What is Wine?
Wine is an alcoholic beverage made with fermented grapes.
Of course, you can ferment any fruit to make wine. But legally speaking, if
it’s labeled “wine” then it must be made with grapes. Other fruit wines
must append the fruit type to the label (e.g. “cranberry wine.”)
Once a year, grapes are harvested to make wine. This is where we get the
term “vintage.” Each vintage is characterized by unique growing
conditions (rainfall, wind, frost, hail, fires, etc) that ultimately affect how
the wine tastes. This is why you’ll find some vintages preferrable to
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others. It’s useful to note that a single vintage can affect red and white
wines somewhat differently.
The grapes used for winemaking are not like the ones you’ll find in the
grocery store. Wine grapes are smaller, sweeter, have thicker skins, and
contains seeds. These attributes give wine its unique acquired taste.
What’s surprising is most wine is made from grapes of a single species
called Vitis vinifera. This species originated in the Caucasus Mountains of
Eastern Europe. We’ve made wine with this species for about 10,000
years.
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Today, there are about 1,400 grape cultivars used in commercial wine
production. That said, only about 100 of these varieties make up 75% of
the world’s vineyards. This means some wines you’ll discover are made
with very rare wine grapes.
With so many options out there, how do you hone in on your favorites?
Well, as diverse as wine is, most wines can be categorized into 9 styles.
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Once you try each of the 9 styles, you’ll have a pretty good idea of what
you like and don’t like.
Sparkling wines are characterized by carbonation caused from a second
fermentation. This gives bubbly wines distinct yeasty and bready aromas.
Sparkling wines come in all styles (white, rosé, and red) and sweetness
levels. The label terms “Brut,” “Extra Brut,” and “Brut Nature” are the
most dry (e.g. not sweet.)
WHAT TO TRY
CAVA
CHAMPAGNE
CRÉMANT
CAP CLASSIQUE
PROSECCO
LAMBRUSCO
4
SEKT
AMERICAN SPARKLERS
Full-bodied white wines are great wines for red wine lovers because of
their rich smooth taste and subtle creamy notes. What makes white wines
so rich? Aging white wines in oak barrels causes several interactions to
occur that increase body. So, be sure to look up the aging program to
ensure the wine has had some barrel aging (usually from 6–12 months.)
WHAT TO TRY
CHARDONNAY
VIOGNIER
MARSANNE
ROUSSANNE
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GRENACHE BLANC
SÉMILLON
AGED RIOJA BLANCO
Aromatic grapes include some of oldest wine varieties in the world. In
fact, Cleopatra was noted to love of Muscat of Alexandria–a rich, aromatic
sweet wine from Greece.
Expect explosive, perfumed aromas that spring out of the glass. Aromatic
whites are available in dry or sweet styles, but often taste a touch sweet
because of their sweet aromas.
WHAT TO TRY
RIESLING
TORRONTÉS
6
MOSCATO*
MUSKATELLER*
MOSCATEL*
GEWÜRZTRAMINER
MOSCHOFILERO
Rosé is made by “dying” the wine for a short time with red grape skins.
Rosé first became popular in the late 1700’s when French Bordeaux wines
imported to England had a pale color and were called Claret.
Nearly any red grape can be made into rosé. Also, it’s possible to blend in
white wines to add acidity and complexity.
The world’s largest rosé region is Provence, France
WHAT TO TRY
PROVENCE ROSÉ
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SANGIOVESE ROSÉ
GARNACHA ROSÉ
PINOT NOIR ROSÉ
SYRAH ROSÉ
CABERNET FRANC ROSÉ
BEAUJOLAIS ROSÉ
WHITE ZINFANDEL (SWEET)
Light-bodied red wines are typified by their translucent color, light tannin,
increased acidity, and delicate, floralherbal aromas. Light-bodied red
wines are very versatile food wines – they make a perfect match with
poultry. This style is growing in popularity given that it pairs with a wide
variety of cuisines.
WHAT TO TRY
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PINOT NOIR
GAMAY
BEAUJOLAIS*
FRAPPATO
CINSAULT
NERELLO MASCALESE
SCHIAVA
ZWEIGELT
LAMBRUSCO**
*A French regional wine of 100% Gamay **Sparkling style
Not too light nor too heavy, this is the “baby bear” red wine style. There
are a wide array of choices (and thus, flavors) in this red wine category.
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Tannin is moderate, and expect most to have slightly higher acidity. The
aforementioned traits make for a wine that can pair with most foods (but
avoid super delicate dishes.) Additionally, many of these wines have the
structure to age well.
WHAT TO TRY
MERLOT
GRENACHE
SANGIOVESE
TEMPRANILLO
BARBERA
CABERNET FRANC
DOLCETTO
CARMÉNÈRE
BLAUFRÄNKISCH
VALPOLICELLA BLENDS
MENCÍA
MONTEPULCIANO
NEBBIOLO
XINOMAVRO
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ZINFANDEL
Full-bodied red wines are the deepest, darkest, and highest in tannin of the
red wines. Despite what you might have heard about it, tannin is what
gives wine antioxidant properties. Additionally, it ensures many of these
wines will age for decades. Bold red wine pairs well with fatty, umamidriven foods because of their high tannin. Truthfully though, you might
want to ditch the food altogether – they drink well solo.
WHAT TO TRY
CABERNET SAUVIGNON
SYRAH (AKA SHIRAZ)
BORDEAUX BLEND
MALBEC
SYRAH
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MONASTRELL
NERO D’AVOLA
PETITE SIRAH
PINOTAGE
SAGRANTINO
TANNAT
TOURIGA NACIONAL
In the 1800’s, sweet wines were more popular than dry wines. In fact,
several of the most exalted wines in the world, from Sauternes in
Bordeaux to Tokaji Aszú from Hungary, will age just as long as bold red
wines (or longer!) The dessert wine style is actually a catchall for some of
the more rare wines of the world. Each is made with a unique method and
range from dry to sweet.
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WHAT TO TRY
SHERRY
PORT
SAUTERNAIS
ICE WINE
MADIERA
MARSALA
MOSCATEL DE SETÚBAL
VIN SANTO
MUSCAT OF ALEXANDRIA
The global, wine production statistics maintained by the International
Organization of Vine and Wine (OIV). According to it, more than 267
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million hectoliters (hl) of wine was produced worldwide in 2016. Italy is
the world’s leading wine producer, with the United States coming in at
number four.
The list of top 10 countries in wine production and the volume of wine
produced are as following:

Italy: 50.9 ml

France: 43.5 ml

Spain: 39.3 ml

United States: 23.9 ml

Australia: 13 ml

China: 11.4 ml

South Africa: 10.5 ml

Chile: 10.1 ml

Argentina: 9.4 ml

Germany: 9 ml
History of Wine Production
Vitis vinifera var. Sylvester’s consider as the wild ancestor of the wild
grape found in Europe. It is a species native to the area lying between the
Caspian Sea and the Mediterranean Sea in the Eurasian region. The
discovery of this species in areas outside this natural area consider as
evidence that it cultivated.
The Unique Case of Chinese Wines
The earliest evidence of wine production has been found in the Jehu region
of China, dating back to the Neolithic era. The proof of wine production
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involving fruit, honey, and rice dates back to around 7000 BC. The seeds
of both grape and hawthorn have found at the site. Scripture-based
evidence of the use of grapes has associated with the Zhou Dynasty, dating
back to around 1046 BC.
The unique thing about the earliest wine recipes in China is that the
evidence doesn’t suggest any link to the European grape, but to native wild
grape species. Interestingly, the region has had up to four dozens of wild
grape species which not import from western Eurasia. The Eurasian grapes
came to China only in the second century BC. The first evidence of wine
production in Western Asia dates back to 5400 to 5000 BC Hajji Faro’s
region in Iran.
Types of Wines
Two main types of wines are produced the world over – the white wine
and the red wine, made from the white and black grapes. However, there
are many sub-varieties of wines, made based on the sub-species of grape
vines that grow in different regions. These include the following different
wine types:

Riesling (White Wine): This type of wine is produced from grape
vines growing in the German area of Rhine and Mosel. The subvariety has also been imported to other parts of the world, including
USA. It stands out for its balance of slight sweetness and firm
acidity.

