URBAN DESIGN IN HISTORY
Workable forms, obtained by trial and error, eventually become the physical models for planning.
Two patterns have characterized town form in history: the rectilinear and the circular.
Rectilinear pattern – originated in agricultural societies, derived from the logic of parallel plowing. Also suited the logic of ordered
land planning, property ownership, and building construction.
Circular pattern – was derived from practices of grouped societies, the necessity of enclosing the maximum amount of land with
minimum amount of fence (cattle pen, fort…).
Both patterns have been used for planning towns, both systems were used by colonists: the rectilinear usually for agricultural settlements
whereas circular settlements for military installations.
Another planning form is the radio-centric, which is a consequence of incremental urban growth, radiating from a center and expanding
outward to an urban perimeter.
Town formation and human settlements are a collection of forces and events, a collective intention.
Greek town planning utilized the rectilinear pattern of blocks, forming a town and terminating in an irregular wall. Topography
determined the shape of the enclosing wall and position. Towns were limited in size and contained a harbor, central market, a
theater and other public buildings. The size of such towns was limited by the food supply obtainable from the surrounding region.
Roman town planning, derived from Greek experience, also utilized the rectilinear form, but with a significant difference. Roman
towns had regular rectilinear enclosing walls and two main intersecting streets, the cardo and decumanus as well as sites for
markets, business, government, sport and worship. Roman towns were of two types: the commercial town (oppidum) and the
military camp (castrum). Roman towns were often sited to command strategic land areas.
Medieval towns, often built on foundations of pre-existing Roman towns, may seem like they lack geometric order (Florence, Paris
and London were originally Roman towns). But the absence of precise geometry is not an indication of lack or order or planning,
rather it is an indication of a sensitive on site adjustment to particular conditions (land use).
The Renaissance Era recalled elements and forms of the classical world; it made use of the classical forum, or town square. It
served as a public gathering space, a market, and a site for important public buildings. Several plazas (piazzas) might be
connected in careful composition; plazas and squares are found in all cultures, worldwide, and for the same utilitarian reasons.
The “ideal” city of the Renaissance – a star shaped configuration- was an idealization of a military town, surrounded by defensive
walls, subdivided into a star pattern of streets and blocks
Baroque town planning made much use of the boulevard. The plaza served as a convening public forum in a town of archaic size
(focus) where the boulevard served to unite the various parts of larger, often expending city (connector).
The ideas of Baroque planning were practiced in the French landscaping at Versailles, where the principals were developed first for
forest landscapes and later applied to towns. The plan of London, Paris and Washington, DC were based on the same principals.
Canberra, Australia and New Delhi, India were the last major city plans to be formulated using the principals of Baroque planning
(focus & connector).
The First American City:
Washington, D.C. In 1791, Ellicott and L'Enfant were commissioned to survey land on the side of the Potomac River for a federal
capital. L'Enfant determined Capitol Hill as the location for public buildings.
The plan aimed to be workable for first settlers as well as being capable of enlargement by progressive improvement. L'Enfant was
clearly influenced by: a childhood in Versailles; a sense of civic urbanism; and ideas from Jefferson.
The basic idea was one of civic art based upon an understanding of the work of Andre Le Notre, but transformed in scale and intent
to operate as a working grid overlaid by axes, vistas, and diagonals, forming a geometry within which to place key buildings and
monuments.
It was the implanting of a grand manner, as opposed to an expedient urban form, that brought about a revolution of an idea,
combined with the role of classicism framed against geometry of landscape.
The City Beautiful:
It could be argued that this created the framework for what later became known as the City Beautiful Movement.
Although there were parallels in other cities, the boldness of the proposals could be seen as a truly American ideal. It is no surprise
that it would act as a frame of reference to work on the 1893 Columbian Exposition, where the criteria were framed in greater
detail.
The return to classicism also reflected the aspirations of American "city fathers" to show the world that American cities were about
more than just commerce and industry, and could be endowed with some of the qualities of the finest European cities.
1.
The role of grand public place, with a thought-capturing landscape feature.
2.
The creation of civic place interrelated with public place as a central point of the composition.
3.
The re-introduction of boulevards into urban form.
4.
The role of classicism and monuments to inspire a sense of grandeur.
Radburn, NJ:
The 1920’s saw the emergence of a number of environmental design
concepts geared to industrial technology; a good example is the work
(largely in the NYC area) of Henry Wright and Clarence Stein which
incorporate well designed housing and residential communities. Their
efforts are apparent in the town of Radburn, NJ.
Radburn, NJ is a satellite commuter suburb for Manhattan, but with its
own work places, commercial center, schools, parks, etc.
Radburn included a separate pedestrian system and a street pattern that
prevented thorough automobile traffic. (i.e. superblocks).
New York State
Stein and Wright also re-planned the entire the entire state of New York –
wilderness, rural and urban with the objectives of utilizing land resources
rationally and distributing urban and rural population workably. This plan
provided for conserving natural resources, restoring damaged
landscapes, rebuilding obsolete cities or towns, and accommodating
future growth.
The post World War II era witnessed the acceleration of metropolitan trends. This included the decline of small and mid size towns
and the growth of the large cities. Here emerging a,
20th century city namely – the regional metropolis.
American cities stopped developing their public systems, or failed to extend their system into the growing regional metropolis
(suburbs). As a result, the suburban auto-dependant shopping center largely replaced the city old downtown public dependant
shopping areas, leaving it principally as commercial office centers.
On the other hand European cities, with less land to develop and much stronger traditions in urban planning and public transit have
succeeded in creating quite livable and economical environments by employing ecologically based regional land planning, a
proper balance of collective and private transit, adequate tax financing for public improvements and tax policies that encourage
proper development.
The form of cities has always been a reflection of how a society lives and operates. The challenge in urban design is to understand
how our society functions, and how government policy, taxation, production, and distribution are the forces which shape cities. The
test is to be able to create urban forms which aid social and urban evolution.
The architect’s responsibility in urban design, as both professional and citizen, is to help develop design solutions and to promote
their use.
URBAN FORMS AND PATTERNS – Long Version
Land use patterns which have evolved as urban areas have developed include: the concentric zone pattern, the sector pattern, and the
multiple nuclei pattern.
Concentric Zone Pattern
The concentric zone pattern portrays the modern American city as a series of concentric rings around an original central business
district. These rings are the result of progressive phases of growth, contain various mixture of use, and may have places of
obsolescence. The rings do not have precise boundaries, but blend into each other. Examples of this type of cities are, Chicago, St
Louis, Albany, and Baltimore.
Sector Pattern
The sector pattern portrays various land uses in pie shaped wages, radiating from the center of the city.
Multiple Nuclei Pattern
The multiple nuclei pattern describes a city composed of several distinct central points. Some of these nuclei, or sub centers are
old, while others developed as urbanization progressed.
In large metropolitan area, many of the nuclei are similar (shopping centers for example), certain similar activities tend to group
together for mutual benefit (office parks for example).
Other forms within urban areas illustrate the influence of high speed expressway and public transit systems (i.e. circulation). These
circulation systems determine patterns of growth and development in and around an urban area.
The characteristic forms are: the finger, the cluster, and the satellite configuration.
Finger Plan or form, development occurs along corridors of public transit and automobile expressway routes (Long Island towns for
example).
The Cluster form consist of varying centers or cluster of activity which may include new towns whose population may range from
10,000 to 100,000 people or more. Each cluster is served by roads connecting to another providing multi directional travel in the
region. Ideally public transportation follows the same and also link to the urban core as this supplements the vehicular route.
The Satellite pattern is a variant of the cluster. The difference is that the satellite system has a dominating center, usually the
original city.
Other Descriptions of forms or pattern systems
Other ways of describing the various forms or pattern systems of the modern city and urbanized regions, which relate form to transportation
are as follows:
Linear describes the shape formed by several cities laid out in a continuous line, and connected by a transportation spine (the
eastern seaboard cities, Portland, Maine to Richmond, Virginia form a large scale linear configuration, connecting along I95). The
term “megalopolis” was coined to describe these extensive arrangements of cities. Each city is independent and functions
separately.
Rectilinear patterns are formed by systems of streets and blocks formed at right angles. This is the typical pattern for smaller cities
and towns, as well as some larger ones.
Radio centric describes a large circular urban form with a series of radial bands of intense development emanating from the central
core, this is the most typical form of urban development and cities that grew over time (Washington DC, Boston are an example).
Star or finger describes a radio centric form with open spaces or low density agricultural bands or fingers of development (Chicago
and surroundings is an example).
Ring shaped development describes a linear form encircling an open undeveloped area, such as a body of water. The cities around
San Francisco Bay form a ring.
Sheet describes the shape of an extensive urban area without any specific focal points, well defined routes, or articulated form.
(For example, rural land in Midwest). Urban or suburban sprawl describes low density development. Haphazard growth or
extension outward; one of the disadvantages is that you need more infrastructure (i.e. police, fire dept. etc.) that is not there.
Satellite describes a constellation of urban developments, each with its own central core, located around a major urban center.
Constellation describes a series of urban developments of approximately equal size and population located fairly close to each
other but without a dominating center.
Most American cities can be described in one of the ways outlined above, in whole or in part. More often, a city may be described as a
combination of more than one of these forms or patterns.
HISTORY
Rectilinear pattern:
Agricultural
Circular:
Herding
Radio centric:
incremental urban growth
Greek Town (Hippodamus):
Rectilinear
Roman Town (Vitruvius):
rectilinear enclosing walls and two main streets:
Cardus
Decumanus
commercial town (oppidum) or military camp (castrum)
Medieval town:
absence of geometry
walled for defense
Renaissance town:
Town Square (focus)
ideal city was a star shape, military town
Baroque Town Planning:
grew from Renaissance
:Made use of the boulevard (connected the various parts, expanding the city)
:Versailles, rebuild of London in 1666, Washington DC, modern Paris
U.S.
Under Jefferson, rectilinear land division which led to states
Established worker towns (Lowell, Mass) and garden suburb towns (Llewellyn Park, NJ)
Frederick law Olmstead introduced the urban park (Central Park & Prospect Park)
After the civil war, decline of the farmers, miners, etc. More factory and service workers.
City Beautiful movement: turn of the century – improve urban life.
Henry Wright and Clarence Stein: re-planned NY (Ecologically friendly)
In 1920’s development of the Regional Planning Association of NY
Then came:
NRPB (National resources Planning Board)
WPA (Works Projects Administration)
PWA (Public Works Administration)
Post WWII:
emerged the regional metropolis
cities abandoned public systems, never extended them out to suburbs
suburban auto dependent shopping centers left the downtown centers for commercial offices.
