Physical Science
Module 1
Week 1: Formation of Elements
Week 2: Polarity of Molecules
1
Lesson
Formation of Heavier Elements
1
At the end of this lesson, I should be able to:
1. Give evidence for and describe the formation of heavier
elements during star formation and evolution;
2. Understand the basic concept of star formation;
3. Know that the chemical elements from Hydrogen to Iron can
be formed in the stars through stellar fusion;
4. Counteract misconceptions about the formation of heavy
elements;
5. Understand the importance and necessity to keep updated
the progress of scientific concepts.
ACTIVITY 1.1.1 The Galaxy’s Puzzle
Instructions: A. Read the short story provided below and find the 5
words related to physics and chemistry. Use items 1-5 as
a guide to find the words.
Once, there was a spy named Hydrogen (nicknamed Hy) with
massive issues on trusting Angela, his agency partner. There was
always the possibility that their opinions crash against each other
rather than end in a peaceful fusion like when Hy suggests the
suspect of the crime they were investigating could be in the East
Coast but Angela argues that the place should be in the West
Coast. They were almost fired from the job for being too
unprofessional, almost becoming the ‘big bang’ to their careers.
The gravity of the situation made Hy and Angela rethink their
attitude and agree to be more understandable of each other’s
differences on opinions.
B. Chemistry and Physics words found in the story:
______________________1. This is the lightest element in the
periodic table.
2
______________________2. This is what happens when elements
combine together, usually resulting to new
elements.
______________________3. This is the theory which proposes the
universe is still in the process of inflation.
______________________4. This is the term for stars bigger than our
own Sun.
______________________5. This is what pulls atoms together and
what causes the Earth to orbit the Sun.
VOCABULARY
 Big Bang Theory: this is the currently accepted theory of the
origin of the universe which proposes that everything started
from a singularity which in time inflated—and continues to do
so—until the world we know of today started existing
approximately 14 billion years ago.
 Stellar Nucleosynthesis: this is the birth of elements through
nuclear fusion that takes place within stars.
 Supernova: this is the explosion in the event of a death of a
star.
 Neutron-Star Mergers: this is when stars merge to form a more
massive star, generating more energy than normal stars.
 Light Elements: these are elements from Hydrogen to Iron
which form in less massive stars.
 Heavy Elements: these are elements heavier than Iron which
form from massive stars, supernovae, or neutron-star mergers.
Among the proposed explanations on how the universe began,
the Big Bang Theory is the one currently accepted, theoretically. It
describes that the universe started with a singularity defined simply
as a point where all matter, time, space, laws of the universe and
reality itself are condensed—ultimately inflating (not exploding)
since approximately 14 billion years ago until now, according to
NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration).
Before the planet we live in right now came to existence as all the
other planets and solar systems and galaxies, the earliest elements
were formed first.
3
Let us explore why the elements needed to exist first: all matter
that makes up most of the universe—including us—are made up
of elements. These elements are what we study about in the
Periodic Table such as Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), and Gold (Au).
Now we need to understand the foundations and formations of
elements.
This lesson primarily focuses on the formation of the heavier
elements but in order to understand that, we must first understand
how the lighter elements were formed.
The steps below summarize the formation of the earliest and
lighter elements in the heart of massive stars, stars that are nine (9)
times the size of our Sun:
1.
There is first a huge cloud of Hydrogen (H) atoms. As per the
law of the universe, gravity will pull these atoms together.
2. The core (center) of this cloud will get dense and hot, like
when more things rub together they get hotter and more
compressed. This dense and hot core will start to ignite.
3. This ignition is the start of fusion and since the atoms that are
fusing (clumping together) are Hydrogen atoms, this is called
Hydrogen Fusion happening in the core of the cloud.
*KEEP IN MIND: When the Hydrogen fusion takes place, this
doesn’t mean that ALL the Hydrogen atoms are already
fusing. The rest of the Hydrogen atoms that are farther from
the core remains outside the core. This trend happens not
only with Hydrogen but also with other elements when they
start to fuse at a later stage of element formation.
4. The heated core eventually becomes plasma: a soup of
electrons and nucleuses that are not as well-formed,
explaining why they aren’t atoms yet.
5. Hydrogen atoms will eventually fuse into Helium (He) and this
(He) is now the new core. The surroundings of this (He) core is
the previous (H) now called H-shell or H fusion shell.