Gewürztraminer (White Wine): This type of wine comes from
grapevines growing in Alsace in Germany. It is also found in New
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York and the West Coast (USA). It stands out for its excellent aroma
which is a blend of rose petal, allspice, lychee and peach.

Chardonnay (White Wine): This wine has been one of the most
popular varieties that can be made in both still and sparkling
varieties. It originates from the Burgundy region in France and can
be found grown in other parts of the world too. It stands out for its
deeper velvety and wider-bodied taste compared to other dry white
wines. It has vibrant citrus flavors.

Sauvignon Blanc (White Wine): This type of grape vine comes from
the Bordeaux region in France, and mainly concentrated in the Loire
Valley. It is also grown in New Zealand and Australia. Its taste has
herbal character with suggestions to fresh mown grass or bell pepper
and the flavor can include hints of sour green fruits such as pear,
apple, gooseberry, mango, melon or blackcurrant.

Syrah (Red Wine): This red wine variety comes from the Rhone
Valley in France, but also grows in Australia and California. It
stands out for its flavors and aromas of wild black-fruit with touches
of black pepper spice.

Merlot (Red Wine): It is a soft wine that is often the introductory redwine for new drinkers. It has herbal and black-cherry flavors and is a
valuable addition to the Bordeaux blend.

Cabernet sauvignon (Red Wine): this is considered as one of the best
grape vine varieties in the world. It has its origins in France and can
grow in many places. It is a full-bodied wine with notable bellpepper notes, but it changes its character with age.

Pinot noir (Red Wine): This is among the rarest red wine grapes due
to its peculiar characteristics. It has fresh and delicate character and
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very fruity aromas, even with notes of damp earth and tea-leaf. It is
native to France’s Burgundy, but is also found in California,
Australia, New Zealand and Oregon.
Wine Making Process
There are 5 basic steps involved in making wine from the grapevine. There
can however be some variations in the process depending on the type of
wine that needs to do. The 5 basic steps are as following:

Picking the Grapes: Usually, white grapes are picked before the red
grapes. Grapes are picked and collected in lugs or bings and then
moved to the crushing pad. Grapes can be harvested by hand or
machine. Night harvesting is considered to help pick grapes with
stable sugar levels.

Crushing the Grapes: A de-stemmer is used to remove stems from
the grape clusters. The grapes will be placed on a sorting table
before it is sent to the de-stemmer and then to the crusher. In the
crusher, the grapes get separated from the seeds and skins. White
wine is typically forwarded to a press to extract the juice and red
wine is lightly crushed after de-stemming.

Fermentation: It is this stage in the wine production process where
the sugar gets converted into alcohol. There are different techniques
involved based on the kinds of grapes which are involved. This can
include adding yeast to the vats, pumping over the cap, and pressing
the grapes after the fermentation process gets completed.

