to find in other textbooks. 16. Peynaud, Emile. KNOWING AND MAKING WINE. Spencer, Alan F., tr. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1984. Emile Peynaud has been unquestionably the leading authoritative research œnologist and teacher of modern winemaking. In spite of its very technical content, this scholarly book is still indispensable and should be part of any winemaker’s library. It is one of the most complete practical textbooks on winemaking. The many lists of advantages and disadvantages of various equipment, winemaking and vinification procedures will prove very helpful when deciding which to use. 17. Peynaud, Emile. THE TASTE OF WINE: THE ART AND SCIENCE OF WINE APPRECIATION. Schuster, Michael, tr. London: Macdonald & Co. (Publishers) Ltd. 1987. Making wine is half the fun! The other half is tasting wine. And once again, Emile Peynaud has done a scholarly job of describing the science and practice of wine tasting. Specifically, it describes how to assess the visual, 67 olfactory and gustatory aspects of wine, and outlines tasting techniques. Assessing and describing a wine requires a very rich and descriptive vocabulary. Emile Peynaud provides a comprehensive vocabulary with accurate definitions used in wine tasting. One’s ability to accurately describe a wine depends on mastery of this vocabulary. 18. Ribéreau-Gayon, P., Dubourdieu, D., Donèche, B., and A. Lonvaud. HANDBOOK OF ENOLOGY: VOLUME 1 - THE MICROBIOLOGY OF WINE AND VINIFICATIONS. Branco, Jeffrey M., tr. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 2000. Pascal Ribéreau-Gayon, director of the Institut d'Œnologie de Bordeaux and son of Jean Ribéreau-Gayon, the "father of modern œnology" and Emile Peynaud's mentor, has teamed up with other Bordeaux scholars to produce this authoritative textbook on the microbiology of wine. This book is intended for those having a chemistry background and wanting to pursue a career in commercial winemaking, research in œnology, or wine analysis. This first volume focuses on the role of yeasts, bacteria and sulfur dioxide in red and white wine vinifications. 19. Ribéreau-Gayon, P., Glories, Y., Maujean, A., and D. Dubourdieu. HANDBOOK OF ENOLOGY: VOLUME 2 - THE CHEMISTRY OF WINE, STABILIZATION AND TREATMENTS. Aquitrad Traduction, tr. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 2000. In this second volume, Pascal Ribéreau-Gayon and his co-authors focus on the chemistry of wines—alcohols, carbohydrates, phenolic compounds, aromas, etc.—as a prelude to detailed discussions on stabilization procedures and treatments of wine including fining, filtration, and ageing. In spite of the highly technical nature of this text, as well as Volume 1, the authors provide valuable practical advice, recommended additive concentrations and limits imposed by the European Community, and much more. 68 20. Robinson, Jancis, ed. THE OXFORD COMPANION TO WINE – THIRD EDITION. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2006. Jancis Robinson, a Master of Wine, writer and leading authority in œnology, is the editor of this beautiful and updated masterpiece. This heavy, encyclopedia-style book contains 3900 entries from abboccato to zymase. Over 160 Masters of Wine, writers, researchers, professors, œnologists, wine consultants and others have contributed to this work. Each entry is concise and yet thorough and informative. This reference textbook is sprinkled with superb photographs, illustrations, and maps of wine-producing regions. A must-have in every library. 21. Robinson, Jancis. VINES, GRAPES & WINES. New York: Mitchell Beazley Publishers. 1986. Ever wondered what Auxerrois or Valdepeñas are? Or what are the differences between the various Muscat grape varieties? These grape variety entries and over 800 more can be found in this reference book with detailed descriptions of origin, characteristics, and the type of wines they produce. Illustrations of grape bunches are useful in learning about grape physiology. A very useful comprehensive list of synonyms for each grape variety is also provided. If a grape variety cannot be found in this textbook, it probably does not exist! Although there is considerable overlap with Robinson’s OXFORD COMPANION TO WINE, this book still offers a lot more details. 22. Zoecklein, Bruce W., Fugelsang, K.C., Gump B.H., and F.S. Nury. WINE ANALYSIS AND PRODUCTION. Gaithersburg: Aspen Publishers, Inc. 1999. Zoecklein is a world-renowned researcher in the field of wine science and technology. He is a professor at the Department of Food Science and 69 Technology at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University. He has teamed up with other experts from California State University at Fresno to deliver an outstanding book that every serious winemaker should own and have read thoroughly. This book is very technical in nature, yet well organized and very easy to read. It is one of the most practical and useful book on wine analysis and production, with an extensive section on laboratory procedures. 70