4
Figure 1.1 Shows the fusion of the isotopes of Hydrogen atoms to form a Helium atom.
6. Since the remaining H-shell are also constantly fusing into the
(He) core, more (He) is formed building up. With this (He) buildup, where gravity pulls atoms inward, there is also pressure
which pushes the H-shell outward causing the size of the star to
get bigger.
7. Steps 1-6 are going to continue until other fusions starts to
happen:
a.He fuses with H into a Carbon (C) core with a He-shell outside
it;
b.C fuses with He into Oxygen (O) core with a C-shell outside
of it; and so on until Iron (Fe).
8. Why do we stop at Fe? It’s because in order to produce
another element after Fe, more energy is needed than what
the existing fusion can supply. That does not mean only the
elements from H to Fe are real elements. Heavier elements
continue to form where there is enough energy: during
supernovae (plural of supernova—when stars explode and
die) and neutron-star mergers (when stars merges).
Now that we have cleared the basics of how the lighter
elements are formed, we go in-depth on how the heavier elements
get formed—one concept still unknown to science but supported
by theories.
5
Stellar Nucleosynthesis is one of the ways heavier elements
are formed. Nucleosynthesis explains how new atomic nucleus are
formed from nucleons preceding from the new ones. There is also
Nuclear Fusion, a process where neutrons and protons combine to
new atoms. Nuclear fusion is how elements Hydrogen, Helium and
small amounts of Lithium and Beryllium were formed.
*REMEMBER: The number of protons (+) is the identity of an element,
not the number of neutron (+) nor the number of electrons (-).
6
ACTIVITY 1.1.2 A Comprehensive Reading
Instructions: Read the given passages and answer the questions that
follow. This activity aims to practice your analysis on
scientific articles, specifically about the basic formation of
elements.
“Heaviest Elements Did Not Form from Supernovae”
Source: Physics Today (Frebel and Beers 2018)
Unitil now it is accepted that heaviest elements formed from a
supernova.However, scientists Anna Frebel from the Massachussets Institute
of Technology (MIT) in Cambridge and Timothy C. Beers from the University
of Notre Dame in Indiana have found evidence contrary to that belief.
A supernova explosion happens when a star dies. This explosion, like
any other explosion, would generate enough heat but in this case, such
heat would aid the formation of elements. Since the lighter elements up
until Iron can take form from normal stars, there are still questions about how
the elements after Iron have taken form to which most studies proposed to
be from supernovae.
From the study of Anna Frebel and Timothy Beers, heaviest elements
tend to form in an environment filled with free neutrons. This is vital because
these free neutrons would be captured eventually into an existing nucleus
making it heavier. The new element will not be this heavier nucleus but the
one formed after this nucleus decays. Such decay would become stable
and thus becomes this new, heavier element with a very short lifespan of a
millisecond.
The big revelation was that such an event with enough
energy can only happen during a neutron-star merging. Neutronstar merger is when two stars collide due to gravitational pull and
results in a much bigger explosion than a standard supernova.
7
Questions:
1. What is the major finding of Anna Frebel and Timothy Beers’ 2018
study?
2. Why do you think their finding is important to the field of scientific
education?
3. What could have happened if the new evidence about the
formation of the heaviest elements had not been discovered?
ACTIVITY 1.1.2B Formation of Elements: An Analogy
Instructions: Read the the procedure carefully. Make sure before
doing this activity that your materials are complete.
Objective: Understand how the formation of elements works through
an analogy.
Materials:
 Colored clays (3 separate colors, at least 1-inch ball each)
 Permanent marker
 any smooth paper to serve as a surface
 1 whole sheet of paper
Procedure:
1. Assign each color as 1A, 2B, and 3C. This will be the information
you will put on your paper as reference. 1A, 2B, and 3C will serve
as element examples. Make sure to take a picture with the
procedures as evidence.
2. Now, make little balls out of one of the colored clays. Make the
balls equal in size. This wil be your 1A element atoms. Make as
many as your clay would allow while setting aside the other 2
colored clays.
3. Now, merge 2 of the 1A atoms and keep merging two balls of the
1A atoms.
8
4. When merged, cover the merged 1A atoms with a new colored
clay. This now becomes an analogy of the birth of a new
element, 2B.
5. Continue covering the merged 1A atoms with the 2B atom color.
6. Notice that while the new atom 2B has been formed, the atom
also becomes heavier.
7. This time, merge two 2B atoms together until all of them are
merged by two.