Aging the Wine: A wide range of techniques are used to create
intense flavors in the wine. It can include aging for a few months or
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many years, aging in oak or stainless steel, aging in used barrels or
new oak, aging in French oak/American oak barrels, aging in
‘toasted’ barrels.
Once this process gets completed, wines bottle for consumption. Dry red
wines can take anything from 18 to 24 months to age. On the other hand,
some varieties of white wines can be ready in just a few months.
Winemaking often considers as an art form, where the flavor can be
significantly impacted by what techniques use at each stage. In fact, it is
such a subtle “form of art” were even talking to the vines is considered to
have a positive impact on the produce.
Literature Review
Red wine is characterized by the presence of phenolic compounds
that contribute to colour,mouthfeel and astringency (Gawel 1998).
These compounds occur naturally in grapes of red Vitis vinifera
cultivars and winemakers aim to extract them into the wine through
various methods of maceration. Post-fermentation extended
maceration (EM) is one such method that involves leaving the skins
and seeds, or pomace, and wine in contact for a period of time
beyond the completion of primary fermentation (Peynaud 1984).
Beneficial changes to mouth-feel, tannin concentration and structure
are sought by winemakers who employ post-fermentation EM (Pers.
Comm. PJ Charteris, Brokenwood Wines, March 2010). However,
the traditional use of EM has been based on anecdotal evidence, with
little understanding of the chemical consequences and outcomes.
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As winemakers primarily employ post-fermentation EM to manipulate
phenolic extraction processes and the organoleptic profiles of red
wine, this review focuses on phenolic wine compounds specifically
in the context of extraction, maceration and organoleptic properties.
The existing understanding of post-fermentation EM consequences
and their application to commercial winemaking practices is also
assessed, along with methods of phenolic measurement and analysis.
Grape and Wine Phenolics
Red wine contains a complex chemical mix of grape-derived phenolics,
along with those modified through maceration and fermentation. The
extraction of these phenolics during vinification is an important
process in determining final wine quality (Boulton et al. 1996, Lu
and Foo 1999, Kennedy and Peyrot des Gachons 2003). There are
several important phenolics that exist in grapes and wine, which
contribute variously to colour, astringency and mouth-feel.
Importantly, the phenolic composition of grapes will vary depending
on variety, growing season, vine health and vineyard management
(Auw et al. 1996, Gawel 1998, de Freitas et al. 2000, RomeroCascales et al. 2005). In addition, under the conditions found in red
wine (pH 3.2-3.6, 11-16% v/v ethanol) phenolics will undergo
complex reactions and modifications over the course of maturation,
resulting in changes in the sensory properties of the wine (Gawel
1998, Guadalupe and Ayestaran 2008).
Grapes phenolics are found in skin and seed tissues, in differing
concentrations and forms based on cultivar and season (Sun et al.
1999). Their composition in the grape will also change based on fruit
19
maturity; this has given rise to the concept of “phenolic ripeness” as
a criterion for optimum harvest (Ristic and Iland 2005, Adams 2006,
Rio Segade et al. 2008).
Monomeric Flavonoids and Non-Flavonoids
The two main classes of phenolics found in grapes and wine are the
flavonoids and nonflavonoids. Non-flavonoids such as
hydroxycinnamic acid are prevalent in red and white wine grapes,
but since they do not contribute to wine colour or astringency in red
wines (Verdette et al. 1988), they are of little interest in this study.
Flavonoids share a basic C6-C3-C6 structure, consisting of an “A”
and a “B” aromatic ring, which are joined by a three carbon chain
closed by oxygen, to form a heterocyclic ring, as shown in Figure 11. This class of compound includes flavan-3-ols, flavonols and
anthocyanins (Gawel 1998).
The monomeric flavan-3-ol class is of particular importance in red
winemaking, as these molecules contribute to bitterness and
astringency (Gawel 1998, Brossaud et al. 2001). They are found in
both skins and seeds of grapes and in wine, however Downey et al.
20
(2003) found that seeds contained 15 times the amount of
monomeric flavan-3-ols than skins with respect to fresh weight. The
molecular structure of several important flavan-3-ols
Structure of the main monomeric flavan-3-ol class compounds found in V.
vinifera cultivars (from Cheynier et al. 2006).
Anthocyanins are a highly reactive class of flavonoids that contribute to
the colour of red wine. The expression of anthocyanin colour is
highly pH dependent and ranges from red at low pH to blue at higher
pH (Eiro and Heinonen 2002). They are also susceptible to bleaching
through reactions with bisulphite (Peng et al. 2002). The structure of
the main anthocyanin compounds found in red wine is shown below
(Figure 1.3). In red V. vinifera cultivars these compounds are found
as glucosides, bound to glucose at carbon 3 of the centre ring. The
sugar residues of anthocyanins may be acylated in some varieties, to
give 15 main forms of anthocyanins (Cheynier et al. 2006).
Malvidin-3-glucoside is by far the most prevalent form, making up
more than 80% of all anthocyanins in Pinot Noir berries (Mazza
2005) and 35% in Shiraz (Ristic et al 2007). Importantly, it has been
21
shown that as monomeric units, anthocyanins do not markedly
contribute to astringency or bitterness (Gawel 1998)
Structure of the main classes of anthocyanins as glucosides found in V.
vinifera cultivars (from Cheynier et al. 2006).
Anthocyanins may also be incorporated into other compounds that
contribute to wine colour. These include pigmented polymers
formed through reaction with other phenolics (discussed in section
1.2.2) as well as pyranoanthocyanins or “wine pigments”, created
through reactions with yeast metabolites during fermentation
(Bakker and Timberlake 1997, Birse 2007). Examples of such
compounds include; visitin A, formed from reactions with pyruvic
acid, and visitin B through reactions with acetaldehyde (Birse 2007).
These pigments are more colour stable than free anthocyanins to the
effects of pH (Bakker and Timberlake 1997).
Proanthocyanidins and Tannins
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This class of compounds includes various polymers of flavan-3-ol
monomers linked by C4-C6 or C6-C8 bonds, shown in Figure 1.4
and 1.5. The number of flavan-3-ol monomer subunits that make up
a proanthocyanidin molecule is referred to as the degree of
polymerisation (Gawel 1998, Kennedy and Jones 2001). While
proanthocyanidins contribute significantly to wine astringency
(Gawel 1998, Cheynier et al. 2006), it is accepted that they
contribute more astringency and less bitterness to wine than
monomeric flavon-3-ols, and the perception of astringency increases
with the size (polymerisation) of the molecule (Brossaud et al. 2001,
Vidal et al. 2002). They occur naturally in grape seeds and skin,
however Downey et al. (2003) found that 75% of the extractable
proanthocyanidin in Shiraz was from the seeds. It has also been
shown that skin proanthocyanidin has a higher degree of
polymerisation than seed proanthocyanidin in many varieties,
suggesting a potential difference in organoleptic properties between
skin- and seedderived proanthocyanidins (Gawel 1998, Downey et
al. 2003, Cheynier et al. 2006).
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In wine, proanthocyanidins and monomeric flavan-3-ols undergo
condensation reactions to form large polymers, commonly referred
to as condensed tannins. These can have high degrees of
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polymerisation and eventually become insoluble in wine (Gawel
1998, Cheynier et al. 2006).
Anthocyanin units may also be included in the polymerisation of tannins,
forming polymeric pigments that contribute significantly to red wine
colour (Jurd 1969, Somers 1971, Gawel 1998, Gomez-Plaza et al.
2001, Peng et al. 2002, Cheynier et al. 2006). Harbertson et al.
(2002) found only small concentrations of polymeric pigments in
Shiraz, Cabernet Sauvignon and Pinot Noir fruit, suggesting that
these compounds are primarily formed during the winemaking
process. Depending on composition, these pigments variously
express red, orange and brown colours (Cheynier et al. 2006), which
are more pH stable than monomeric anthocyanins (Somers 1971,
Gawel 1998) and are resistant to bisulphite bleaching (Cheynier et
al. 2006). In the maturation of young red wines, monomeric
