Review for BIO 2401 Lecture Examination IV:
Central Nervous System, Peripheral Nervous, Autonomic Nervous Systems, and Special
Senses
(Chapters 12, 13, 14, and 15)
The following information is intended to make your study for the exam easier and more
successful. This sheet is not totally inclusive as to the information contained on the exam but
the majority of the test items will pertain to the information given.
Be able to discuss, define, and/or identify the following concepts. Tell what terms or
concepts are referring to and its significance. In completing the following statements, words
may be used multiple times. Note: a blank “_____” may represent one or two words, unless
indicated by two blanks.
1. The CNS develops from a strip of which ectoderm lies on the midline of the embryo.
Specifically, this strip is called the neuroectoderm. It eventually gives rise to a hollow
tube called the neural tube.
2. The neural tube is formed by fusion of the neural folds.
3. The development of (the spinal cord) would directly be affected if the posterior portion of
the neural tube failed to develop properly.
4. The midbrain develops from the embryonic mesencephalon.
5. The medulla oblongata develops from the embryonic myelencephalon.
6. The cerebellum develops from the embryonic metencephalon.
7. The thalamus develops from the embryonic diencephalon.
8. What are the functions of cerebrospinal fluid?buoyancy, protection, chemical stability
9. How does cerebrospinal fluid enter in the subarachnoid space?openings in the fourth
ventricle called medial and lateral apertures **4rth ventricle**
10. gyri/gyrus are ridges on the surface of the cortex. Sulcus are shallow grooves between
these ridges.
11. The right and left cerebral hemispheres are joined mainly by corpus callosum fibers.
12. Identify the lobes that border of each of these fissures or sulci: longitudinal fissure;
parieto-occipital fissure; lateral sulcus; central sulcus
Longitudinal: right and left cerebral hemispheres
Tranverse: cerebrum from cerebellum
Parieto-occipital: parietal and occipital lobes
Lateral sulcus: insula deep inside lateral sulcus/**parietal and temporal lobes
Central sulcus: separates frontal and parietal lobes
13. What neuron structures are located in the gray matter? the white matter?
Gray matter: unmyelinated portions of neurons,cell bodies, dendrites, neuroglia
White matter: mostly myelinated axons
14. Association tracts connect one gyrus to another within the same cerebral hemisphere.
1
15. The corpus callosum is composed of commissural fibers.
16. The cerebral cortex is the area of conscious thought and it forms a cap over the rest of the
brain, because of this, it has been called the “thinking cap.”
17. What was the significance of Brodmann’s numbering scheme? Areas of the cerebral
cortex that are responsible for certain functions such as muscle contraction, sensory
perception/ *identifies specific portions on the cerebral cortex and its functions
18. What is the function of the primary motor cortex? the premotor area?
Primary motor cortex: located in the precentral gyrus,voluntary muscle contractions are
Iniated in the primary motor cortex by large neurons. **iniate motor control**
Premotor area: it is the large area involved in learned motor skills such as typing, riding a
Bicycle or playing the piano and planning movements.**programmed muscle
movements**
19. Loss of ability to perform skilled motor activities such as piano playing, with no paralysis
or weakness in specific muscles, might suggest damage to the premotor area.
20. What is Broca's area? What is its function?controls the muscles needed for
speech(larynx,tongue,cheeks), located anterior and inferior to the premotor area,known as
the motor speech are, found in only one hemisphere, also involved in planning voluntary
movements for speech **motor speech area**
21. Where are the pyramidal neurons cell bodies that initiate skeletal muscle contractions?
Primary cortex are where large neurons/pyramidal cell’s axon extend to the spinal cord to
form pyramidal tracts
22. What is the primary somatosensory area? Where is it found on the cerebrum? Post
central gyrus behind the primary motor cortex, this area receives signals from sensory
receptors in the skin through out the body and proprioceptors in the skeletal muscles. (sense
of touch)
23. Which lobe of the cerebrum is most concerned with vision? posterior occipital
24. What is the function of the visual association area? How would a person be affected if it
were damaged?interprets the image and relates it to images in memory for recognition
25. What lobe of the cerebral cortex is concerned with hearing?superior temporal
26. Explain the significance of the
olfactory cortex: smell
gustatory cortex; taste
vestibular cortex; balance
auditory cortex; receive and perceive hearing through pitch, thythm and loudness
visual cortex: perceive visual stimuli and consists of 3D image using stimuli from both
eyes
27. What area of the brain is possibly involved in verbalizing unfamiliar written words?
Wernicke’s Area
28. Almost all sensory signals pass through the thalamus on the way to the cerebrum. It is
our “relay station.”