8. The merged 2B atoms should now be covered with your last
colored clay for it to become the atom 3C. Set your merged
clays aside and follow through step 9.
9. On your paper, answer the following questions:
a.In all honesty, did this activity aided your learning about the
formation of elements? Please justify your answer.
b.What did the colored clays represent?
c. What did the merging of the clay balls represent?
10.
End of activity
PARTS
POINTS
Materials
10 (with pictures)
Questions
10 (with 1 picture per
procedure, total of 8)
TOTAL
POINTS:
20/20
Activity 1.1.4: Origin of Elements
Instructions: In your household, choose one member of your family to
be your partner.
The purpose of this activity is to strengthen your acquired
knowledge through sharing the topic verbally. This method helps
improve memory retention and confidence in the lesson.
What you will do is to tell your partner about what you have
learned today about the formation of the stars and elements. After
this, make sure to ask your partner the following questions and write
her/his answer on a sheet of 1 whole paper.
9
1. What was the process of the formation of lighter elements?
2. Is this lesson new to you?
3. Are you satisfied knowing the origins of the elements? Please
justify your answer.
Make sure that you take a picture of you and your partner’s mini
discussion about the formation of elements at home. This picture
must be sent to your teacher as part of the overall score. Happy
learning!
Activity 1.1.5: In the News
Instructions: To broaden your understanding that this lesson can be
applied in real life, research and read about the elements
that can be found in our blood and bones. Use the following
table below and copy the format on a 1 whole piece of
paper.
Title of the Article:
Date of the Article’s Publication:
Reference/s:
Score:
/10
1. What did you learn from the article?
2. Which elements can be found in a human’s blood and bones?
3. What was the connection of the article you read to the lesson about
the formation of elements?
10
Lesson
Synthesis of New Elements in
the Laboratory
2
ACTIVITY 1.2.1. Hidden Words
Instructions: Find the hidden words inside the box of letters and
encircle them. Use the words you found to match them
with the guide sentences that follow.
A
G
B
Y
H
N
E
D
T
E
A
F
T
D
E
V
O
H
E
N
R
Y
F
R
O
S
D
E
J
B
P
Q
A
S
I
I
M
C
G
G
L
B
L
A
N
G
U
N
I
J
F
D
A
A
O
S
S
K
K
G
C
U
A
O
S
I
Y
D
U
U
T
T
W
G
O
S
D
T
Y
U
R
T
O
D
E
L
E
M
E
N
T
B
A
O
S
E
I
Y
T
A
W
L
I
B
N
M
A
F
G
K
Y
G
C
J
R
G
I
P
E
C
H
K
G
A
S
K
A
T
U
N
D
L
T
S
D
O
Q
R
L
R
M
I
G
O
Y
D
N
P
A
E
O
E
H
A
T
K
N
V
B
L
A
F
P
S
R
D
R
J
F
D
O
T
V
U
Y
H
T
W
G
H
11
Guide Sentences:
DOWN
1. This is the term for the combined number of protons and
neutrons.
ANS: _________________________________
2. This is what the heaviest elements are called.
ANS: _________________________________
3. This means that one part of a molecule is either more positivelycharged or negatively-charged, to be discussed in Lesson 3.
ANS: _________________________________
ACROSS
4. He was the one to fix Mendeleev’s periodic table of elements.
ANS: _________________________________
5. This is formed during the Big Bang, with Hydrogen as an
example.
ANS: _________________________________
VOCABULARY
 Synthetic Elements: refers to the chemical elements formed in a
laboratory through certain, man-controlled processes.
 Transuranium Elements: these are elements heavier than
Uranium.
 Isotopes: these are the same atoms with different number of
neutrons.
 Atomic Number: this is the number of protons in an atom,
pertaining to its identity.
 Atomic Weight: this is the number of protons and neutrons
together of an atom.
 Periodic Trends: the chemical properties exhibited by the
elements, reflected in the periodic table through groups or
families.
12
The heaviest elements in the universe can be recreated in a laboratory. This
type of element creation is called the synthesis of elements which is the focus for
this lesson.
It is important to note that these heavy elements, although created in a
laboratory, do exist in space. The main reason why these heavy elements are
needed to be created here in our planet is because traces of them in space
cannot be harvested. The reason for this is becuase their life spans are too short
to be captured for evidence—microseconds short to be exact.