anthocyanins are variously bound and converted to different
coloured and non-coloured forms (Somers 1971, Birse 2007). Thus,
polymeric wine pigments become the prevalent source of colour as
the wine ages (Somers 1971, Peng et al. 2002).
Maceration in Red Winemaking
The extraction of phenolics from grapes is a key aspect of red
winemaking, as mentioned previously; phenolic compounds are
primarily located in the skins and seeds of V. vinifera grapes. The
movement of phenolics from these solid grape tissues into the juice
must or wine is referred to as maceration and the rate of extraction
can be increased through various methods (Robinson 2006). For
example, agitation of the must prior to, during, and after primary
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fermentation has long been known to increase the extraction of
phenolics (Ough and Amerine 1961, Kennedy and Peyrot des
Gachons 2003). Pre-fermentation maceration, or “cold soaking” is
used by winemakers to improve wine colour intensity through
increased anthocyanin extraction (Nemanic et al. 2002, Parenti et al.
2004), but without increased tannin extraction from seeds (Peyrot
des Gachons and Kennedy 2003). Additionally, winemakers are able
to implement various maceration techniques during red wine
fermentation, such as plunging or pump-overs (Boulton et al. 1996).
Zoecklein (1991) suggests that these methods of extraction will have
different effects. Namely pump-overs may extract less colour due to
uneven leaching of the cap but may extract rough, bitter tannins due
to the harsh treatment of the must (which increases the level of fine
solids in the wine), while plunging results in a more gentle, even
extraction of phenolic compounds (Zoeckline 1991).
Importantly, the rate of extraction and types of phenolic compounds
extracted by maceration techniques can change depending on the
temperature and percentage of alcohol in the must (Kennedy and
Peyrot des Gachons 2003, Gonzalez-Manzano et al. 2004, Sacchi et
al. 2005). It has been suggested that higher temperatures increase the
permeability of hypodermal cells of the skin and seed tissues
resulting in greater release of phenolics, while certain phenolic
compounds become soluble at different ethanol concentrations,
particularly those from seeds (GonzalezManzano et al. 2004, Sacchi
et al. 2005). However, one of the most important factors in phenolic
extraction has been suggested to be the length of contact time
26
between the phenolic-containing tissues and the juice, must or wine
(Singleton and Trousdale 1983, Zoecklein 1991, Auw et al. 1996,
Kennedy and Peyrot des Gachons 2003). It is on this principle that
winemakers base the use of extended maceration post-fermentation
(Zoecklein 1991, Sacchi et al. 2005).
Post-fermentation Extended Maceration
Practices
Maceration of the skins, seeds and wine beyond the completion of primary
fermentation is a traditional practice in many winemaking regions
(Peynaud 1984). The length of postfermentation extended
maceration (EM) is generally decided based on regular tasting to
determine when the required level of phenolic extraction and
modification has occurred, and may last for up to six weeks for
Cabernet Sauvignon in California (Peynaud 1984, Zoecklein 1991).
In a survey of Australian winemakers conducted in 2005, Joscelyne (2009,
p. 44) found that postfermentation EM was thought to significantly
affect the structure, mouthfeel and palate length of the wine.
Anecdotally, this technique is indeed used by winemakers to
improve the mouthfeel and tannin profile of a wine through
increasing tannin intensity and length, while reducing harsh or bitter,
astringent tannins that may be present after primary fermentation
(Pers. Comm. PJ Charteris, Brokenwood Wines, March 2010). In a
study conducted with Cabernet Sauvignon, Scudamore-Smith et al.
(1990) found that post-fermentation EM techniques produced wine
that was less fruity but acceptably astringent for longer cellaring.
However, Zoecklein (1991) suggests that fruit from young vines
27
(less than 10 years old) or unripe fruit will not benefit from postfermentation EM, as tannins may be perceived as “green” and
“immature” and further extraction by this method will be detrimental
to wine quality.
Chemical Implications
As suggested above, many winemakers use post-fermentation EM to
improve the organoleptic characteristics of their wine, primarily the
mouthfeel and structure. Studies surrounding the chemical
implications of such practices have found some effect on the
phenolic composition of the wines produced. Zitzlaff (1989),
Scudamore-Smith et al. (1990), Kovac et al. (1992), Auw et al.
(1996), de Freitas et al. (2000), Gomez-Plaza et al. (2001) and
Zimman et al. (2002) all found that post-fermentation EM increased
the extraction of phenolic compounds into wine, specifically (+)catechin, (-)-epicatechin and proanthocyanidins. Scudamore-Smith
et al. (1990), Sipiora and Gutierrex Granda (1998) and Mazza (2005)
found that these increases were greater with longer maceration
times. Due to the much higher concentration of phenolics in the seed
tissue of grapes (Sun et al. 1999) and the general inability to extract
these in a fermenting must with low alcohol concentration (Zou et al.
2002), the higher concentration of such compounds in postfermentation EM wines is generally attributed to the increased
extraction of seed-bound phenolics (Kovac et al. 1992, Zimman et
al. 2002, Harbertson et al. 2009). In a study with Cabernet
Sauvignon wines undergoing 7 days post-fermentation EM, de
Freitas et al. (2000) found that seed-derived, low molecular weight
28
proanthocyanidins (specifically dimers B1-B8) contributed up to
66% of the total concentration of such compounds in these wines
compared to 11% in wines that were pressed when dry. Apart from
increasing phenolic extraction, post-fermentation EM has been
suggested to affect the polymerisation behaviour of phenolic
compounds in wine during maturation. In a study on Cabernet
Sauvignon wines undergoing post-fermentation EM for 14, 23 and
44 days, Kudo and Sodeyama (2002) found wines with longer
pomace contact had an increased molecular weight shift toward
larger phenolic molecules when measured by size-exclusion HPLC
than those with less pomace contact time. The authors suggest this
may be from enhanced extraction of phenolics from the pomace,
thus increasing the rate of tannin polymerisation reactions. GomezPlaza et al. (2001) also found that extended pomace contact resulted
in an increase in proanthocyanidin dimers B2, B4 and B5 over
twelve months of maturation in bottle. Post-fermentation EM has
also been shown to influence red wine colour. Scudamore-Smith et
al. (1990), Kovac et al. (1992) and Sipiora and Gutierrez-Granada
(1998) found that free anthocyanin concentration decreased with
increased pomace contact time post-fermentation. However, these
studies, along with that of Gomez-Plaza et al. (2001), found that the
wine colour density – a spectrophotometric measure of total wine
colour (Somers and Evans 1977) – immediately after pressing was
greater in wines made with post-fermentation EM. Gomez-Plaza et
al. (2001) presented data that suggests that longer pomace contact
results in greater anthocyanin extraction, combined with increased
stable pigment polymerisation, giving greater colour density.
29
However, Scudamore-Smith et al. (1990) found that after maturation
(400 days)
the colour density of post-fermentation EM wines and those pressed at
dryness was similar, suggesting that post-fermentation EM will
produce wines with greater colour density only at a younger age.
Auw et al. (1996) and Gomez-Plaza et al. (2001) found that wine
colour hue – the degree of brown colour relative to red colour in the
wine (Somers and Evans 1977) – was lower in post-fermentation
EM wines up to 12 months after processing, suggesting that this
technique results in earlier, and increased production of stable
pigmented polymers. Zimman et al. (2002) also found that
polymeric pigments provided a greater contribution to wine colour
in Cabernet Sauvignon wines with 20 days post-fermentation EM
than those pressed at dryness. Harbertson et al. (2009) showed that a
20 day post-fermentation EM treatment increased the concentration
of “large polymeric pigments”, defined as those that precipitate with
protein (Harbertson et al. 2003), at both pressing and 185 days
maturation. However, at 185 days, the total polymeric pigment
concentration (sum of “small” and “large” polymeric pigments”)
was similar between control and post-fermentation EM wines.
Findings such as these have led to the conclusion that the increased
extraction of phenolic compounds through post-fermentation EM
provides greater potential for polymerisation between anthocyanins
and polymeric phenols to occur, thus conferring improved colour