29. What are the parts making up the basal nuclei? Caudate nuclei, putamen, globus pallidus
2
30. What are the many functions of the hypothalamus? Contral autonomic nervous system,
regulates emotion, body temp, hunger, thirst, circadian rhythms-biological clock, it also
controls a large portion of the endocrine system by producing hormones that control the
release of other hormones,blood pressure, connected to pituitary gland
31. The pineal gland of the epithalamus is an endocrine gland that secretes melatonin, a
hormone that helps regulate the sleep cycles.
32. What are the parts making up the brain stem? Midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata
33. The medulla oblongata, of the brain stem, contains nuclei that control coughing, sneezing,
swallowing, and vomiting.
34. What is the function of the reticular formation? Give an example. Responsible for
maintaining wakefulness and alertness and for filtering out unimportant sensory information ,
other components of reticular formation are responsible for maintaining muscle tone and
regulating visceral motor muscles
35. The cerebellum is concerned with motor coordination and balance?
36. The white matter of the cerebellum is often referred to as the arbor vitae.
37. The limbic system is believed to be mostly concerned with the emotional aspect to
behaviors, experiences, and memories.
38. What is an electroencephalogram?test that records brain activity/electrical activity of
neurons, it used to help to diagnose epilepsy/seizure
39. What are the four brain waves?alpha, beta, theta and delta
40. What is REM sleep? What occurs during REM sleep?rapid eye movement sleep is when
most dreaming occurs, deep sleep
41. What enhances ones ability to store information in long-term memory?using all senses in
a high emotional state
42. From superficial to deep, list the meninges which cover the brain? Dura mater, subdural
space, arachnoid mater , subarachnoid space, pia mater
43. The thick, leathery meningeal layer is the called the dura mater.
44. Over the brain, there are channels within the dura mater, the dural sinuses, which contain
venous blood returning from the brain to the jugular veins.
45. What tissue does the epidural space in the spinal column contain?fat/adipose tissue
46. The subarachnoid space lies between what two layers of meninges? arachnoid and pia
47. What is cerebrospinal fluid? Where is it found? fluid found with in the ventricles of the
brain and surrounding the brain/spinal cord
What does it contain?choroid plexuses(network of cap ependymaln cells,blood plasma
What secretes it? Choroid plexuses(network of capillaries) from the ventricles of the brain
How does it return to the bloodstream?the CSF circulates from the lateral ventricles to the
third and then the fourth ventricles. From the fourth ventricle, most of the CSF passes
into the subarachnoid space although some CSF also passes into the central canal of the
spinal cord. From the subarachnoid space, the CSF returns to the blood through the
arachnoid villi located in the dural sinuses.*superior sagittal sinus*
3
48. What is the blood-brain barrier?protective mechanism that helps maintain a protective
environment for the brain
What creates this barrier?tight junctions between the endothelial cells in the capillary
walls and the basement membrane and perivascular feet from astrocytes on the capillary
walls
What is it effective against? Creatine, urea ( wastes transported in the blood), most
ions(Na+, K+ and Cl-), proteins and certain toxins have limited access or totally blocked
from entering the brain
What can pass through it? Substances such as 02, glucose, H2O, essential amino acids and
most lipid-soluble substances; (caffeine, alcohol, nicotine and heroine)
49. Tremor at rest, shuffling walk, stooped posture, and expressionless face due to the
deterioration of dopamine-secreting neurons, results in a disease called Parkinson’s.
50. What is Huntington's disease? At what age does one begin showing signs of the disorder?
Fatal hereditary disorder that results from detoriation of the basal nucle and cerebral cortex
51. In the embryonic spinal cord, axons from the alar plate form interneurons and the basal
plate give rise to motor neurons.