URBAN FORMS AND PATTERNS – Short Version
Concentric:
concentric rings around a business center
Type of transportation determines the pattern within each ring
Rings blend into each other
Center = Original Business Center
Ring 1 = Old Housing, factories, etc
Ring 2 = Turn of the century suburbs
Ring 3 = Post WWII – low density suburban housing
EX: Chicago, St. Louis, Detroit, Houston, Boston
Sector:
Pie shaped wedges radiating from the center
Multiple Nuclei Pattern:
several sub centers
Finger plan: development occurs along transportation routes
Cluster plan: varying centers of activities
Satellite pattern: similar to cluster, but has a distinct center – usually the old city
Linear:
in a line connected by a transportation spine
“Megalopolis” describes extensive linear arrangements of cities
Rectilinear:
streets and blocks at right angles
Radio centric:
circular urban form with radial bands of development. (Typical of cities that grew over time)
Star or Finger
Ring Shaped:
linear form encircling an open area
Sheet:
extensive urban area without focal points, routes, or forms. (Urban or suburban sprawl)
Satellite:
urban developments, each with their own core, around a major urban center.
Constellation:
similar to satellite, but without a major center.
THE NEIGHBORHOOD CONCEPT – Long Version
Since the greatest use of land in a city is residential, the concept of the neighborhood has been a major influence in 20th century planning.
The neighborhood can be defined as a number of families (dwelling units) living in close proximity and having common needs. It comprise of
a group of people with common needs and goals for living, education, work, recreation, and other activities.
There have been efforts to formulate the concept of the neighborhood. In 1929 Clarence Perry published the “Neighborhood Theory”
proposing that all neighborhood planning should reflect the following six principals:
1.
No major traffic arterial or thorough routes should pass through a residential neighborhood; these roads should be on the edge and
should form boundaries of each neighborhood.
2.
Interior street patterns should use cul-de-sacs, curvilinear layouts, and low volume roadway systems to limit traffic and preserve a
quite, safe environment.
3.
The population of each neighborhood should be determined by the number of people necessary to support one elementary school.
(Of course, busing, made this concept meaningless…).
4.
The neighborhood focal point would be the elementary school, centrally located on common green space.
5.
The neighborhood would occupy approximately 160 acres of land, at a density of roughly 10 families per acre. It would be shaped
so that no child would have to walk more than ½ mile to school.
6.
The neighborhood would be served by shopping facilities, churches, and a community center located in conjunction with the
school. Also about 10 percent of the total area would be allocated to recreation.
Concept of a “neighborhood unit” in the 1920’s-1930
In 1942, Clarence Stein suggested similar theories concerning the elements of a typical neighborhood, it states that:
There should be a grouping of three neighborhoods served by a high school and one or two major commercial centers. The
maximum walking distance to these facilities is one mile.
Each neighborhood will have an elementary school in the center within ½ mile of all residents; near the school is a small shopping
center.
The concept of a neighborhood can be expanded to the community which is a group of several neighborhoods, having a total population of
between 20,000 and 100,000 people.
NEIGHBORHOOD CONCEPT – Short Version
As per Clarence A. Perry (The Neighborhood Theory in 1929):
1. No major traffic through residential areas
2. Interior streets to use cul-de-sacs, curves, low volume
3. Population TBD by number of people to support 1 school
4. Focal point to be school
5. Occupy 160 acres. 10 families per acre. No child to walk more than ½ mile to school
6. served by shopping, church, etc.
In 1942 Clarence Stein wrote similar theories and implemented them.
Clarence Stein 1882–1975, American architect, b. New York City, studied architecture at Columbia Univ. and the Ecole des Beaux-Arts.
Stein worked in the office of Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue, where he assisted in the planning of the San Diego World's Fair (1915). Along
with Lewis Mumford and Henry Wright, Stein was a founding member of the Regional Planning Association of America, a group instrumental
in importing Ebenezer Howard's garden city idea from England to the United States. Stein and Wright collaborated on the design of Radburn,
New Jersey (1928–32), a garden suburb noted for its superblock layout. Stein wrote Toward New Towns for America (1951).
Sir Ebenezer Howard 1850–1928, English town planner, principal founder of the English garden-city movement. His To-morrow: a Peaceful
Path to Real Reform (1898), reissued as Garden Cities of To-morrow (1902), outlined a model self-sustaining town that would combine town
conveniences and industries with the advantages of an agricultural location. As a result of the first publication he was able to form (1899) the
Garden City Association, and, in 1903 Letchworth, the first English garden city, was founded. In 1920 he organized Welwyn Garden City.
Garden city, an ideal, self-contained community of predetermined area and population surrounded by a greenbelt. As formulated by Sir
Ebenezer Howard, the garden city was intended to bring together the economic and cultural advantages of both city and country living, with
land ownership vested in the community, while at the same time discouraging metropolitan sprawl and industrial centralization. The garden
city was foreshadowed in the writings of Robert Owen, Charles Fourier, and James Silk Buckingham, and in the planned industrial
communities of Saltaire (1851), Bournville (1879), and Port Sunlight (1887) in England. The term garden city was introduced in Howard's
book To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform (1898); it was revised (1902) under the title Garden Cities of To-morrow (reedited by F. J.
Osborn, 1946). Howard organized the Garden-City Association (1899) in England and secured backing for the establishment of Letchworth
(1903), designed by the architects Barry Parker and Raymond Unwin, and Welwyn Garden City (1920), designed by Louis de Soissons.
Neither community, however, was an entirely self-contained garden city. The idea spread rapidly to Europe and the United States, but it
commonly resulted in residential suburbs of individually owned homes. Under the auspices of the Regional Planning Association of America,
the garden-city idea was more fully realized in the community of Radburn, N.J. (1928–32) outside New York City designed by Clarence Stein
and Henry Wright. Most of these satellite towns, however, failed to attain Howard's ideal, since local industries were unable to provide
employment for the inhabitants, many of whom commuted to work in larger centers. The congestion and destruction accompanying World
War II greatly stimulated the garden-city movement, especially in Great Britain, where the passage of the New Towns Act in 1946 led to the
development of over a dozen new communities based on Howard's idea. The open layout of garden cities has had a great influence on the
development of modern city planning.
HOUSING TYPES – Long Version
The most fundamental element of urban planning is housing. The most common residential type is:
The single family house, dominated the new housing market in America since World War II. Advantages are that it provides
considerable amount of natural light and air, space for a garden, outdoor space for play.
The negative aspects to the detached house are the relatively large land area that is required, potential urban sprawl, and loss of
communal open space. When land costs are high the single family house becomes unaffordable by most people.
When densities begin to exceed five to six units per acre, the advantage of space, privacy, and noise control begin to diminish and
therefore makes the single family house unattractive. Row or Town houses then become a possible alternative.
The arrangement of single family houses into a well integrated visual composition is considerably more difficult than grouping larger
multi family complexes.
The concept of “Territoriality” is most traditionally expressed by the single family dwelling where ones territory is well defined by a
series of boundaries (i.e. property lines).
The two-family house (duplex) comprise of two attached living units. It is less costly than the single family house due to more
efficient land use. It can be sited to create higher densities, and retain most of the advantages of natural light, air, access and
privacy as enjoyed by the single family house.
It requires as much design coordination to organize into a cohesive visual scene as the single family house. Otherwise its usage
can result in a monotonous series of geometric forms governed by uniform setbacks.
The row house consists of three or more attached units, with a maximum of eight in most municipalities. Row houses are usually
two stories high and are between 25 to 30 feet wide. It also makes for a more efficient use of land. Disadvantages are sound
control between adjacent units, and some loss of individuality.
The walk-up apartment, normally limited to three stories high, combines efficient land use with comfortable human scale (i.e.
condo). This type of housing offer apartment living at relatively low density and also provide considerable freedom and flexibility to
small families and single persons in the inner city and suburbs.
The high rise apartment accommodates a large number of people in small areas of land (NYC). Disadvantages are, fire safety, lack
of recreation spaces on ground floor, and greater security are all contributing to higher costs. The potential for social freedom are
some advantages.
Properly sited high rise apartments can make a considerable contribution to the cityscape; provide relatively large number of
housing units in relation to land coverage, while conserving valuable space.
HOUSING TYPES – Short Version
Single family
Town houses became possible when densities began to exceed 5 to 6 units per acre.
Two family houses – less costly than single
Row Houses – 2 stories high, basements, 20 to 35 feet wide. Sound is a problem.
Walk up Apartment – 3 stories in height.
High Rise
DENSITY & HOUSING PATTERNS
Residential density is a measure of the number of people accommodated in a given area of land.
Densities can be described in two ways, net or gross.
Net Density is the ratio of people to land excluding streets, which may represent approximately 25 percent of the total site.
Gross Density is the ratio of people to land including streets, local facilities, and open spaces.
Gross Density is a more useful measurement.
It is possible to design perfectly livable communities at a great range of densities. The difficulty arises from trying to build communities with
one type of building. Housing types should be mixed with adequate communal open spaces and access to shopping, work, recreation,
schools, etc. (for example, the concept of the New Urbanism).
Density affects costs; lower densities mean expensive public utility distribution costs. Roads, sewer, water, power, and other distribution
networks are greater in length in relation to people served.
Dependence on automobile circulation favors low densities.
Effective and efficient public transit requires moderate densities; the average is 30 persons per acre. Many European new towns, as well as
older American towns are built to that density (considered high…).
In general American residential suburbs have a density of 10 persons per acre.
Housing patterns are determined by the layout and configuration of streets, open spaces, and apportionment of land into building lots.
The most common housing patterns are:
The street front pattern is one of the most common, developed in a linear fashion along a street. This provides for an easy access
to units, uniformity of orientation, and a clearly defined plan. Although the linear design may result in monotony, a strong axial
feeling can be softened with setbacks and landscaping.
The end on pattern consists of rows of units located at right angle to the street. This reduces the total street frontage but increases
the lot depth. There can be a saving of street length but units are more remote from the street. Parking must be arranged in
grouped rather than individual arrangement. Units may face each other on common pathways, or they may be placed front to back
(horizontal or vertical) to enjoy a favorable orientation.
The court pattern groups units to face into a common open space. The result is a visually pleasant enclosed space encouraging
sociability. Since this pattern also reduces street frontage, the land cost per unit are reduced considerably.
Patterns should be adopted with careful consideration of their full impact. A thorough examination of all of the aesthetic and social influences
is the basis for designing livable neighborhoods.
Cluster developments are developments where dwelling units are grouped, and more densely sited, than in conventional developments. The
remaining land serves as common open space. (I.e. cluster housing concept). Developing this way reduces costs whereas length of utility
runs and streets is reduced. Also better use is made of open spaces, where it is serving the residents within the development (left over
spaces…).