stability to the wine at a younger age (Zoecklein 1991, Auw et al.
1996, Harbertson et al. 2009).
30
The Major Types of Wine
BY THE NUMBERS
Let’s zoom out a little to get perspective on what grapes are at the top.
The grapes included here are the most planted varieties. They
represent a large portion of what’s available in the market.
Chances are, you might already be familiar with what’s listed here. That
said, there are a couple of unfamiliar wine grapes included which are
used primarily for brandy (Cognac, etc) or balsamic vinegar
production!
CABERNET SAUVIGNON
Cabernet Sauvignon (“cab-err-nay saw-vin-yon”) is the most planted wine
variety in the world. Wines are rich, red, and robust. This grape
originated in France around the region of Bordeaux. Cabernet
Sauvignon (“cab-err-nay saw-vin-yon”) is the most planted wine
variety in the world. Wines are rich, red, and robust. This grape
originated in France around the region of Bordeaux.
FLAVORS
BLACK CHERRY, BLACK CURRANT, CEDAR, BAKING SPICES,
GRAPHITE
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The rich flavor and high tannin content in Cabernet Sauvignon make it a
perfect partner to seasoned grilled meats, peppery sauces, and dishes
with high flavor.
MERLOT
(“murr-low”) Despite what some say, Merlot is actually very closely
related to Cabernet Sauvignon. Wines are usually considered slightly
more fruity than Cabernet Sauvignon but can age just as long.
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Merlot tastes great alongside roasted dishes like pork shoulder, broiled
mushrooms, or braised short ribs. Try complementing Merlot’s fruit
flavors with chimichurri sauce.
FLAVORS
CHERRY, PLUM, CHOCOLATE, BAY LEAF, VANILLA
AIRÉN
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Spain’s most widely planted grape is primarily used for brandy. That said,
a few producers have revitalized the old, drought-resistant bush
vines for winemaking. Still, it’s quite hard to find outside of Spain.
FLAVORS
APPLE, PINEAPPLE, GRAPEFRUIT, BANANA, ROSE
Madrid-inspired tapas and warm weather.
TEMPRANILLO
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Spain’s top variety, made famous by the region of Rioja, where wines are
classified by how long they age in oak. A well-made Tempranillo
will age over 20 years.
FLAVORS
CHERRY, DRIED FIG, CEDAR, TOBACCO, DILL
Bolder, aged Tempranillo wines pair nicely with steak, gourmet burgers,
and rack of lamb. Fresher styles match well with Mexican street
food and even tomato dishes
CHARDONNAY
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Chardonnay originated from the Burgundy region of France and produces
a wide range of styles from bold, buttery, oak-aged still wines to
lean, Blanc de Blancs sparkling wines.
FLAVORS
YELLOW APPLE, STARFRUIT, PINEAPPLE, VANILLA, BUTTER,
LEMON
If you keep spice and flavor intensity slightly lower and choose dishes
with creamy, buttery flavors then you will be delighted. This is a
wine worthy of lobster.
SYRAH
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Also known as Shiraz in Australia, this grape produces boisterous, rich,
and peppery reds. Syrah originated close to the Northern Rhône of
France.
FLAVORS
TART BLUEBERRY, BLACK PLUM, CHOCOLATE, TOBACCO,
GREEN PEPPERCORN
Darker meats and exotic spices bring out the fruit notes of Syrah. Try it
with lamb shawarma, gyros, Asian five-spice pork, and even Indian
tandoori meats.
GRENACHE
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Also known as Garnacha in Spain, this grape produces juicy, spice-driven,
medium-bodied red wines with red berry flavors and elevated
alcohol. Evidence suggests Grenache is originally of Spanish origin.
FLAVORS
STEWED STRAWBERRY, GRILLED PLUM, LEATHER, DRIED
HERBS, RUBY RED GRAPEFRUIT
The high intensity flavors of Grenache match well with roasted meats and
vegetables spiced with Asian five-spice and cumin.
SAUVIGNON BLANC
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A popular and unmistakable white that’s loved for its “green” herbal
flavors and sky high acidity. This French origin grape turns out to be
one of the parents of Cabernet Sauvignon.
FLAVORS
GOOSEBERRY, HONEYDEW MELON, GRAPEFRUIT, WHITE
PEACH, PASSION FRUIT
A wonderful choice with herb-driven sauces over chicken, tofu, or fish
dishes. Try matching Sauvignon Blanc with Thai and Vietnamese
cuisine.
TREBBIANO TOSCANO (AKA UGNI BLANC)
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Also known as Ugni Blanc in France, this grape is primarily used in the
production of Cognac, Armignac, and balsamic vinegar in Italy.
FLAVORS
LEMON, HONEYDEW MELON, GOOSEBERRY, CRUSHED ROCKS,
LIME PEEL
As a dry white wine, Trebbiano pairs well with hard Italian cheeses,
seafood pastas, white pizza, roast chicken, and pesto.
PINOT NOIR
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The world’s most popular light-bodied red is loved for its red fruit and
spice flavors that are accentuated by a long, smooth, soft-tannin
finish.
FLAVORS
CHERRY, RASPBERRY, MUSHROOM, ALLSPICE, HIBISCUS
A very versatile food pairing wine given it’s higher acidity and lower
tannin. Pinot Noir pairs particularly well with duck, chicken, pork,
and mushrooms.
METHODOLOGY
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The single most important step towards improving your palate. Active
tasting is a learned skill. This method will give you the framework to
improve your ability to assess wine quality. Practice makes perfect!
Be sure to use this method each time you taste a new wine
LOOK
A visual inspection of the wine under neutral lighting
SMELL
Identify aromas through orthonasal olfaction (e.g. breathing through your
nose)
TASTE
Assess both the taste structure (sour, bitter, sweet, etc) and flavors derived
from retronasal olfaction (e.g. breathing with the back of your nose)
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THINK
Take a pause to solidify the taste profile of the wine into your long term
memory
HOW TO TASTE | STEP 1: LOOK
Hold a glass of wine over a white background under neutral lighting and
observe.
1. Identify the hue
2. Inspect intensity (how opaque is it?)
3. Check viscosity (watery or viscous?)
HUE
Here are some common hints you can look for in the color and rim
variation –
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Often Nebbiolo and Grenache-based wines will have a translucent garnet
or orange color on their rim, even in their youth.
Pinot Noir will often have a true-red or trueruby color, especially from
cooler climates.
Malbec will often have a magenta-pink rim.
INTENSITY
How intense and opaque is the color in the glass? Can you see sediment in
the wine? These are general clues that can help you identify the
variety and concentration of the wine.
VISCOSITY
The tears that form on the side of the glass (“wine legs”) can tell us if the
wine has high or low alcohol and/or high or low sugar. The thicker
and more viscous the legs, the more alcohol or residual sugar in the
wine.
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HELPFUL TIPS
As white wines age they oxidize and change color, becoming deeper
yellow. A fully oxidized white wine is brown.
As red wines age, they lose color, becoming more transparent and faded
with a more orange or tawny-colored rim.
If you see sediment in the wine, it’s not bad for you! It’s just a sign of an
unfiltered wine. Most consider this a highly desirable trait.
HOW TO TASTE | STEP 2: SMELL
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Aromas in wine can reveal almost everything about a wine including grape
variety(ies) used, oak or aging regime, region, and even vintage. A
well-trained nose can pick out each of these details. In fact, it’s one
of the primary challenges to becoming a Master Sommelier. Your
goal with this step is to isolate a wine’s individual aromas so that
you can use them as clues to define what the wine is, how it was
made, and where it came from. For example, knowing that the smell
of vanilla indicates a higher presence of vanillin suggests the wine
was likely aged in oak.
HELPFUL TIPS
Find Your Position Hold your glass right under your nose and slowly
move it away (while sniffing) until you can pick out individual
aromas
Swirling Wine in your glass concentrates the aromas and can help you
pick out flavors more easily
Overloaded? If your nose is overloaded, smell your forearm. It helps reset
your nose. Tasting is generally more about the texture than flavor, so
pay attention to that first.
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To simplify this incredibly complex interrelationship (unless you’re
studying fermentation science), we can sort aromas into three
categories:
Primary Aromas are derived from the interaction between the grape and
yeast and can include fruit, flower, and herb-like flavors.