53. In the spinal cord, where is gray matter located versus white matter?
Gray matter: center of spinal cord in the form o,f the letter H (or pair of butterfly wings)
when viewed in a cross section **inside**
White matter: six areas, three adjacent to each side of the H in the spinal
cord**outside**
54. Cell bodies of the sensory neurons of the spinal nerves are located in dorsal root ganglion
of the spinal cord?
55. pneumoencephalography is used to diagnose hydrocephalus, and allows X-ray
visualization of the ventricles of the brain.
56. True or False: Age brings some cognitive decline. Yet despite some neuronal loss,
changing synaptic connections support additional learning throughout life. True
57. Be able to list the name, Roman numeral, and general function of all twelve cranial
nerves. Optic,
Oculomotor,Facial,Trochlear,Vestibulocochlear,Trigeminal,Vagus,Abducens,Hypoglossal,Spinal
Accessory,
58. All of the cranial motor nerves have sensory feedback fibers called proprioceptive,
therefore no cranial nerve’s function is motor only.
59. Which cranial nerves, have sensory or motor functions related to the eye.optic,
oculomotor trochlear, trigeminal, abducens
60. The Abducens (cranial nerve) sends impulses to the lateral rectus muscle which rotates
the eye laterally.
61. There would be no sense of taste if cranial nerves 7 and 9 were destroyed,
(glossopharyngeal and trigeminal)
62. Which cranial nerves are parts of the parasympathetic of the ANS? Oculomotor 3, facial 7,
glossopharyngeal 9, vagus 10
4
63. Cardiac, pulmonary, and esophageal parasympathetic nerves are formed by fibers of the
Vagus nerve.
64. Which cranial nerves are purely sensory nerves? Olfactory1, Optic2, Vestibulocochlear8
,What are there specific functions?
65. Sensory fibers of the optic nerve end in which area of the cerebrum? Visual cortex in the
occipital lobe and visual reflex center(superior colliculi) in the midbrain
66. Sometimes called the “great sensory nerve of the face,” Trigeminal nerve V is the largest
of the cranial nerves.
67. There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves that are named and numbered according to the region
and level of the spinal cord from which they emerge. They branch from the spinal column
through an opening, the intervertebral foramen, between adjacent vertebrae.
68. What is the function of the meningeal branches? Where do they originate?
69. If the phrenic nerve of the cervical plexus were severed, it would have a life-threatening
effect, since it travels through the thorax to innervate the diaphragm for breathing.
70. Which nerves of the brachial plexus carry proprioceptive fibers back to the CNS?all
71. Name the body's largest nerve, which consists of two major branches.sciatic nerve (tibial
and common peroneal)
72. The genitofemoral nerve innervates skin of middle anterior thigh, and the external
aspects of the male and female genitalia.
73. The femoral nerve innervates the skin and muscles of upper thigh, including the
quadriceps femoris?
74. What is a dermatome and how are they illustrated?the cutaneous branches of each
dorsal root except C1 that receives sensory information from a specific region or segment of
the body and innervates with a specific area of the skin known as a dermatone
75. What do somatic nerve fibers innervate?innervate voluntary muscles form elaborate
neuromuscular junctions with their effector cells and they release the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine
76. What are the characteristics of reflexes (types of reflexes, nerve structures involved,
initiation, effectors involved, result) most common is intrinsic
77. The quickest reflex arcs involve only two neurons. They are referred to as monosynaptic
reflex.
78. If a bee sting on the left thigh causes a quick involuntary reaction of the left arm, we
might say that a ipsilateral reflex arc reflex arc has occurred. Opposite-contralateral
79. While at the beach, a child reached down and touched a jellyfish. He flinched at the
sudden pain, pulling his hand back. This is called withdrawal reflex
80. A complex reflex inhibits or relaxes a skeletal muscle contraction.
81. Compare and contrast the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.
82. The “resting and digesting” division of the autonomic nervous system is the
parasympathetic division.
83. What are the overall effects on varies body systems when the parasympathetic division is
active?
5
84. Sympathetic nerve fibers that do not synapse in the paravertebral ganglia synapse instead
in collateral ganglia.