The common spaces may be deemed to the public, or owned and operated cooperatively by the residents through an association.
The planned unit development (PUD) is the legal recognized zoning designation used to achieve the cluster concept. The planned unit
development may apply to commercial and industrial as well as residential types of development. It is therefore broader in concept than the
residential cluster pattern.
There are three major characteristics of the planned unit development:
Normally involves large scale development ranging from an entire neighborhood to a town.
It is usually involves a mixture of uses and types (in contrast to the conventional subdivision where it is limited to a single use or
type).
It requires phased development extended over a period of time where changes might take place to respond to later concepts,
changes in requirement, or financing.
Urban redevelopment and urban renewals (names for federally funded programs) are a form of planned unit developments.
Urban renewal refers to rebuilding, in whole or part.
Planned unit development refers to new development, as in the developing of the suburbs.
Zoning prevents harmful uses while protecting property values within a given area, but it does so at the cost of monotony and uniformity.
The planned unit development is an attempt to reintroduce diversity and mixture (as in the new urbanism).
Reston, Virginia and Columbia, Maryland both developed in the 1960’s as well as Irvine, California are examples of residential planned
communities. The residential planned community zoning permits the integration of residential, commercial, and industrial use and to divide
the land into different density areas.
THE FUTURE OF THE CITY
Effective city planning must deal with the larger physical scale in which the city exists. It also must deal with the smaller scale of the
neighborhood.
To deal with the larger scale, we must look at the ecology and determine where we should or should not build. At a smaller neighborhood
scale, we must be sure that we provide for the full range of needs of all peoples and for a variety of life style.
About Smart Growth
In communities across the nation, there is a growing concern that current development patterns -- dominated by what some call "sprawl" -are no longer in the long-term interest of our cities, existing suburbs, small towns, rural communities, or wilderness areas. Though supportive
of growth, communities are questioning the economic costs of abandoning infrastructure in the city, only to rebuild it further out.
Spurring the smart growth movement are demographic shifts, a strong environmental ethic, increased fiscal concerns, and more nuanced
views of growth. The result is both a new demand and a new opportunity for smart growth.
The features that distinguish smart growth in a community vary from place to place. In general, smart growth invests time, attention, and
resources in restoring community and vitality to center cities and older suburbs. New smart growth is more town-centered, is transit and
pedestrian oriented, and has a greater mix of housing, commercial and retail uses. It also preserves open space and many other
environmental amenities.
The Smart Growth Principles and Issues below describe in greater details the various aspects of planning and development that make up
smart growth.
Smart Growth Principles
Create Range of Housing Opportunities and Choices
Create Walk able Neighborhoods
Encourage Community and Stakeholder Collaboration
Foster Distinctive, Attractive Communities with a Strong Sense of Place
Make Development Decisions Predictable, Fair and Cost Effective
Mix Land Uses
Preserve Open Space, Farmland, Natural Beauty and Critical Environmental Areas
Provide a Variety of Transportation Choices
Strengthen and Direct Development Towards Existing Communities
Take Advantage of Compact Building Design
Smart Growth Issues
Community Quality of Life
Design
Economics
Environment
Health
Housing
Transportation
Create Range of Housing Opportunities and Choices
Providing quality housing for people of all income levels is an integral component in any smart growth strategy. Housing is a critical part of
the way communities grow, as it is constitutes a significant share of new construction and development. More importantly, however, is also a
key factor in determining households’ access to transportation, commuting patterns, access to services and education, and consumption of
energy and other natural resources. By using smart growth approaches to create a wider range of housing choices, communities can mitigate
the environmental costs of auto-dependent development, use their infrastructure resources more efficiently, ensure a better jobs-housing
balance, and generate a strong foundation of support for neighborhood transit stops, commercial centers, and other services.
No single type of housing can serve the varied needs of today’s diverse households. Smart growth represents an opportunity for local
communities to increase housing choice not only by modifying their land use patterns on newly-developed land, but also by increasing
housing supply in existing neighborhoods and on land served by existing infrastructure. Integrating single- and multi-family structures in new
housing developments can support a more diverse population and allow more equitable distribution of households of all income levels across
the region. The addition of units -- through attached housing, accessory units, or conversion to multi-family dwellings -- to existing
neighborhoods creates opportunities for communities to slowly increase density without radically changing the landscape. New housing
construction can be an economic stimulus for existing commercial centers that are currently vibrant during the work day, but suffer from a
lack of foot traffic and consumers in evenings or weekends. Most importantly, providing a range of housing choices allow all households to
find their niche in a smart growth community – whether it is a garden apartment, a row house, or a traditional suburban home – and
accommodate growth at the same time.
Create Walk able Neighborhoods
Walk able communities are desirable places to live, work, learn, worship and play, and therefore a key component of smart growth. Their
desirability comes from two factors. First, walk able communities locate within an easy and safe walk goods (such as housing, offices, and
retail) and services (such as transportation, schools, libraries) that a community resident or employee needs on a regular basis. Second, by
definition, walk able communities make pedestrian activity possible, thus expanding transportation options, and creating a streetscape that
better serves a range of users -- pedestrians, bicyclists, transit riders, and automobiles. To foster walk ability, communities must mix land
uses and build compactly, and ensure safe and inviting pedestrian corridors.
Walk able communities are nothing new. Outside of the last half-century communities worldwide have created neighborhoods, communities,
towns and cities premised on pedestrian access. Within the last fifty years public and private actions often present created obstacles to walk
able communities. Conventional land use regulation often prohibits the mixing of land uses, thus lengthening trips and making walking a less
viable alternative to other forms of travel. This regulatory bias against mixed-use development is reinforced by private financing policies that
view mixed-use development as riskier than single-use development. Many communities -- particularly those that are dispersed and largely
auto-dependent -- employ street and development design practices that reduce pedestrian activity.
As the personal and societal benefits of pedestrian friendly communities are realized – benefits which include lower transportation costs,
greater social interaction, improved personal and environmental health, and expanded consumer choice -- many are calling upon the public
and private sector to facilitate the development of walk able places. Land use and community design plays a pivotal role in encouraging
pedestrian environments. By building places with multiple destinations within close proximity, where the streets and sidewalks balance all
forms of transportation, communities have the basic framework for encouraging walk ability.
Encourage Community and Stakeholder Collaboration
Growth can create great places to live, work and play -- if it responds to a community’s own sense of how and where it wants to grow.
Communities have different needs and will emphasize some smart growth principles over others: those with robust economic growth may
need to improve housing choices; others that have suffered from disinvestment may emphasize infill development; newer communities with
separated uses may be looking for the sense of place provided by mixed-use town centers; and still others with poor air quality may seek
relief by offering transportation choices. The common thread among all, however, is that the needs of every community and the programs to
address them are best defined by the people who live and work there.
Citizen participation can be time-consuming, frustrating and expensive, but encouraging community and stakeholder collaboration can lead to
creative, speedy resolution of development issues and greater community understanding of the importance of good planning and investment.
Smart Growth plans and policies developed without strong citizen involvement will at best not have staying power; at worst, they will be used
to create unhealthy, undesirable communities. When people feel left out of important decisions, they will be less likely to become engaged
when tough decisions need to be made. Involving the community early and often in the planning process vastly improves public support for
smart growth and often leads to innovative strategies that fit the unique needs of each community.
Foster Distinctive, Attractive Communities with a Strong Sense of Place
Smart growth encourages communities to craft a vision and set standards for development and construction which respond to community
values of architectural beauty and distinctiveness, as well as expanded choices in housing and transportation. It seeks to create interesting,
unique communities which reflect the values and cultures of the people who reside there, and foster the types of physical environments
which support a more cohesive community fabric. Smart growth promotes development which uses natural and man-made boundaries and
landmarks to create a sense of defined neighborhoods, towns, and regions. It encourages the construction and preservation of buildings
which prove to be assets to a community over time, not only because of the services provided within, but because of the unique contribution
they make on the outside to the look and feel of a city.
Guided by a vision of how and where to grow, communities are able to identify and utilize opportunities to make new development conform to
their standards of distinctiveness and beauty. Contrary to the current mode of development, smart growth ensures that the value of infill and
greenfield development is determined as much by their accessibility (by car or other means) as their physical orientation to and relationship
with other buildings and open space. By creating high-quality communities with architectural and natural elements that reflect the interests of
all residents, there is a greater likelihood that buildings (and therefore entire neighborhoods) will retain their economic vitality and value over
time. In so doing, the infrastructure and natural resources used to create these areas will provide residents with a distinctive and beautiful
place that they can call “home” for generations to come.
Make Development Decisions Predictable, Fair and Cost Effective
For a community to be successful in implementing smart growth, it must be embraced by the private sector. Only private capital markets can
supply the large amounts of money needed to meet the growing demand for smart growth developments. If investors, bankers, developers,
builders and others do not earn a profit, few smart growth projects will be built. Fortunately, government can help make smart growth
profitable to private investors and developers. Since the development industry is highly regulated, the value of property and the desirability of
a place are largely affected by government investment in infrastructure and government regulation. Governments that make the right
infrastructure and regulatory decisions will create fair, predictable and cost effective smart growth.
Despite regulatory and financial barriers, developers have been successful in creating examples of smart growth. The process to do so,
however, requires them to get variances to the codes – often a time-consuming, and therefore costly, requirement. Expediting the approval
process is of particular importance for developers, for whom the common mantra, “time is money” very aptly applies. The longer it takes to
get approval for building, the longer the developer’s capital remains tied up in the land and not earning income. For smart growth to flourish,
state and local governments must make an effort to make development decisions about smart growth more timely, cost-effective, and
predictable for developers. By creating a fertile environment for innovative, pedestrian-oriented, mixed-use projects, government can provide
leadership for smart growth that the private sector is sure to support.
Mix Land Uses
Smart growth supports the integration of mixed land uses into communities as a critical component of achieving better places to live. By
putting uses in close proximity to one another, alternatives to driving, such as walking or biking, once again become viable. Mixed land uses
also provide a more diverse and sizable population and commercial base for supporting viable public transit. It can enhance the vitality and
perceived security of an area by increasing the number and attitude of people on the street. It helps streets; public spaces and pedestrianoriented retail again become places where people meet, attracting pedestrians back onto the street and helping to revitalize community life.
Mixed land uses can convey substantial fiscal and economic benefits. Commercial uses in close proximity to residential areas are often
reflected in higher property values, and therefore help raise local tax receipts. Businesses recognize the benefits associated with areas able
to attract more people, as there is increased economic activity when there are more people in an area to shop. In today's service economy,
communities find that by mixing land uses, they make their neighborhoods attractive to workers who increasingly balance quality of life
criteria with salary to determine where they will settle. Smart growth provides a means for communities to alter the planning context which
currently renders mixed land uses illegal in most of the country.