Let us take the following scenario for example: the element Gold (Au) is too
heavy that whenever it takes form in spcae, it dissipates almost as soon as it was
formed.
Back on 1913, a scientist named Henry Moseley sought to fix Dmitri
Mendeleev’s arrangement of the periodic table of elements. There was a
discovery that arranging the elements based on their weight didn’t reflect the
element’s chemical properties properly. Henry Moseley experimented by
shooting electrons at varying elements. The result was that the elements released
x-rays at a certain frequency that increases as the protons increases.
Based on Henry Moseley’s x-ray spectroscopy experiment, he opted to
arrange the elements in the periodic table according to the square root of their
unique frequency emission resulting in a more organized table which shows
periodic trends more clearly. Moseley’s x-ray spectroscopy is vital in the synthesis
of the heaviest elements in a laboratory because it serves as a foundation of
discovering that manipulating an element’s number of protons can be done.
SYNTHESIS OF ELEMENTS
An element is identified by its number of protons because no two elements
can have the same number of protons. So in order to make a new, heavier
element, protons must be added to an existing atomic nuclei of an element.
A cyclotron—a type of particle accelerator—is a device invented and used
to form and accelerate protons to hit a target nuclei, causing an addition of a
proton to the target element.
13
Figure 2.1 Shows the simple mechanism and model of a cyclotron.
Figure 2.2 Shows the simple mechanism and model of a particle accelerator.
What are the elements synthesized here on Earth? These
elements are those termed as transuranic elements and those written
at the bottom of the periodic table of elements which are the
heaviest in terms of atomic number, considered when heavier than
Uranium (U) with an atomic number of 92.
14
TRANSURANIC ELEMENTS
There are 26 transuranic elements in total, as follows:
Atomic
Number
:
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
Element
Symbol
:
Np
Pu
Am
Cm
Bk
Cf
Es
Fm
Md
Element
Name:
Neptuniu
m
Plutoniu
m
Americiu
m
Curiu
m
Berkeliu
m
Californiu
m
Einsteiniu
m
Fermiu
m
Mendeleviu
m
Atomic
Number:
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
Element
Symbol:
No
Lr
Rf
Db
Sg
Bh
Hs
Mt
Ds
Element
Name:
Nobelium
Lawrencium
Rutherfordium
Dubnium
Seaborgium
Bohrium
Hassium
Meitnerium
Darmstadtium
Atomic
Number:
Element
Symbol:
Element
Name:
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
Rg
Cn
Nh
Fl
Mc
Lv
Ts
Og
Roentgenium
Copernicium
Nihonium
Flerovium
Moscovium
Livermorium
Tennessine
Oganesson
ACTIVITY 1.2.2 Evolution of an Atom’s Representation
Instructions: Answer accordingly. Ask your teacher for clarifications.
Objectives: 1. Analyze how the model of an atom changed over
time;
1. How the different models help us better understand th
concept of the atomic number.
Procedure:
15
1. Research about the following models of the atom in order:
a.John Dalton’s model
b.J.J Thomson’s model
c. Ernest Rutherford’s model
d.Neils Bohr’s model
e. Erwin Schrodinger’s model
2. On a piece of 1 whole paper, draw the simple versions of their
models (in order) and add notes on the bottom about the
highlights of their model.
3. Answer the question: What made the scientists change the
atomic models so much?
Activity 1.2.3: Bomb Leftovers
Remember that during star explosions, heavier elements are
created? That same concept happens here on Earth when a nuclear
bomb explodes. When a nuke explodes, traces of radioactive
elements such as Uranium and those heavier than it are left in the
wake of the explosion. These radioactivity can be hazardous to the
health of the people near the area.
Instructions: To broaden your understanding that this lesson can be
applied in real life, research and read about the Chernobyl
Nuclear Incident focusing on the topics of radiation and its
effects. Use the following table below and copy the format
on a 1 whole piece of paper.
Title of the Article:
Date of the Article’s Publication:
Reference/s:
Score:
/10
1. What did you learn from the article?
16
2. What heavy element was the Chernobyl nuclear accelerators
supposed to make?
3. What was the connection of the article you read to the concept of
atomic number led to the synthesis of new elements in the laboratory?