85. Most parasympathetic fibers of the cranial outflow reach their target organs by way of
the vagus nerve.
86. What specific fibers of the autonomic nervous system secrete norepinephrine?post
ganglionic neurons of sympathetic
87. The parasympathetic system is characterized by long preganglionic and short
postganglionic fibers.
88. The sympathetic nervous system reduces blood flow to the digestive system(s).
89. The parasympathetic utilizes ACh as both the preganglionic and the postganglionic
neurotransmitter.
90. The thoracolumbar division system is also called the sympathetic.
91. The preganglionic fibers in the sympathetic nervous system branch away from the ventral
root through white rami that connect with a paravertebral ganglion.
92. What are the gray rami and where are they found?branches of spinal nerve, re entrance of
paravertebral ganglion, part of sympathetic nervous system
93. What characteristics distinguish the autonomic nervous system (ANS) from the somatic
nervous system.
94. The secretions of the adrenal medulla act to enhance the effects of sympathetic system.
95. Unlike exocrine glands that secrete their contents onto the free surface of an epithelial
tissue by way of a duct, endocrine glands secrete their contents into the surrounding
extracellular space.
96. steroid hormones penetrate the plasma membrane and bind to nuclear receptors. They
can also bind to DNA receptors and change the genetic activity of the cell.
Italic Notes
-The cranial end of the neural tube grows more and forms the brain and the rest forms the
spinal cord during the fourth week of development.
-the cerebrum can be compared to the cap of a mushroom because it grows over the
diencephalon and the brain stem
- longitudinal fissure separates the right and left hemispheres
-transverse fissure separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum
-central sulcus separates the frontal and parietal lobes
-parieto-occipital sulcus separates the parietal and occipital lobes
-cerebral cortex is the area of conscious mind of speech, evaluation of stimuli,thought,
memory and control of skeletal muscles; for this reason and bc of it forms a cap over the
rest of the brain the cerebral cortex is called the thinking cap
-voluntary muscles contractions are iniated in the primary cortex by large neurons called
pyramidal cells
-premotor are large area involved in learned motor skills, planning movements
6
-broca’s area controls the muscles needed for speech, motor speech area
-psc/primary somatosensory cortex receives signals from sensory receptors in the skin
throughout the body and proprioceptors in skeletal muscles.
-somatosensory association cortex is the area where sensory information is integrate and
analyzed
-primary visual cortex this area perceives visual stimuli and constructs a 3d image using stimuli
from both eyes
-visual association area interprets the image and relates it to images in memory for
recognition
Pac/primary auditory they receive and perceive hearing through pitch, rhythm and loudness
-the auditory association area are involved with association of hearing-speech, music and
noise with memory they are necessary to speak and understand speech
-association areas are independent of the primary motor and sensory areas yet they
communicate with them to analyze input and form response/output
-prefrontal cortex center for self control, reasoning, it is responsible in part for personality and
some aspects of memory
-thalamus is relay and sorting station for sensory nerve impulses traveling from the spinal cor
to the cerebral cortex
-hypothalamus directly below thalamus controls the ANS, regulates emotion, body temp,
hunger, thirst, circadian rhythms
-brain stem structures are important in maintaining life a person can suffer severe damage to
the cerebral hemispheres but still live if the brain stem is not damaged
-cerebral peduncles consist of pyramidal motor tracts that descend from the cerebral
hemispheres to the spinal cord
-the corpora quarigemina consists of two sets of white matter nuclei which are visual reglex
centers(the superior colliculi) and the auditory relay centers to the sensory cortex area
(the inferior colliculi)
-pons means bridge, carries info between the cerebrum and the spinal cord or cerebellum or
medulla oblongata
-the medulla is an important autonomic reflax center because it influences cardiovascular rate,
respiration, and other reflex actions like vomiting, coughing sneezing
-Cerebellar processing follows a functional schemed in which the frontal cortex communicates
the intent to iniate voluntary movements to the cerebellum, the cerebellum collects input
concerning balance and tension in muscles and ligaments and the best way to coordinates
muscle activity is relayed back to the cerebral cortex
-the limbic system imposes an emotional aspect to behaviors, experiences and memories.