Preserve Open Space, Farmland, Natural Beauty and Critical Environmental Areas
Smart growth uses the term “open space” broadly to mean natural areas both in and surrounding localities that provide important community
space, habitat for plants and animals, recreational opportunities, farm and ranch land (working lands), places of natural beauty and critical
environmental areas (e.g. wetlands). Open space preservation supports smart growth goals by bolstering local economies, preserving critical
environmental areas, improving our communities’ quality of life, and guiding new growth into existing communities.
There is growing political will to save the "open spaces" that Americans treasure. Voters in 2000 overwhelmingly approved ballot measures
to fund open space protection efforts. The reasons for such support are varied and attributable to the benefits associated with open space
protection. Protection of open space provides many fiscal benefits, including increasing local property value (thereby increasing property tax
bases), providing tourism dollars, and decreases local tax increases (due to the savings of reducing the construction of new infrastructure).
Management of the quality and supply of open space also ensures that prime farm and ranch lands are available, prevents flood damage,
and provides a less expensive and natural alternative for providing clean drinking water.
The availability of open space also provides significant environmental quality and health benefits. Open space protects animal and plant
habitat, places of natural beauty, and working lands by removing the development pressure and redirecting new growth to existing
communities. Additionally, preservation of open space benefits the environment by combating air pollution, attenuating noise, controlling
wind, providing erosion control, and moderating temperatures. Open space also protects surface and ground water resources by filtering
trash, debris, and chemical pollutants before they enter a water system.
Provide a Variety of Transportation Choices
Providing people with more choices in housing, shopping, communities, and transportation is a key aim of smart growth. Communities are
increasingly seeking these choices -- particularly a wider range of transportation options -- in an effort to improve beleaguered transportation
systems. Traffic congestion is worsening across the country. Where in 1982 65 percent of travel occurred in uncongested conditions, by 1997
only 36 percent of peak travel occurred did so. In fact, according to the Texas Transportation Institute, congestion over the last several years
has worsened in nearly every major metropolitan area in the United States.
In response, communities are beginning to implement new approaches to transportation planning, such as better coordinating land use and
transportation; increasing the availability of high quality transit service; creating redundancy, resiliency and connectivity within their road
networks; and ensuring connectivity between pedestrian, bike, transit, and road facilities. In short, they are coupling a multi-modal approach
to transportation with supportive development patterns, to create a variety of transportation options.
Strengthen and Direct Development Towards Existing Communities
Smart growth directs development towards existing communities already served by infrastructure, seeking to utilize the resources that
existing neighborhoods offer, and conserve open space and irreplaceable natural resources on the urban fringe. Development in existing
neighborhoods also represents an approach to growth that can be more cost-effective, and improves the quality of life for its residents. By
encouraging development in existing communities, communities benefit from a stronger tax base, closer proximity of a range of jobs and
services, increased efficiency of already developed land and infrastructure, reduced development pressure in edge areas thereby preserving
more open space, and, in some cases, strengthening rural communities.
The ease of greenfield development remains an obstacle to encouraging more development in existing neighborhoods. Development on the
fringe remains attractive to developers for its ease of access and construction, lower land costs, and potential for developers to assemble
larger parcels. Typical zoning requirements in fringe areas are often easier to comply with, as there are often few existing building types that
new construction must complement, and a relative absence of residents who may object to the inconvenience or disruption caused by new
construction.
Nevertheless, developers and communities are recognizing the opportunities presented by infill development, as suggested not only by
demographic shifts, but also in response to a growing awareness of the fiscal, environmental, and social costs of development focused
disproportionately on the urban fringe. Journals that track real estate trends routinely cite the investment appeal of the “24-hour city” for
empty nesters, young professionals, and others, and developers are beginning to respond. A 2001 report by Urban Land Institute on urban
infill housing states that, in 1999, the increase in housing permit activity in cities relative to average annual figures from the preceding decade
exceeded that of the suburbs, indicating that infill development is possible and profitable.
Take Advantage of Compact Building Design
Smart growth provides a means for communities to incorporate more compact building design as an alternative to conventional, land
consumptive development. Compact building design suggests that communities be designed in a way which permits more open space to
preserved, and that buildings can be constructed which make more efficient use of land and resources. By encouraging buildings to grow
vertically rather than horizontally, and by incorporating structured rather than surface parking, for example, communities can reduce the
footprint of new construction, and preserve more green space. Not only is this approach more efficient by requiring less land for construction.
It also provides and protects more open, undeveloped land that would exist otherwise to absorb and filter rain water, reduce flooding and
stormwater drainage needs, and lower the amount of pollution washing into our streams, rivers and lakes.
Compact building design is necessary to support wider transportation choices, and provides cost savings for localities. Communities seeking
to encourage transit use to reduce air pollution and congestion recognize that minimum levels of density are required to make public transit
networks viable. Local governments find that on a per-unit basis, it is cheaper to provide and maintain services like water, sewer, electricity,
phone service and other utilities in more compact neighborhoods than in dispersed communities.
Research based on these developments has shown, for example, that well-designed, compact New Urbanist communities that include a
variety of house sizes and types command a higher market value on a per square foot basis than do those in adjacent conventional suburban
developments. Perhaps this is why increasing numbers of the development industry have been able to successfully integrate compact design
into community building efforts. This despite current zoning practices – such as those that require minimum lot sizes, or prohibit multi-family
or attached housing – and other barriers - community perceptions of “higher density” development, often preclude compact design.
Community Quality of Life
Compact development
Civic leadership
Community engagement
Community gardens
Cultural attractions
Environmental justice
Historic preservation
Housing choices
Mixed-use neighborhoods
Recreational facilities
Senior and children issues
Sense of place
Social equity
Sports facilities
Urban trees
Urban parks
Focus Study
In 1989, the San Francisco Chronicle rated Suisun City, California, a town of 25,000 people midway between San Francisco and
Sacramento, the worst place to live in the Bay Area. At that time, Suisun City's historic Main Street was a strip of boarded-up storefronts,
vacant lots, and auto body shops. Several blocks away, an oil refinery sat at the head of the heavily polluted, silt-laden Suisun Channel.
Today Suisun’s harbor is filled with boats and lined with small businesses. A train and bus station that connects the city to the rest of
Northern California sits a few blocks away. The town is diverse, walk able, and picturesque. Its crime rate is low and its housing affordable.
How did Suisun City transform itself in a decade? Was it the beneficiary of a huge government redevelopment grant or a gift from a rich
foundation? No such luck. Instead, Suisun City's residents, businesses, and elected officials agreed on a common vision for their town's
future. Clean-up polluted Suisun Channel and make the waterfront a focal point of their town, they said. Re-establish historic Main Street as a
social and retail gathering place. Strengthen municipal finances by encouraging tax-generating commercial development such as retail shops
and restaurants along Main Street and the waterfront.
In its rebirth, Suisun City avoided large-scale redevelopment projects such as shopping centers and industrial parks that would have
obliterated its historic, small-town character. Suisun City is still a work-in-progress. But this once-troubled town has turned the corner. Suisun
City is invigorated with new businesses and residents, rekindled community spirit, and unbridled optimism about its future.
Growth and development can cut two ways. As the example of Suisun City illustrates growth can improve quality of life by adding services,
creating opportunity, and enhancing access to amenities. It can also drive disinvestment, reduce competitiveness, and degrade the
environment. Businesses, community leaders, developers, and local governments need to work to ensure that new growth improves the
economy and environment of existing communities. In building places, communities must build places people want to live in for what they
are, rather than for what they are not. This is smart growth.
Design
By promoting the principles of green building design that combine energy and water efficiency, healthy indoor air quality and the use of
natural building materials with mixed use neighborhoods, revitalized downtowns, walk able communities, and high density, low impact
development, smart growth creates communities that provide environmental, economic, social and health benefits for all.
Economics
Funding sources
Attracting business/industry
Brownfields
Eco-industrial development
Employment
Fiscal incentives/subsidies
Fiscal incentives/subsidies
Private/public partnerships
Resource efficiency in local government
Small business development
Focus Study
Recent trends in the global economy—industrial clustering and specialization, diversification of the workforce, reintegration of work and
home—are placing a premium upon community character and quality of life. Companies are on the move and being drawn to communities
that offer a good quality of life. Why? First, companies realize that their workers want to live in communities that offer reasonable commutes,
a vibrant social life, environmental amenities, housing and transportation choice. To retain and attract their employees, companies must
locate in such environments. Second, business is increasingly conducted beyond the boardroom—in cafes, restaurants, health clubs, public
spaces, etc.—places where people can come together, converse, share ideas and network. The suburban office park, filled with buildings
and cars, but with few destinations, is becoming an outmoded venue for conducting business. Lastly, the private sector in the new economy
equates competitive advantage with the ability of being where the action is and to them the action is in urban or town centers. Although
technology frees them to locate anywhere, it is proximity to suppliers, a workforce and networks that is drawing business to the central
business district (CBD).
The emphasis on place presents enormous opportunities for communities to capitalize on their quality of life assets and to employ them as a
tool for economic development. Doing so requires communities to think of quality of life as a commodity that can be cultivated and managed.
Communities need to make strategic decisions that improve rather than harm livability and make them lucrative places for business, and
labor to locate. The new economy values distinctive places that have the talent, technology and infrastructure to sustain competitive
advantage. Talent is attracted to sociable communities—places with destinations, public and civic spaces, environmental amenities—where
they can come together with colleagues and friends either through planned or chance encounters. Technological innovation is creating a
wired society. Companies value offices and homes that are prewired to enable easy interaction between home and office. Aside from
communication infrastructure, the new economy demands physical infrastructure that reduces the cost of business. This means buildings that
can be quickly reconfigured and constructed, housing of varying types and costs, development patterns that are predictable, and
transportation systems which increase mobility.
Environment
Farmland preservation
Green infrastructure/watershed protection
Greenways
Land conservation
Landscapes
Open space
Parks
Rural issues
Sewage treatment
Stormwater control
Tools
Transportation planning and choices
Urban parks
Urban trees
Water quality
Zoning issues
Focus Study
The prevalence of many of our current environmental challenges -- air and water pollution; global warming, habitat fragmentation and
conversion -- is in part due to the way in which we have built our neighborhoods, communities and metropolitan areas during the past halfcentury -- dispersed, inaccessible, and automobile-oriented -- in a word, sprawling.