Secondary Aromas are derived primarily from yeast and other microbes
and may include aromas like yeast, cheese, cream, sourdough, or
beer-like smells.
Tertiary Aromas are derived from aging and oxidation (including aging
in oak barrels) and may include vanilla, maple, browned butter, and
nut-like aromas.
HOW TO TASTE | STEP 3: TASTE
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When we taste we’re essentially touching wine and sensing how it feels.
Thus, a large part of the tasting portion is dedicated to texture. This step
ultimately reveals a wine’s physical traits including sweetness, acid
level, tannin, and alcohol.
The moment you taste wine the flavor evolves on your palate until it’s no
longer present.
Some wines will continue to deliver taste sensations on your palate long
after you’ve swallowed.
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Sweetness: The first thing to look for. Is the wine sweet or is it dry? Most
people taste sweetness towards the front of the tongue where they
have the highest proportion of tastebuds.
Acidity: How sour is the wine? Does it make your mouth water? All wines
lie on the acidic side of the pH spectrum. A wine with a low pH (e.g.
high acidity) will cause your mouth to salivate and tingle more than
a wine with a high pH.
Tannin: How astringent or mouth-drying is the wine? This is a trait found
is most red wines and less so in white wines. You can feel tannins on
the middle and sides of your tongue as a mouth-drying, bitter
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sensation. As negative as these taste traits may sound, tannins in
wine are one of the few wine traits that are actually good for you!
Alcohol: When you swallow, pay attention to the warming sensation in
your throat. This is how most of us sense the alcohol level in wine.
High alcohol wines often have a burning sensation and because of
this are often described as tasting “hot.”
Body: How “big” is the wine on your palate? Does it fill your mouth with
flavor and richness or is it lean and lithe? While body is not a
scientific term, it can really help describe what we like/dislike in
wine.
Finish: What flavor or taste does the wine finish with? Is it bitter? sweet?
smoky? oily? salty? It’s interesting to note that the finish is one of
the deciding factors behind what consumers like.
Length: How long does it take until you can’t taste the wine on your
palate? Even a very light-weight wine can have a long length.
Layers: Does the wine’s flavors and textures change over the course of a
single taste? If so, the wine is “layered.”
HOW TO TASTE | STEP 4: THINK
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Developing a highly tuned wine palate takes time.
You can accelerate the process by thinking carefully after tasting a new
wine. The goal is to pick out the key characteristics of a wine in the
way it looks, smells, and tastes. What makes this wine different than
others?
Your wine repertoire is as big as you choose to make it.
By continually trying new wines, new vintages, and new wine regions
you’ll create a diverse wine repertoire. What’s cool is that it really
doesn’t matter if you spend a lot or a little on a bottle of wine.
What’s more important is that you’re actively tasting new wines.
BALANCE
Does the wine’s taste characteristics of acidity, alcohol, and tannin work in
balance with one another? Or does the wine have a trait that tends to
dominate the others? While balance is not necessarily an indicator of
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quality, you’ll find many highly rated wines are noted for being
balanced.
COMPLEXITY
Does the wine have an endless number of flavors and textures to identify?
Or does the wine only have one or two major flavors?
Generally speaking, wines with high complexity are considered higher
quality.
READING WINE RATINGS
Often times you’ll find a point-score associated with a bottle of wine. The
most common rating scale is the 100-point system (developed by
Robert Parker). Additionally, there is a 5-star system (used on
Vivino) and a 20-point scale (more common in the UK). A high
rating doesn’t gaurantee that you’ll love a wine. Instead, a good
rating is a general indication of quality within a style or a good
quality-to-price ratio. Thus, make sure you like the style of wine first
before using ratings to hone in on a purchase choice.
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TIPS ON SERVING & STORING WINE
SPARKLING WINES
Serve “Ice Cold” (38–45 ºF / 3–7 ºC)
Store open 1–3 days* (store in fridge)
LIGHT WHITE & ROSÉ WINES
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Serve “Cold” (45–55 ºF / 7–13 ºC)
Store open 5–7 days* (store in fridge)
FULL-BODIED WHITE WINES
Serve “Cold” (45–55 ºF / 7–13 ºC)
Store open 3–5 days* (store in fridge)
RED WINES
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Serve “Cellar Temp” (55–68 ºF / 13–20 ºC)
Store open 3–5 days* (in cool, dark place)
Decant for at least 30 minutes
FORTIFIED & BOX WINES
Serve “Cellar Temp” (55–68 ºF / 13–20 ºC) Store open 28 days* (in cool,
dark place)
CHOOSING GLASSWARE
55
In a perfect world, you can have one glass for every style of wine. In a
pragmatic world, owning 1–2 glass types is sufficien
You can drink wine from whatever vessel you want, be it a wine glass,
coffee mug, mason jar, or dixie cup! That said, certain glasses do
work better than others on certain wines. Here are the major things
to consider when choosing glassware:
Most importantly, in order to sense the different aromas in wine, you’ll
need added space in the glass above the liquid. You’ll find that most
quality glasses have increased volume capacity ranging from about
11 to 22 ounces. (325 ml to 620 ml)
For most white wines, a slightly smaller bowled glass with a smaller
diameter opening is preferred. Here’s how these two traits affect
aromas:
Preserves floral aromas
Maintains a cooler temperature
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Better expresses acidity in wine
Delivers more concentrated aromas
Conversely, full-bodied white wines like oakaged Chardonnay, Viognier,
White Rioja, and orange wines are better with a larger bowl.
The choice of a red wine glass has a lot to do with mitigating the bitterness
of tannin or spicy flavors to deliver a smoother tasting wine. We’ve
observed red wine glasses tend to have a larger bowl shape and
larger diameter opening. Here are a few pointers:
A globe-shaped glass is ideal for more aromatic, light-bodied red wines
such as Pinot Noir or Gamay.
A large glass with a wider diameter opening is better for big, bold, red
wines with high tannin such as Cabernet Sauvignon.
A large glass with a smaller diameter opening is generally better for spicy
and peppery red wines such as Syrah, Zinfandel, or Sangiovese.
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Even though the science of flavor pairing is complex, anyone can learn the
fundamentals and make great wine pairings. The goal with a great
pairing is to create harmony between food and wine. The first thing
to do to achieve this is to start thinking of wine more like an
ingredient.
CONGRUENT PAIRING
A congruent pairing amplifies shared flavor compounds found in both the
wine and the food. For example, Syrah and black pepper have a
shared compound called rotundone. Thus, a pairing of Syrah with
peppered steak would be a good example of a congruent pairing.
Buttered Popcorn and oaked Chardonnay (both are “buttery”)
Barbecue Pork and Zinfandel (both have rich, smokey, “spiced” flavors)
Bresaola and Chianti Classico (both have meaty, earthy notes)
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CONTRASTING PAIRING
A contrasting pairing creates balance with extreme opposites. In most
cases, the wine acts as a palate cleanser to the food. For example, a
rich, creamy, gooey, mac and cheese can be contrasted by a high
acidity sparkling white wine.
Blue Cheese and Ruby Port (pungent and creamy vs. sweet and bitter)
Pork Chop and Riesling (umami and rich vs. sweet and acidic)
Maple Bacon and Champagne (sweet and umami vs. sour and
carbonated)
Going Deeper: Climate & Soils
CLIMATE TYPES AND WINE
59
Beyond average temperature, climate takes into account the weather
patterns and atmospheric conditions that can help – or hurt – wine
grapes. These factors include rainfall, humidity, wind, frost, hail, and
quality of sunlight. Each attribute can affect everything from a
grape’s skin thickness (tannins!) to whether or not grapes will mold
before harvest. Depending on who you talk to, there are dozens of
ways to classify climate: by average temperature (warm/cool), by
scale (macroclimate, mesoclimate, microclimate), or by general
climate
groups (Mediterranean, Maritime, or Continental, etc). In general, warmer
climates allow grapes to fully ripen and mature, developing deep