Emotions such as pleasure, fear, anger,sorrow and affection are imparted to events and
experiences(memories)
-the reticular formation is responsible for maintaining wakefulness and alertness and for
filtering outunimportant sensory info. Other components of the reticular formation are
responsible for maintain muscle tone and regulationg visceral motor muscles.
7
-ventral roots contain motor nerve axons, transmitting nerve impulses from the spinal cord to
the skeletal muscles
-dortsal root ganglion is cluster of cell bodies of a sensory nerve
-anterior/ventral horns are gray matter that are cell bodies of motor neurons that stimulate
skeletal muscles that are located there
-posterior/dorsal horns are gray matter that contain mostly interneurons that synapse with
sensory neurons
-lateral horns contain cell bodies of motor neurons in the sympathetic branch of the ANS
CRANIAL NERVES
A. Olfactory I : smell; sensory only (nasal epithelium, cribiform plate,olfactory bulb)
B. Optic II: vision; sensory only (optic disk)
C. Oculomotor III: “eye mover”, mixed (parasympathetic fibers)
D. Trochlear IV: “pulley” (pulley shaped ligament called the trochlea)
E. Trigeminal V: “the great sensory nerve of the face”, largest {3 branches: ophthalmic,
maxillary, mandibular}
F. Abducens VI: abduction of the eye
G. Facial VII: chief motor nerve of the face (parasympathetic fibers {5 branches: temporal,
zygomatic, buccal, mandibular , cervical}, sensory anterior 2/3 of tongue
H. Vestibulocochlear VIII: (or Auditory/Acoustic: inner ear perception, balance
I. Glossopharyngeal IX: swallowing (parasympathetic fibers) sensory for posterior tongue
J. Vagus X: parasympathetic nerve to the viscera (pharync, larynx, heart, stomache,
intestines, bronchi, resp reflex)
K. Spinal Acessory XI: movement of shoulder/head/neck, sends fibers to pharynx for
swallowing
L. Hypoglossal XII: motor nerves for speech/food manipulation, and muscles of swallowing
-Phrenic nerve is an important nerve of the cervical plexuses which travels through the thorac
to innervate the diaphragm (breathing)
-Axillary nerve innervates the deltoid muscles and shoulder along with the posterior aspect of
the upper arm
-Musculotaneous nerve innervates anterior skin of the upper arm and muscles of elbow
flexion including biceps brachii and brachialis
-sciatic nerve is the bodys larges nerve and has two parts the tibial and common peroneal
-there are two types of reflexes learned/condition or intrinsic
-somatic reflex is the involuntary contraction of a muscle in response to sensory input of a
possible injurious stimulus
-flexo/withdrawal reflex is withdrawing from painful stimuli
-somatic reflexes-effector is skeletal muscle
-visceral reflexes are cardiac/smooth/glands
-ipsilateral reflex-one side of spinal cord
-contralateral reflex-opposite side
8
-monosynpatic reflex lifting, knee jerk
-polysynaptic
Comparison of Autonomic and Somatic Nervous system
Autonomic: motor neurons contraol smooth muscles, cardiac muscles and glands, controls
visceral reflekxes. Two motor neurons the paraganglionic and postganglionic. **the ANS does
not activate its effectors but merely modifies their activities**
Somatic: motor neurons stimulate skeletal muscles. Single motor neuron connects to CNS.
Autonomic is divided into the Parasympatheitc and Sympathetic, each system prepares the
body for a different kind of situation
-Parasympathetic nervous division is active during periods of digestion and rest , REST AND
DIGEST, keeping the use od body energies to a minimum; It’s autonomic ganglia re located
on/near the effector organ and are called the terminal ganglia; terminal ganglia lie near the
target organ
-Sympathetic nervous division prepares the body for situations requiring alertness or strength
or situations that arouse fever, anger, excitement or embarrassment, FIGHT OR FLIGHT mode,
the adrena medulla( modified sympathetic ganglion) is stimulated to release a hormone
mixture of epinephrine and norepinephrine to release glucose in blood, referred to as
paravertebral ganglin; sympathetic plexus allow connections
-Sympathetic pathway: cell bodies of the preganglionic neurons occur in the lateral horns of
gray matter of the spinal cord.
9