The farther we have to travel between home and work, work and play, the more likely it is that we will drive. Thus it should not be surprising
that as the distances between trip origins and destinations has increased so has the amount of driving we have done. The end result of all of
this driving is that the nation's air quality has suffered. Research has shown that compact, pedestrian and transit friendly communities have a
positive impact on air quality by improving travel alternatives.
As we build, we replace our natural landscape -- forests, wetlands, grasslands with streets parking lots, rooftops, and other impervious
surfaces. The effect of this conversion is that stormwater, runoff which prior to development is filtered and captured by natural landscape, is
trapped above impervious surfaces and accumulates and runs off into streams, lakes, and estuaries, picking up pollutants along the way.
Runoff can be reduced through clustering of development, thereby leaving larger open spaces and buffers. Although compact development
generates higher runoff and pollutant loads within a development, total runoff and pollutant loads are offset by reductions in surrounding
undeveloped areas.
As development moves further and further to the metropolitan fringe it competes with open space habitat and prime farmland. Loss of open
space impacts the environment in multiple ways. First, we lose many of the natural landscape features we value -- forests, wetlands, etc.
Second we lose the functions that these features provide -- runoff control, wildlife migration, etc. And in the instance of farmland loss we
hasten the use of lesser quality soils for production; thereby heightening conversion of forest and wetlands for crop production; and
increasing dependency on irrigation, fertilizers and chemicals. Smart growth enables communities to pursue open space protection and
development objectives through the clustering of development activity away from sensitive natural areas.
Health
Exposure to pollution and indoor contaminants
Health facility siting
Industrial/waste facility siting
Mental health
Safety (auto bicyclist)
Pedestrian
Focus Study
The way in which we design our communities directly impacts public health. Conventional community design, with its wide streets and
absence of sidewalks, contributes to increased vehicle use and vehicle miles traveled (VMT) even for short trips. In the past 20 years, VMT
has almost doubled and continues to increase faster than our population growth. In 1991, air pollution from highway VMT was estimated to
have caused between 20,000 and 40,000 cases of respiratory illness. Most susceptible to respiratory illness are children. There has been a
160% increase in asthma in children under five years of age in the past 15 years. It is the leading cause of hospitalization for chronic
diseases and of school absenteeism.
Growth patterns also affect the quality of the water we drink. Development activity results in the conversion of undeveloped land to
impervious surface. This process reduces natural filters such as wetlands, ultimately contributing to increased volumes of pollutants such as
pesticides, fertilizers, and heavy metals in stormwater runoff. The threat to human health occurs when such runoff enters a water body and
ultimately into the drinking water supply.
Most communities today were designed to accommodate the automobile and do not have many sidewalks to facilitate walking and biking.
These development patterns has ultimately ultimate caused sedentary behavior because of the reliance on the automobile and cost the
public valuable opportunities to be physically active through walking and bicycling to school, work or for errands. Even more alarming, current
growth patterns are causing a rise in obesity in both adults and children. Today, nearly one is four Americans is obese and 60 percent of
Americans are overweight. Over the last three decades, the percentage of overweight children has doubled.
Smart growth is an integrative solution that addresses these trends and promotes a healthier, vibrant community. It helps reduce health
threats from exposure to pollution and indoor contaminants, improves pedestrian safety, and engages residents and workers in a more
active, healthy lifestyle. By promoting compact, walk able neighborhoods with mixed uses, walking and bicycling become viable
transportation options.
Housing
Increased density
Compact development
Gentrification
Mixed use development
Mortgages
Renovation codes
Affordable housing
Focus Study
Housing is a critical part of the way communities grow, as it is constitutes a significant share of new construction and development. More
importantly, however, is also a key factor in determining households’ access to transportation, commuting patterns, access to services and
education, and consumption of energy and other natural resources. By using smart growth approaches to create a wider range of housing
choices, communities can mitigate the environmental costs of auto-dependent development, use their infrastructure resources more
efficiently, ensure a better jobs-housing balance, and generate a strong foundation of support for neighborhood transit stops, commercial
centers, and other services.
No single type of housing can serve the varied needs of today’s diverse households. Smart growth represents an opportunity for local
communities to increase housing choice not only by modifying their land use patterns on newly-developed land, but also by increasing
housing supply in existing neighborhoods and on land served by existing infrastructure. Integrating single- and multi-family structures in new
housing developments can support a more diverse population and allow more equitable distribution of households of all income levels across
the region. The addition of units -- through attached housing, accessory units, or conversion to multi-family dwellings -- to existing
neighborhoods creates opportunities for communities to slowly increase density without radically changing the landscape. New housing
construction can be an economic stimulus for existing commercial centers that are currently vibrant during the work day, but suffer from a
lack of foot traffic and consumers in evenings or weekends. Most importantly, providing a range of housing choices allow all households to
find their niche in a smart growth community – whether it is a garden apartment, a row house, or a traditional suburban home – and
accommodate growth at the same time.
Create Range of Housing Opportunities and Choices
Providing quality housing for people of all income levels is an integral component in any smart growth strategy. Housing is a critical part of
the way communities grow, as it is constitutes a significant share of new construction and development. More importantly, however, is also a
key factor in determining households’ access to transportation, commuting patterns, access to services and education, and consumption of
energy and other natural resources. By using smart growth approaches to create a wider range of housing choices, communities can mitigate
the environmental costs of auto-dependent development, use their infrastructure resources more efficiently, ensure a better jobs-housing
balance, and generate a strong foundation of support for neighborhood transit stops, commercial centers, and other services.
No single type of housing can serve the varied needs of today’s diverse households. Smart growth represents an opportunity for local
communities to increase housing choice not only by modifying their land use patterns on newly-developed land, but also by increasing
housing supply in existing neighborhoods and on land served by existing infrastructure. Integrating single- and multi-family structures in new
housing developments can support a more diverse population and allow more equitable distribution of households of all income levels across
the region. The addition of units -- through attached housing, accessory units, or conversion to multi-family dwellings -- to existing
neighborhoods creates opportunities for communities to slowly increase density without radically changing the landscape. New housing
construction can be an economic stimulus for existing commercial centers that are currently vibrant during the work day, but suffer from a
lack of foot traffic and consumers in evenings or weekends. Most importantly, providing a range of housing choices allow all households to
find their niche in a smart growth community – whether it is a garden apartment, a row house, or a traditional suburban home – and
accommodate growth at the same time.
Individuals who Influenced Planning before 1978
Hippodamus - 5th century B.C.
Hippodamus of Miletus was a Greek architect who introduced order and regularity into the planning of cities, which were intricate and
confusing. For Pericles, he planned the arrangement of the harbor-town Peiraeus at Athens. When the Athenians founded Thurii in Italy, he
accompanied the colony as architect. Later, in 408 B.C., he superintended the building of the new city of Rhodes. His schemes consisted of
series of broad, straight streets, intersecting one another at right angles.
Benjamin Banneker - 1731-1806
Benjamin Banneker, one of the nation's best-known African American inventors, was born in Maryland, which was then a British colony. He
was the grandson of a white indentured servant from England and a former slave.
Always interested in mathematics and science, in 1753, Banneker was inspired to build his own clock out of wood based on his own designs
and calculations. The clock kept accurate time until Banneker's house burned with all its contents in 1806.
Banneker taught himself astronomy and advanced math from books and instruments borrowed from his neighbors, the Ellicotts, who shared
his interest. He made astronomical and tide calculations and weather predictions for yearly almanacs, which he published from 1792 to 1797.
Banneker's almanacs were compared favorable with Benjamin Franklin's Poor Richard's Almanac. He sent a copy of the manuscript for his
almanac to Thomas Jefferson, along with a letter in which he challenged Jefferson's ideas about the inferiority of blacks. Jefferson replied
politely but failed to comment on either the almanac or Banneker's issues.
In 1791, Banneker was asked by Major George Ellicott to help survey the "Federal Territory," now Washington, D.C. Banneker agreed and
became one of three surveyors appointed by President George Washington. For a period of three months in the spring of 1791 Mr. Banneker
worked in a tent in what was then the independent jurisdiction of Georgetown. His work involved locating the boundary stones of the Federal
District using his own astronomical calculations. For his scientific skills, spirit of pioneering and contribution to the establishment of the
nation's capitol, we honor Banneker's memory.
Pierre L’Enfant – 1754-1852
Pierre L'Enfant was the French architect and engineer responsible for the design of Washington, D.C. The plan of the city is based on
principles employed by Andre Le Notre in the palace and garden of Versailles, where L'Enfant's father had worked as a court painter, and on
Domenico Fontana's scheme (1585) for the redesign of Rome under Pope Sixtus V. Through the use of long avenues joined at key points
marked by important buildings or monuments, the U.S. capital city is a symbolic representation of power radiating from a central source.
Baron Haussmann – 1809-1891
Haussmann was a French civic planner who is associated with the rebuilding of Paris. He was born in that city of a Protestant family of
German descent. Commissioned by Napoleon III to instigate a program of planning reforms in Paris, Haussmann laid out the Bois de
Boulogne, and made extensive improvements in the smaller parks. The gardens of the Luxembourg Palace were cut down to allow of the
formation of new streets, and the Boulevard de Sebastopol, the southern half of which is now the Boulevard St. Michel, was built through a
populous district. Additional, sweeping changes made wide "boulevards" of previously narrow streets. A new water supply, a gigantic system
of sewers, new bridges, the opera and other public buildings, and the inclusion of outlying districts were among the new Haussmann's
achievements. His bold handling of the public funds called forth Jules Ferry's indictment, in 1867.
Frederick Law Olmsted – 1822-1903
Frederick Law Olmsted is widely recognized as the founder of American landscape architecture and the nation's foremost park maker. His
first, most loved, and in many ways his best known work was his design of Central Park in New York City (1858-1876) with his partner
Calvert Vaux. But Olmsted would go on to have a significant influence in the way cities and communities are built to incorporate the idea of
nature and parks. He was one of the first to espouse the principles of the City Beautiful movement in America and to introduce the idea of
suburban development to the American landscape.
George Pullman – 1831-1897
George Pullman was an American inventor and industrialist.
Although Pullman dropped out of school at age 14, he eventually became one of Chicago's most influential and controversial figures. He
arrived in Chicago in 1855 and discovered that city streets frequently were filled with mud deep enough to drown a horse. He suggested that
the houses be raised and new foundations built under them, a technique his father used to move homes during the widening of the Erie
Canal. In 1857, with a couple of partners, Pullman proved his technique would work by raising an entire block of stores and office buildings.
He used his money and success to develop a comfortable railroad sleeping car, the Pullman sleeper, in 1864. Although the sleeper cost
more than five times the price of a regular railway car, by arranging to have the body of slain President Abraham Lincoln transported from
Washington, D.C., to Springfield on a sleeper, he received national attention and the orders began to pour in. Pullman built a new plant on
the shores of Lake Calumet, several miles from Chicago. In an effort to make it easier for his employees, he also built a town with its own
shopping areas, theaters, parks, hotel and library for his employees.