pigments, bold fruit flavors, greater sweetness, and higher alcohol
content. On the flip side, cooler climates show a softer side,
accentuating white wines’ minerality, maintaining juicy acidity, and
ensuring a delicate dance of flavors across the palate.
SOILS AND WINE
Soil type – including sand, clay, dirt, pebbles, rocks, and dozens of
combinations in between – plays a big role in how vines grow and
the kinds of wine that they make. Soil type determines the
availability of nutrients, water drainage, water retention, and can
even moderate temperature in a vine’s immediate microclimate. Far
from the nutrient-rich potting soil you use for house plants, grape
vines actually perform better when nutrients are scarce and roots
aren’t swampy. In general, more sandy, grainy soils produce wines
with more aromatic intensity and more delicate body. Conversely,
soils with more clay (and those with additional limestone content!)
60
tend to produce wines with more body, tannin, and stronger fruit
flavors.
Conclusion
Today Indian consumer is well informed about wine than before. Earlier, for consumers , types of
wine means red and white. But today consumers know about definition of red wine can be
considered as Sula satori merlot from Nasik is smooth on the palate..They know about type
of grape, area of origin, brand, taste and expert recommendation. They love to experiment
the various types of wines. But..Still price holds the major contributing factor while selecting
a wine for purchase.
This price sensitivity can be reduced only when Indian wine consumer will be more educated about
wine. It means more involvement in the wine as a product. Then consumers focus would
shift from price sensitivity. Wine marketers should come up with frequent wine tasting
sessions about their flagship brands. This would alter the price challenge in market to some
extent. They should also emphasis on food and wine pairing with a particular combination of
wine.
References
1. American Wine Society, The. THE COMPLETE HANDBOOK OF
WINEMAKING. Ann Arbor: G.W. Kent, Inc. 1993.
This handbook is a collection of technical articles from renowned
authorities from the wine trade and academia as well as from avid home
winemakers. This reference textbook will prove most useful to advanced
winemakers as the contents tend to be too technical for beginners. It
assumes that readers have a good knowledge of winemaking techniques
and processes. Wine analysis is discussed in details although discussions
on the use of different types of wine yeasts and clarification agents and
filtration techniques are cursory. A chapter on sparkling wine production
presents the true méthode champenoise procedure for practical home
winemaking use. In addition to winemaking, this book describes the
elements (visual, olfactory, and gustatory) of wine tasting and how to
organize and conduct wine tastings.
61
2. Barrel Builders, Inc. BARREL MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR
MANUAL. St. Helena: Barrel Builders, Inc. 1995.
This concise, 33-page manual is an excellent reference on how to prepare,
treat and maintain both used and new oak barrels. This manual was
written by experienced coopers who have been serving the California wine
industry for over 20 years; their advice on barrel maintenance has stood
the test of time. Although the section on barrel repairs is beyond the
woodworking abilities of most winemakers, it does provide interesting
reading.
3. Bettiga, Larry J., Golino, D.A., McGourty, G., Smith, R.J.,
Verdegaal, P.S. Weber, E.. WINE GRAPE VARIETIES IN
CALIFORNIA. California: University of California, Division of
Agriculture and Natural Resources, Publication 3419. 2003.
This book is nicely illustrated along with superb photographs of grape
varieties grown in California. Photographs along with morphology
information for each variety make this resource invaluable. It also includes
other useful information such as ripening periods and ripening dates by
growing district. A must-have resource if your winemaking includes grapes
sourced from California.
4. Boulton, R.B., V.L. Singleton, L.F. Bisson, and R.E. Kunkee.
PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICES OF WINEMAKING. New York:
Chapman & Hall (International Thomson Publishing). 1996.
Anyone considering a professional career in œnology should read this
textbook, authored by viticulture and œnology professors from the
University of California at Davis. It provides highly technical and in-depth
discussions of modern winemaking practices and equipment. The book is
structured for use as a teaching aid and is geared to professional
62
winemaking. It assumes a solid technical background in pure and applied
sciences, namely, chemistry, biochemistry and microbiology. Advanced
home winemakers wanting to further their technical knowledge of
winemaking will find this book indispensable.
5. Clarke, Oz. OZ CLARKE’S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF GRAPES: A
COMPREHENSIVE GUIDE TO VARIETIES AND FLAVORS. New York:
Harcourt, Inc. 2001.
Oz Clarke is one of the world’s leading wine experts and writers. This 320page book, covering varieties from Albariño to Zinfandel, is an excellent
complement to a similar work, VINES, GRAPES & WINES, by Jancis
Robinson. It is well presented with beautiful photographs and illustrations
along with very useful “consumer information” for varieties, such as the
best producers and recommended wines. An important and useful aspect
of this book is the description of differences of varieties from various
winemaking regions throughout the world.
6. Fugelsang, Kenneth C. WINE MICROBIOLOGY. New York:
Chapman & Hall (International Thomson Publishing). 1997.
This technical textbook on wine microbiology complements PRINCIPLES
AND PRACTICES OF WINEMAKING. Also geared to professional
winemaking, this book provides in-depth descriptions of various bacteria,
yeasts and moulds, and their role in winemaking. This textbook is very
technical and requires a good knowledge of microbiology. The author is a
Winemaster and Professor of Enology in the Department of Enology, Food
Science, and Nutrition at California State University, Fresno.
7. Goode, Jamie. THE SCIENCE OF WINE: FROM VINE TO GLASS.
Berkeley: University of California Press. 2005.
63
This engaging book is laid out in three major sections covering the hotly
debated issues in the fields of science of viticulture, winemaking and
human interaction with wine. It covers scientific, technological and often
controversial innovations from precision viticulture and genetically modified
grape vines, to reverse osmosis, spinning cones, evaporators and
screwcaps, to wine flavor chemistry and health. A fun and interesting read!
8. Iland, Patrick, Ewart, A., Sitters, J., Markides, A., and Nick
Bruer. TECHNIQUES FOR CHEMICAL ANALYSIS AND QUALITY
MONITORING DURING WINEMAKING. South Australia: Patrick
Iland Wine Promotions. 2004.
This updated edition is a must-have in every winery’s library. It covers the
plethora of laboratory procedures, each described in step-by-step
instructions along with pertinent chemical concepts. The spiral bound
laminated hard paperback format is ideal for the laboratory environment.
9. Jackisch, Philip. MODERN WINEMAKING. Ithaca: Cornell
University Press. 1985.
This complete handbook is an excellent reference for serious winemakers.
It offers one of the most complete lists of winemaking problems, and how
to prevent and correct these problems. The author, a research chemist,
shares his wealth of winemaking knowledge from his years of experience
as winemaker, wine consultant, wine competition judge, and teacher.
Readers should have a good technical background. Those interested in
submitting their homemade wines into wine competitions will find a short
but useful section on competition rules and judging procedures.
10. Jackson, David, and Danny Schuster. THE PRODUCTION OF
64
GRAPES & WINE IN COOL CLIMATES. New Zealand: Gypsum Press
and Daphne Brasell Associates Ltd. 2001.
Whether you make wine in Burgundy, New Zealand, Niagara or the Finger
Lakes region, this book provides valuable information on cool-climate grape
growing and winemaking. Agronomical information such as ideal soil type,
vigor, pruning methods, disease susceptibility, effect of wet weather,
rootstocks, and expected yields will prove very useful in identifying and
selecting grapes. It covers the major V. vinifera varieties but also lesser
known and obscure cool-climate varieties such as Blaufrankischer, St.
Macaire, and Zweigeltrebe.
11. Johnson, Hugh and James Halliday. THE VINTNER’S ART: HOW
GREAT WINES ARE MADE. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1992.
Hugh Johnson is a world-renowned and authoritative wine writer. James
Halliday is a wine writer and also the owner and winemaker of a small