Lesson
Polarities of Molecules
3
At the end of this lesson, I should be able to:
1. Determine if a molecule is polar or non-polar given its structure;
2. Give the scientific definition of polarity;
3. Identify a molecule’s polarity;
ACTIVITY 1.3.1 Opposites
Instructions: To ready you for the next lesson, this activity will give you
an idea on the general concept of polarity. Use a one
whole piece of paper to make a simple sketch of the given
situations below, following the criteria:
17
Area
Creativity
Neatness
Definition
Percentage
%
Points
This is the creative use of the story
format
as
a
medium
to
communicate knowledge of a
topic.
60
6
This is the readability of your
written output and its neatness.
40
4
100 %
10
per
item
Situations:
1. Tony and Steve playing on a seesaw, with Steve the heavier one on the
left.
2. An infinity sign with the left side bigger than the right.
3. A Yin-Yang
VOCABULARY
•
Polarity: refers to the overall charge of a molecule
•
Molecule: a group of elements bonded together
•
Positive charge: refers to an atom or a molecule with an excess proton
•
Negative charge: refers to an atom or a molecule with an excess, unpaired
electron
•
Electronegativity (EN): the tendency of an atom/element to attract an
electron, resulting in a negative charge, hence the name.
Before anything else, it is important to note that a molecule is held together by
bonds. These bonds are like the ropes which holds together a makeshift roof
outside your house except in a subatomic level, these bonds are either polar or
nonpolar.
18
A polar bond is generally an unfair bond: one is more tight while the other
is rather loose. In chemistry, this bond refers to an ionic bond—a result of an
unequal and big difference in electronegativities of elements involved in the
bond. On the other hand, a nonpolar bond is a fair bond: the electronegativities
of the elements concerned are equal, as well as the sharing of electrons (this
usually occurs in covalent bonds). In analogy to the rope, visualize this bond as
something with both ends of the rope equally tied tight.
DETERMINING THE POLARITY OF A MOLECULE
The easier and more basic way in determining the polarity of a given
structure is through the Lewis structure and some solving, given the following steps
and examples:
1. First, recall how to draw the Lewis structure and apply it to an example. In this
case, let’s have the molecule CO2 (more commonly known as carbon
dioxide.
*IF UNFAMILIAR, kindly ask your teacher to review about how to draw Lewis
structures.
Lewis structure of C𝑂2:
O
C
O
2. Find the electronegativity (EN) difference of each bond. Use a periodic table
of elements for this.
If the EN difference of the bond is greater than 0.4, it is polar but if it is lesser
than 0.4, it is nonpolar. If ALL of the bonds in the molecule is nonpolar, the
molecule is automatically nonpolar. However, if one bond is polar, continue
with the steps.
In the case of C𝑂2, the EN difference is 0.89 which is greater than 0.4. In this
stage we can assume that C𝑂2 is polar.
3. If the central atom has no lone pairs (unpaired electrons) with all of the other
atoms around it the same, the molecule is considered to be nonpolar. If the
19
central atom has lone pairs (unpaired electrons) with all of the other atoms
around it different, the molecule is possibly polar.
ACTIVITY 1.3.2A Creative Approach to Polarity
Instructions: On a ½ crosswise sheet of paper, make a creative story about the
lesson of polarity of molecules. You can use your own characters and
analogy but make sure they are in-line with the main concepts of the
lesson. It could be sci-fi, humor, drama, or in a script format—you
decide. Your short story will be graded according to the following
criteria:
Area
Significance
Creativity
Grammar
Punctuation
Neatness
Definition
This is the connection of the story to
the scientific concept discussed
(polarity of molecules)
This is the creative use of the story
format
as
a
medium
to
communicate knowledge of a topic.
& This is the proper use of the English
(American) language in terms of
grammar and punctuation.
This is the readability of your written
output and its neatness.
Percentage
%
Points
30
6
30
6
20
4
20
4
100 %
20
ACTIVITY 1.3.3 Polarities At Home
After this lesson, try to look at the common objects you can see in your
house and even those outside school with new eyes: how polarity plays a role on
their overall figure and look. From the water to the air around you: their polarity at
work!
20
Instructions: To broaden your understanding that this lesson can be applied in real
life, research and read about the polarity of the following chemicals:
isopropyl alcohol, ammonia, vegetable oil, candle wax, acetone,
and hydrogen peroxide. Use the following table below and copy
the format on a 1 whole piece of paper.
Title of the Article/s:
Date of the Article’s Publication:
Reference/s:
Score:
/7
1. Which chemicals from the list are polar?
2. Which chemicals from the list are non-polar?
21