When business declined in 1894, Pullman cut jobs, wages and working hours. His failure to lower rents, utility charges, and the cost of
products led his workers to protest. The Pullman Strike was eventually broken up by federal troops sent in by President Grover Cleveland.
Camillo Sitte – 1843-1903
Camillo Sitte is best known among urban planners and architects for his book City Planning According to Its Artistic Principles from 1889. He
strongly criticized the prevailing emphasis on broad, straight boulevards, public squares arranged primarily for the convenience of traffic, and
efforts to strip major public or religious landmarks of adjoining smaller structures that were regarded as encumbering such monuments of the
past.
Sitte proposed instead to follow what he believed to be the design objectives of those whose streets and buildings shaped medieval cities.
He advocated curving or irregular street alignments to provide ever-changing vistas. He pointed out the advantages of what came to be know
as "turbine squares" — civic spaces served by streets entering in such a way as to resemble a pinwheel in plan. His teachings became
widely accepted in Austria, Germany, and Scandinavia. In less than a decade, his style of urban design came to be accepted as the norm in
those countries.
Daniel Burnham – 1846-1912
Daniel Burnham was raised and educated in Chicago. He gained his early architectural experience with William Le Baron Jenney, the "father
of the skyscraper." However, Burnham earned an even greater reputation for his influence as a city planner. He supervised the layout and
construction of the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition. In 1909, Burnham and his assistant Edward H. Bennett (who designed the Michigan
Avenue Bridge) prepared The Plan for Chicago, which is considered the nation's first example of a comprehensive planning document.
Burnham also worked on other city plans, for Cleveland, San Francisco, Washington, D.C., Manila, and other cities.
Burnham's most famous quote continues to inspire: "Make no little plans; they have no magic to stir men's blood and probably will
themselves not be realized. Make big plans; aim high in hope and work, remembering that a noble, logical diagram once recorded will not
die."
Jacob August Riis – 1849-1914
Jacob August Riis used photography and writing to reveal the terrible conditions of the urban poor in the US. He was the author of two books
that looked at life in the slums of New York: How the Other Half Lives (1890) and Children of the Poor (1892). His books led to the first
federal investigation of slum conditions and to changes in New York's housing laws that became national models. Riis was one of the leading
housing reformers in the history of American city planning.
Ebenezer Howard – 1850-1928
Ebenezer Howard came to America from England at the age of 21. He settled in Nebraska, and soon discovered that he was not meant to be
a farmer. He moved to Chicago and worked as a reporter for the courts and newspapers. By 1876, he was back in England, where he found
a job with a firm producing the official Parliamentary reports, and he spent the rest of his life in this occupation.
Howard read widely and thought deeply about social issues, and one result was his book To-Morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform
(1898), reprinted in 1902 as Garden Cities of To-Morrow. This book called for the creation of new suburban towns of limited size, planned in
advance, and surrounded by a permanent belt of agricultural land. Many suburbs were modeled after Howard's "Garden Cities." He believed
they were the perfect blend of city and nature.
His ideas attracted enough attention and financial backing to begin Letchworth, a garden city in suburban London. A second garden city,
Welwyn, was started after World War I. Their success led the British government to develop New Towns after World War II. This movement
produced more than 30 communities, most significantly perhaps Milton Keynes. Howard's ideas inspired other planners such as Frederick
Law Olmsted II and Clarence Perry.
Patrick Geddes – 1854-1932
Patrick Geddes has been described as one of the founders of modern town and regional planning. His ideas have influenced planning
practice, regional economic development, and environmental management.
Geddes, a Scot, was the son of a regular soldier. He had none of the privileges of wealth or position, yet by the age of 24 he was a biologist
of great promise, his research papers already published by the British Royal Society. The British Association for the Advancement of Science
sent him on a research mission to Mexico, where he contracted an illness that caused temporary blindness. Even after his recovery, he was
unable to continue his research, which caused eyestrain when using a microscope.
Deprived of his first outlet for study, Geddes turned to social analysis and applied his scientific methodology to the processes of economic,
social and environmental change. In 1888, he took up a part-time post as Professor of Botany at University College, Dundee, and held this
position until 1918. During this period, when he was based primarily in Edinburgh, he became interested in urban and regional planning and
urban renewal issues.
Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. – 1870-1957
Arguably the intellectual leader of the American city planning movement in the early twentieth century, Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr. was a
worthy son of a distinguished father. While still an adolescent, "Rick" Olmsted worked and studied under his father before entering Harvard.
After graduation in 1894, he entered his father's firm and a year later, as the elder Olmsted's health deteriorated, he and his half-brother took
it over under the name Olmsted Brothers.
His active involvement in urban planning began in 1901 with his appointment as one of four members of the Senate Park Commission with
Daniel Burnham, Charles McKim, and August St. Gaudens. He maintained a special interest in Washington, serving on the Fine Arts
Commission from its founding in 1910 to 1918. During the First World War, he was manager for town planning in the U.S. Housing
Corporation. This body planned and built near war industries a large number of housing projects, some of them approaching new towns in
size. From 1926, when it was established, to 1932 he was a member of the National Capital Park and Planning Commission.
Olmsted was one of the moving figures in establishing the National Planning Conference and was its president from 1910 to 1919. When the
professional members of this group and others formed the American City Planning Institute in 1917, they elected Olmsted the first president.
In the 1920s, he was also a member of the Advisory Committee on City Planning and Zoning, established by Commerce Secretary Herbert
Hoover. Olmsted helped design the innovative Forest Hills Gardens project in Queens, as well as the industrial town of Torrance, California.
He also prepared plans for existing cities: Detroit, Utica, Boulder, New Haven (with Cass Gilbert), and Pittsburgh (with Bion J. Arnold and
John R. Freeman), Rochester (with Arnold W. Brunner and Bion J. Arnold); and Newport.
Clarence Arthur Perry – 1872-1944
Father of the "Neighborhood Unit Concept," Clarence Perry codified Raymond Unwin's designs of neighborhood. (Unwin thought of the
street, the district, and the town as larger wholes.) While living in the garden suburb of Forest Hills Gardens, New York, he worked on his
scheme for the "neighborhood unit" — a self-contained residential area that would be bounded by major streets, with shops at the
intersections and a school in the middle. The concept for the self-contained neighborhood unit was made public with the publication of
Housing for the Mechanic Age (1939). Perry also was the author of the "Regional Survey of New York and its Environs" (1929).
Alfred Bettman – 1873-1945
Alfred Bettman is generally credited with saving zoning from constitutional defeat in Village of Euclid v. Ambler Realty Co., 272 U.S. 365
(1926).
A Harvard graduate and corporate lawyer from Cincinnati, Bettman was appalled by the municipal corruption he saw around him and decided
that city planning was the key to reform. In 1915, he drafted a bill in Ohio that authorized cities to create citizen-dominated planning
commissions. The law specified that once the commission adopted the plan, it could not be violated by the city council. This was the first
such planning legislation in the country and set the stage for local community planning in America.
Bettman was asked to serve on Herbert Hoover's Blue Ribbon Committee to draft the Standard City Planning and Zoning Enabling Acts in
1924 and 1928. He also drafted the Tennessee Zoning and Planning Enabling Statutes (1935). He served as the first president of the
American Society of Planning Officials (1934-1938), one of APA's predecessor organizations.
Clarence Stein – 1882-1975
Clarence Stein studied architecture at Columbia University and the École des Beaux-Arts. Stein worked in the office of Bertram Grosvenor
Goodhue, where he assisted in the planning of the San Diego World's Fair (1915). Along with Lewis Mumford and Henry Wright, Stein was a
founding member of the Regional Planning Association of America, a group instrumental in importing Ebenezer Howard's garden city idea
from England to the United States. Stein and Wright collaborated on the design of Radburn, New Jersey (1928–32), a garden suburb noted
for its superblock layout. Stein wrote Toward New Towns for America (1951).
Le Corbusier – 1887-1965
Le Corbusier was without doubt the most influential, most admired, and most maligned architect of the twentieth century. Through his writing
and his buildings, he is the main player in the Modernist story, his visions of homes and cities as innovative as they are influential. Many of
his ideas on urban living became the blueprint for post-war reconstruction, and the many failures of his would-be imitators led to Le Corbusier
being blamed for the problems of western cities in the 1960s and 1970s.
In the 1920s and 1930s, Le Corbusier's most significant work was in urban planning. In such published plans as La Ville Contemporaine
(1922), the Plan Voisin de Paris (1925), and the several Villes Radieuses (1930-36). He advanced ideas dramatically different from the
comfortable, low-rise communities proposed by earlier garden city planners. During this 20-year span, he also built many villas and several
small apartment complexes and office buildings.
Robert Moses – 1888-1981
Robert Moses was the master builder of 20th century New York City. As the shaper of a modern city, his only peer is Haussmann. Although
he never held elective office, Moses was the most powerful person in New York City government from the 1930s to the 1950s. Moses literally
changed shorelines, built roadways in the sky, and turned vibrant neighborhoods into slums. Moses displaced hundreds of thousands of
people, and contributed to the ruin of the South Bronx, the departure of the Brooklyn Dodgers, and the decline of public transit. However, in a
way, Moses's projects were necessary. His mistakes were in believing that "cities are for traffic," and "if the ends don't justify the means, what
does?"
Despite his racism and disdain for less wealthy citizens, Moses did many jobs extraordinarily well, such as the development of Jones Beach
as a public park. At a time when the public was used to Tammany Hall corruption and incompetence, Moses was seen as a savior of
government. Shortly after President Franklin Roosevelt's inauguration, the federal government had millions of dollars to spend, but states
and cities had few projects ready. New York City was an exception. At one point, one-quarter of federal construction dollars were being spent
in New York and Moses had 80,000 people working under him.
Lewis Mumford – 1895-1988
Lewis Mumford's long life was marked by work in urban planning, history, and political and social commentary. He viewed architectural
congestion as a dehumanizing influence and was instrumental in founding the Regional Planning Association of America in 1923.
His series of writings tracing the history of cities over the last 1,000 years was very successful and included The Culture of Cities (1938), The
Condition of Man (1944), and The Conduct of Life (1951).
Mumford continued his prodigious output well into his later years, producing The Pentagon of Power in 1971. Mumford received the National
Medal of Arts in 1986.