Australian winery. Together, they have authored an excellent book geared
to those interested in acquiring a general knowledge of wine production
without all the intricate technical details. The book is logically sequenced in
three sections describing wine production from vineyard to winery to
bottle. First, the effects of terroir, climate, grape variety, harvesting
techniques and other viticultural factors on wine quality are described.
Second, production processes for different types and styles of wine—from
light-bodied white wines to full-bodied red wines and fortified wines—are
outlined and explained in very simple language. Third, the chemistry and
analysis of wine are briefly, but effectively, treated. Stunning photographs
and superb illustrations enhance the visual dimension of this fascinating
book.
12. Margalit, Phd., Yair. WINERY TECHNOLOGY & OPERATIONS: A
HANDBOOK FOR SMALL WINERIES. San Francisco: The Wine
Appreciation Guild. 1996.
65
This handbook should belong in every serious home winemaker’s library.
Although quite technical in nature—the author has an academic
background in chemistry and physical chemistry in addition to his
experience in small-winery winemaking—the book is very concise and
offers practical advice on all winemaking procedures. It is a truly practical
handbook. For example, procedures for basic analysis of must and wine are
detailed. Margalit has also authored two other excellent books for anyone
considering a career in œnology and winemaking, both published by The
Wine Appreciation Guild: CONCEPTS IN WINE CHEMISTRY (2004) and
CONCEPTS IN WINE TECHNOLOGY (2004).
13. Olney, Richard. ROMANÉE-CONTI: THE WORLD’S MOST
FABLED WINE. New York: Rizzoli International Publications, Inc.
1995.
Richard Olney is a food writer with a seemingly keen interest in top-rate
wineries and their highly acclaimed legendary wines. This book recounts
the fascinating history and winemaking practices of Le Domaine de La
Romanée-Conti (DRC), unquestionably the most famous Burgundian winery
located in the Côte d’Or. It describes the winemaking philosophy and
practices in the production of such premium DRC wines as La Tâche,
Grands Echézeaux, Richebourg, and, of course, Romanée-Conti. Home
winemakers can now get an appreciation of how these great Burgundian
wines are made and the extent to which such wineries will go to achieve
the highest quality standards possible.
14. Olney, Richard. YQUEM. Suisse: Flammarion. 1985.
Richard Olney recounts the fascinating history and winemaking practices of
Château d’Yquem, the producer of the legendary Premier Grand Cru Classé
Sauternes wine. Written with the same purpose and style as his book on Le
Domaine de La Romanée-Conti, YQUEM, however, is supplemented with
superb glossy photographs such as the 32 vintage bottles ranging from
1858 to 1944.
66
15. Ough, C.S. and M.A. Amerine. METHODS FOR ANALYSIS OF
MUSTS AND WINES. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1988.
Ough and Amerine have been two of the most influential œnologists in
American winemaking. Researchers, professors and writers, they have laid
much of the initial groundwork in California in the post-Prohibition era to
revive the winemaking industry. This book is strictly geared for those
pursuing a career in professional winemaking, or more specifically, in wine
analysis. The contents are highly technical and require extensive
knowledge in various branches of chemistry. It does, however, provide
very detailed descriptions of analytical procedures that are otherwise very
difficult to find in other textbooks.
16. Peynaud, Emile. KNOWING AND MAKING WINE. Spencer, Alan
F., tr. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 1984.
Emile Peynaud has been unquestionably the leading authoritative research
œnologist and teacher of modern winemaking. In spite of its very technical
content, this scholarly book is still indispensable and should be part of any
winemaker’s library. It is one of the most complete practical textbooks on
winemaking. The many lists of advantages and disadvantages of various
equipment, winemaking and vinification procedures will prove very helpful
when deciding which to use.
17. Peynaud, Emile. THE TASTE OF WINE: THE ART AND SCIENCE
OF WINE APPRECIATION. Schuster, Michael, tr. London:
Macdonald & Co. (Publishers) Ltd. 1987.
Making wine is half the fun! The other half is tasting wine. And once again,
Emile Peynaud has done a scholarly job of describing the science and
practice of wine tasting. Specifically, it describes how to assess the visual,
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olfactory and gustatory aspects of wine, and outlines tasting techniques.
Assessing and describing a wine requires a very rich and descriptive
vocabulary. Emile Peynaud provides a comprehensive vocabulary with
accurate definitions used in wine tasting. One’s ability to accurately
describe a wine depends on mastery of this vocabulary.
18. Ribéreau-Gayon, P., Dubourdieu, D., Donèche, B., and A.
Lonvaud. HANDBOOK OF ENOLOGY: VOLUME 1 - THE
MICROBIOLOGY OF WINE AND VINIFICATIONS. Branco, Jeffrey
M., tr. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 2000.
Pascal Ribéreau-Gayon, director of the Institut d'Œnologie de Bordeaux
and son of Jean Ribéreau-Gayon, the "father of modern œnology" and
Emile Peynaud's mentor, has teamed up with other Bordeaux scholars to
produce this authoritative textbook on the microbiology of wine. This book
is intended for those having a chemistry background and wanting to
pursue a career in commercial winemaking, research in œnology, or wine
analysis. This first volume focuses on the role of yeasts, bacteria and sulfur
dioxide in red and white wine vinifications.
19. Ribéreau-Gayon, P., Glories, Y., Maujean, A., and D.
Dubourdieu. HANDBOOK OF ENOLOGY: VOLUME 2 - THE
CHEMISTRY OF WINE, STABILIZATION AND TREATMENTS.
Aquitrad Traduction, tr. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 2000.
In this second volume, Pascal Ribéreau-Gayon and his co-authors focus on
the chemistry of wines—alcohols, carbohydrates, phenolic compounds,
aromas, etc.—as a prelude to detailed discussions on stabilization
procedures and treatments of wine including fining, filtration, and ageing.
In spite of the highly technical nature of this text, as well as Volume 1, the
authors provide valuable practical advice, recommended additive
concentrations and limits imposed by the European Community, and much
more.
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20. Robinson, Jancis, ed. THE OXFORD COMPANION TO WINE –
THIRD EDITION. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2006.
Jancis Robinson, a Master of Wine, writer and leading authority in
œnology, is the editor of this beautiful and updated masterpiece. This
heavy, encyclopedia-style book contains 3900 entries from abboccato to
zymase. Over 160 Masters of Wine, writers, researchers, professors,
œnologists, wine consultants and others have contributed to this work.
Each entry is concise and yet thorough and informative. This reference
textbook is sprinkled with superb photographs, illustrations, and maps of
wine-producing regions. A must-have in every library.
21. Robinson, Jancis. VINES, GRAPES & WINES. New York:
Mitchell Beazley Publishers. 1986.
Ever wondered what Auxerrois or Valdepeñas are? Or what are the
differences between the various Muscat grape varieties? These grape
variety entries and over 800 more can be found in this reference book with
detailed descriptions of origin, characteristics, and the type of wines they
produce. Illustrations of grape bunches are useful in learning about grape
physiology. A very useful comprehensive list of synonyms for each grape
variety is also provided. If a grape variety cannot be found in this textbook,
it probably does not exist! Although there is considerable overlap with
Robinson’s OXFORD COMPANION TO WINE, this book still offers a lot more
details.
22. Zoecklein, Bruce W., Fugelsang, K.C., Gump B.H., and F.S.
Nury. WINE ANALYSIS AND PRODUCTION. Gaithersburg: Aspen
Publishers, Inc. 1999.
Zoecklein is a world-renowned researcher in the field of wine science and
technology. He is a professor at the Department of Food Science and
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Technology at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University. He has
teamed up with other experts from California State University at Fresno to
deliver an outstanding book that every serious winemaker should own and
have read thoroughly. This book is very technical in nature, yet well
organized and very easy to read. It is one of the most practical and useful
book on wine analysis and production, with an extensive section on
laboratory procedures.
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