Catherine Bauer – 1905-1964
Catherine Bauer was a leading member of a small group of idealists who called themselves "housers" because of their commitment to
improving housing for low-income families. In her lifetime, she dramatically changed the concept of social housing in the United States and
inspired a generation of urban activists to integrate public housing into the emerging welfare state of the mid-twentieth century. H. Peter
Oberlander and Eva Newbrun trace her fascinating life and career in their book Houser (2000).
In the late 1920s, Bauer spent time in Paris, where she befriended Fernan Léger, Man Ray, and Sylvia Beach. Back in New York, she fell
under the spell of American urban critic Lewis Mumford, who, as a mentor and lover, profoundly influenced her life. It was at his urging that
she became involved with the architects of change in post-WWI Europe, among them Ernst May, André Lurçat, and Walter Gropius.
Convinced that good social housing could produce good social architecture, and moved by the visible ravages of the Depression, she
became a passionate leader in the fight for housing for the poor. She co-authored the Housing Act of 1937 and advised five presidents on
urban strategies. Her book, Modern Housing, published in 1934, is regarded as a classic.
William Levitt – 1907-1994
William J. Levitt did not invent suburbia, but by producing the two-bedroom home fast, cheaply, and in enormous numbers, he changed the
face and the dynamic of life in America.
The grandson of a rabbi who emigrated from Russia to Brooklyn, Levitt put affordable roofs over the families of thousands of GIs returning
from World War II. On a stretch of Long Island potato fields, aptly named Levittown, the dreams of his war-weary countrymen began to take
shape. Slapping together 30 or more houses a day, Levitt sold them at first for less than $7,000 apiece. The ultimate in modernity, his homes
boasted refrigerators and washers and were even "television equipped," as Levitt ads crowed.
Jane Jacobs – 1916-2006
Jane Jacobs was born in Scranton, Pennsylvania. Her father was a physician and her mother taught school and worked as a nurse. After
high school and a year spent as a reporter on the Scranton Tribune, Jacobs went to New York, where she found a succession of jobs as a
stenographer and wrote freelance articles about the city's many working districts, which fascinated her.
In 1952, after a number of writing and editing jobs ranging in subject matter from metallurgy to U.S. geography for foreign readers, she
became an associate editor of Architectural Forum. She became increasingly skeptical of conventional planning beliefs as she noticed that
the city rebuilding projects she wrote about did not seem safe, interesting, lively, or economically beneficial for cities once the projects were
operational. She gave a speech to that effect at Harvard in 1956, and this led to an article in Fortune magazine entitled "Downtown Is for
People." This in turn led her to write The Death and Life of Great American Cities. The book was published in 1961 and permanently the
debate about urban renewal and the future of cities.
Thirty years after its publication, the New York Times described The Death and Life of Great American Cities as "perhaps the most influential
single work in the history of town planning. ... [It] can also be seen in a much larger context. It is first of all a work of literature; the
descriptions of street life as a kind of ballet and the bitingly satiric account of traditional planning theory can still be read for pleasure even by
those who long ago absorbed and appropriated the book's arguments."
William Whyte – 1917-1999
Whyte was born in West Chester, Pennsylvania. He joined the staff of Fortune magazine in 1946, after graduating from Princeton University
and serving in the Marine Corps. His book The Organization Man (1956), based on his articles about corporate culture and the suburban
middle class, and sold more than two million copies. Whyte then turned to the topics of sprawl and urban revitalization, and began a
distinguished career as a sage of sane development and an advocate of cities.
In 1969, Whyte assisted the New York City Planning Commission in drafting a comprehensive plan for the city. Having been critically
involved in the planning of new city spaces, he came to wonder how these spaces were actually working out. No one had researched this
before. He applied for and received a grant to study street life in New York and other cities, in what became known as the Street Life Project.
With a group of young research assistants, and with camera and notebook in hand, he conducted pioneering studies on pedestrian behavior
and city dynamics.
Whyte walked the city streets for more than 16 years. As unobtrusively as possible, he watched people and used time-lapse photography to
chart the meanderings of pedestrians. What emerged from his intuitive analysis is an extremely human, often amusing view of what is
staggeringly obvious about people's behavior in public spaces (such as taking the shortest distance between two points), but seemingly
invisible to the unobservant.
The core of Whyte's work was predicated on the years he spent directly observing human beings, and he authored several texts about urban
planning and design and human behavior in various urban spaces. He served as an advisor to Laurence S. Rockefeller on environmental
issues and as a key planning consultant for major U.S. cities, traveling and lecturing widely. He was a Distinguished Professor at Hunter
College of the City University of New York and a trustee of the American Conservation Association. Whyte was active in the Municipal Art
Society, the Hudson River Valley Commission, and President Lyndon B. Johnson's Task Force on Natural Beauty.
Kevin Lynch – 1918-1984
Kevin Lynch was a significant contributor to twentieth-century city planning and city design. He was educated at Yale University, Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute, and most notably, Massachusetts Institute of Technology. He became a professor at MIT in 1963, and eventually
earned professor emeritus status. Aside from research and teaching, Lynch was consultant to the state of Rhode Island, New England
Medical Center, Boston Redevelopment Authority, Puerto Rico Industrial Development Corp., M.I.T. Planning Office, and other organizations.
Lynch produced seven books during his outstanding career. In his most famous work, Image of the City (1960), he described a five-year
study that used Boston, Los Angeles, and Jersey City as case studies. His research revealed which elements in the built structure of a city
are important in the popular perception of the city.
Ian McHarg – 1920-2001
Ian McHarg was one of the true pioneers of the environmental movement. Born near the gritty, industrial city of Glasgow, he gained an early
appreciation of the need for cities to better accommodate the qualities of the natural environment that until then had largely been shunned.
After serving in World War II, McHarg immigrated to the United States to attend Harvard University, where he earned degrees in landscape
architecture and city planning. He was responsible for the creation of the Department of Landscape Architecture at the University of
Pennsylvania.
However, McHarg would not be confined to the halls of academia. In 1960, he hosted "The House We Live In" on the CBS television network
— an early effort to publicize discussion about humans and their environment. The show, along with a later PBS documentary, helped make
McHarg a household name.
He published his landmark book, Design With Nature, in 1969. In it, McHarg spelled out the need for urban planners to consider an
environmentally conscious approach to land use, and provided a new method for evaluating and implementing doing so. Today, Design With
Nature is considered one of the landmark publications in the environmental movement, helping make McHarg arguably the most important
landscape architect since Frederick Law Olmsted.
Paul Davidoff – 1930-1984
Davidoff founded the Suburban Action Institute in 1969. The institute challenged exclusionary zoning in the courts, winning a notable success
in the Mt. Laurel case. This led to the requirement by the state supreme court of New Jersey that communities must supply their "regional fair
share" of low-income housing needs. Davidoff developed the concept of "advocacy planner." He contended that a planner serves a given
client group's interests and should do so openly; a planner could develop plans for a particular project and speak for the interests of the
group or individuals affected by these plans.
SITE WORK
Soil Composition: Soil is formed by the chemical decomposition of rock; water, air, and temperature action on rock; and the decay of
vegetable and animal matter.
Soil types:
Rock or bedrock: is the strongest support for the foundation of a structure.
Hardpan: is good foundation base for buildings.
Gravel and Sand: are coarse-grained soils which provide an excellent base for building foundations, as well as excellent drainage
properties, since they are relatively permeable.
Silt and Clay (the least stable and predictable soil) may provide satisfactory support for building foundations, but required careful
investigation.
Quicksand: completely unsuitable for construction.
Soil exploration and testing: Methods depend on the location, topography, depth of water table, and magnitude of the structural loads
anticipated.
Test Pits: simple excavations which permit direct visual inspection of the actual soil conditions.
Soil load tests: A platform is erected on the site and incremental loads are applied.
Borings.
Auger borings: most effective in sand or clay, bring up soil samples of 2 to 2.5 in. auger. Up to 50 feet.
Wash borings: used when soil too compact to use auger. Water is forced through a 2-4 in. pipe. 100 feet or more.
Core borings: most reliable. A diamond drill can penetrate through all materials, depths, and bring up complete cores of
material.
Dry sample borings: for laboratory testing. Samples are taken every 5 in.
Soil Properties: Specific gravity, grain size and shape, liquid and plastic limits, water content, void ratio and unconfined compression.
Soil and site problems: May involve inadequate bearing capacity, subsurface water, shrinkage, slippage and movement due to seismic
forces.
Settlement: differential settlement may cause serious cracks or even failures.
Frost action: places stress on a building foundation. Footings must be placed at least 1’ below frost line for the soil not to freeze.
Earth movement.
Soil drainage: Moisture can lead to reduction of a soil’s bearing capacity, leakage of water into a building, or disintegration of certain building
materials.
Water table. The level below which all soil is saturated with ground water. Foundations to be located well above it. Drain tile system
and preformed water stops to be used.
Drainage. Involves directing water away from all structures by grading or shaping the contours of the site to provide a gradual
transition from high to low elevations.
Soil modification: To improve its consistency, dependability and bearing capacity. Some methods include: drainage, deepening or
increasing the bearing area of the footing, replacement of soft subsoil or organic fill with compacted granular material, etc.
Site preparation: Site must be cleared of undesirable materials. Location of building lines with the use of strings or wires stretched between
batter boards.
Earthwork: Grading work, including excavation, rough grading and finish grading.
Excavation. Removal of existing soil to permit construction of the foundation and substructure. Permanent cut slopes < 1.5h to 1v ;
perm filled slopes < 2:1
Grading: Alteration of a site’s contours. Rough grading (prior construction) and Finish grading (after construction)
Backfill. Replaced earth around foundation or retaining wall after the concrete forms have been removed.
Foundations: Part of the structure that transmits the building’s loads to the soil.
Footings: Part of the foundation which are widened to spread the load over a large area of soil.
Shallow foundations. When soils close to the ground are of adequate strength.
Column Footing
Wall Footing
Combined Footing
Cantilever Footing
Mat Footing
Raft Foundation
Boat Footing
Deep Foundations. When the upper soils have insufficient bearing capacity. Use of piles which may transfer the load to the soil by
skin friction.
Wood pile. Must be below permanent ground level.
Precast concrete. Often prestressed.
Cast-in-place concrete. Driven w/mandrel core, removed before pouring.
Concrete-filled steel pipe. Driven w/sealed tip, then filled w/concrete.
Structural steel. For dense earth and heavy loads – H section.
Sheet piling. May be used as a water dam.
Caissons and Cofferdams. Box-like structures (formed from timber, steel or concrete) at very wet or soft soils.
Temporary supports: Achieved by sheeting, bracing and underpinning.
Sheeting. Temporary wall of wood, steel or precast concrete to retain soil around excavation. One type is the slurry wall.
Bracing. To brace the sheeting to resist soil pressure. Includes rakers.
Underpinning. To support existing foundations or walls to be extended downward. Involves needle beams or pipe cylinders
w/hydraulic jacks.
Site improvements: Includes roads, parking, walks, fences, walls, lighting, etc.
Asphalt paving. Derives from asphaltic petroleum. Applied 2-3in hot or cold.
Asphaltic concrete.
Cold laid asphalt
Asphalt macadam
Brick paving. (brick basket weave, brick herringbone, running bond brick)
Stone cobbles.
Granite setts.
Flagstones.
Grade changing devices: Those that shape or retain the earth in order to modify the finish grade of a site. Masonry or retaining wall,
concrete or stone battered wall, cribbing, stone riprap.
CONCRETE
Definition: Mixture of fine aggregate (sand), coarse aggregate (gravel or crushed rock), Portland cement and water. Hardening of concrete is
caused by hydration (chemical reaction between water and cement which creates heat).
Types of thin-shell and rigid frame concrete forms: Thin shell dome, multiple vaults, rigid frame, thin-shell barrel, corrugated thin-shell, and
rigid frame.
Composition of Concrete:
Cement. Adhesive substance which is capable of uniting non-adhesive materials. Chemically active ingredient (matrix). Portland
cement (lime, silica, iron oxide and alumina) is the most widely-used cement in existence.
Type I
Standard
For general all-purpose use
Type II
Modified
For slow setting and less heat
Type III
High early strength
For quick setting and strength
Type IV
Low heat
For very slow setting
Type V
Sulfate resisting
For alkaline water and soils
Aggregates. Chemically inert ingredients. Affect quality of the concrete, reduce shrinkage and serve as a filler. The max. size
shouldn’t be greater than 1/3 the thickness of concrete slabs, or ¾” of the minimum space between reinforcing bars.
Fine aggregate: sand ¼” dia. or less
Coarse aggregate: gravel or crushed rock ¼” to 1 ½” dia.
Admixtures. To alter certain characteristics or achieve special qualities.
Accelerators
Calcium chloride
Speed up setting time
Air-entraining
Resins, fats, oils
Resist freezing action
Retarders
Starches, sugars, acids
Slow setting time
Waterproofing
Stearate compounds
Decrease permeability
Water-reducing
Organic compounds
Reduce water content
Workability
Powered silicas and lime
Improve workability
Concrete mix design.
Proportioning or the mix. Determining optimum combination. Expressed by volume, i.e. 1:3:5 mix (1part cement, three parts fine
and 5 parts coarse.
Water-cement Ratio. Expressed as the number of gallons of water per sack of cement. Major factor for concrete strength and
durability. Max. strength: min. amount of water. Excess water may cause laitance (chalky surface)
Strength. Depends on the water cement ratio. Strength is measured after 28 days of being placed.
Mixing: Concrete should be uniform in appearance and evenly distributed.
Ready-mixed concrete. Mixed at central plant and transported to the site. To be used 1 ½ hr after water is added.
Transit-mixed concrete. Mixed in truck mixer. Water is added after arrival.
Formwork: Forms are the molds into which concrete is placed and held in shape until hardened and develop sufficient strength to support its
own weight. Made of lumber, plywood, metal, fiberboard, paper pulp, etc. Forms to be strong, stiff and tight. Oil used for coating forms before
placing concrete. Expensive.
Reinforced Concrete. Concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension. By embedding reinforcing steel we get reinforced concrete.
Reinforcing bars – rebar are designated by numbers representing the bar diameter in 1/8”. Welded wire fabric – WWF is designated by the
size and spacing of the longitudinal and transverse wires. Bars should be adequately concrete covered, galvanized or epoxy coated against
corrosion. Bars may be pre-assembled with support devices as high chair, continuous high chair, slab bolster and beam bolster.
Lightweight concrete.
Structural lightweight concrete. By adding lightweight aggregates made from expanded shale or clay. 90 to 115 instead of 150
pounds. Max. size coarse ¾”. Better insulation properties. More expensive.
Insulating lightweight concrete. By adding aggregates of expanded materials like perlite or vermiculite. Weights 15 to 90 pounds.
Used for thermal insulation in roof construction.
Placement of concrete. Concrete must be placed as close as possible to its final location evenly, continuously and in a manner that avoids
segregation of aggregates. When placed on hardened concrete, this should be moistened and prepared. Vertical drops limited to 4’.
Concrete to be compacted and consolidated by hand or vibrators to prevent reduction of its strength and water tightness due to air bubbles.
Testing.
Slump test. Measures consistency & workability of the concrete mix. (cone mold)
Cylinder test. Measures compressive strength. Cylinders are cast, laboratory-cured for 7 and 28 days and tested in a crushing
machine.
Kelly ball test. Measures workability. A 30pd 6” dia. Ball is dropped.
Impact hammer test. Measures strength. The rebound of a plunger.
Tests for air content. Measure the volume of air contained in the mix.
Curing. Consists of maintaining the proper humidity and temperature for some period of time (3 to 14 days) after it is placed to assure
satisfactory hydration of the cement. By supply of additional moisture to surface, using wet covering, covering to prevent evaporation or
leaving moistened wood forms. Best for curing: 50 to 70 degrees.
Concrete joints.
Construction joints. Horizontal or vertical joints between two successive concrete pours. Keyed, stepped horizontal, roughened and
keyed vertical joints. Use of rebar.
Expansion joints. To allow free movement of adjacent parts due to expansion or contraction of the concrete. Waterproof, watertight
and filled w/ elastic filler. Required in buildings over 200’ long, at joints of building wings, and at addition of new buildings.
Control joints. To allow for shrinkage of large areas. Induces cracking to occur along the joint.
Isolation joints. Slab on grade and columns or walls, to move independently.
Prestressed Concrete. Placed in compression. More efficient and economical (smaller members, greater distances and loads). Pre-stress is
applied by pre-tensioning and post-tensioning with the use of tendons (high-strength bars, single wires, and wire strands)
Precast Concrete. Advantage of mass production, better quality control of concrete, members can be cast and erected in all weather and
faster construction.
Floor & roof systems. Pre-stressed, precast planks used w/precast beams, joists, purlins.
Tilt-up construction. Casting a wall panel in a horizontal position and tilt it vertically.
Lift-slab construction. Casting slabs one upon another. Breaking agents required. Lifted. Almost all formwork is eliminated. Pipes,
conduits, and ducts can be installed on grade.
Tube-slab. Paper tube filler for mechanical to be integrated. Flat ceiling.
Concrete finishes.
Walls and ceiling. Already set concrete. Rough, smooth, rubbed finish, sandblasted, w/ textured formwork, bush hammered,
exposed aggregate, applied finish such as stucco, plaster, ceramic, or concrete paint.
Floors. Still plastic and workable concrete. Wood float finish, steel troweled finish, applied texture as brooming, applied finish as
pigmented, heavy duty, etc.
Terrazzo. Topping material over concrete slabs. Mixture of Portland cement, water, and colored marble granules.
MASONRY
Brick. Rectangular masonry unit molded from clays and shales, dried and fired in a kiln.
Molding methods.
Soft mud process. Moist clay in rectangular molds.
Stiff mud process. Mixture thru a die, extruding a ribbon cut by wires.
Dry-press process. Most accurately-formed brick. Dry mixture pressed into gang molds.
Brick types.
Building brick or common brick. Most widely used. 8”x 3 ¾”x 2 ¼”.
Grade SW (Severe weathering)
Grade MW (Moderate weathering)
Grade NW (No weathering)
Face brick. Exposed to view. Available in SW and MW grades.
Grade FBX. Perfection in size, color and texture.
Grade FBS. Greater size variation and wide color range.
Grade FBA. Nonuniform in size, color and texture.
Backup brick. Inferior quality.
Paving brick. Very hard and dense.
Fire brick. Resistant to high temperatures.
Sewer brick. Low absorption.
Adobe brick. Made of natural clay and straw. Requires protection from rain.
Nail-on brick. Used where solid masonry cannot be supported.
Hollow brick. HBX, HBS and HBA. SW and MW grades.
Modular brick. Brick courses plus the mortar joints produce dims multiple of 4”
Brick Nomenclature.
Surfaces: face, side, cull, end and beds.
Cut shapes: Half or bat, three quarter, quarter closer, king closer, queen closer, split or soap.
Placement: Header, stretcher, bull header (rowlock course), bull stretcher (shiner course), soldier and sailor.
Bricklaying. During temperatures between 40 and 90. Brick should be wetted prior to setting to minimize absorption of water from the mortar
and for better bond. Should be set on a full bed of mortar, joints to be from ¼” to ½”. Reinforced brick masonry consists of 2 wythes of brick
separated by a 2-4” space w/vertical and horizontal reinforcing bars.
Brick bonding. Patterns: Flemish bond, English bond, Cross bond, Common bond, Running bond, stacked bond.
Veneering. Exposed masonry attached, but not structurally bonded, to the backing.
Efflorescence. White powdery deposit caused by soluble salts from water penetrations.
Expansion joints. Required in masonry structures over 200’ long or where wings occur. The sealant adheres to the two masonry surfaces to
prevent air and water infiltration, while permitting movement top the wall face.
Concrete masonry. Manufactured by consolidating a stiff concrete mixture in steel molds, cured and quickly dried. Units include concrete
brick, concrete block, concrete tile, and cast stone. Concrete blocks are modular 7 5/8” x 7 5/8” x 15 5/8”, light strong and fire resistant.
Types: 2-corestretcher, 3-core stretcher, 2 or 3-core corner block, jamb block, window jamb block, lintel block.
Structural Clay Tile. Hollow, burned-clay masonry units with parallel cells. Types by function: backup tile and facing tile. By orientation: sideconstruction tile (cells horizontal) and end-construction tile (cells vertical). Architectural terra cotta is clay tile in various colors, textures and
shapes. Ceramic veneer is terra cotta in large face dimensions, thin sections and glazed finishes.
Gypsum block. Or gypsum tile. From gypsum plaster, available in thicknesses 2”-6” and standard panels 12x30in. Interior non-load-bearing
partitions and fireproofing protection. Set with gypsum mortar on top of water resistant material.
Glass block. Solid or hollow. Based on 4” module. Not structural, limited in area, height and length.
Stone.
Igneous: granite.
Sedimentary: limestone, sandstone, bluestone and brownstone.
Metamorphic: marble, soapstone and slate.
Stone forms.
Rough
Rubble stone
Dimension stone
Flagstone
Monumental stone
Crushed stone
Stone dust
Stone masonry. Set with Portland cement mortar. Avoid moisture penetration.
Rubble masonry. Natural state.
Ashlar masonry. Shaped and smoothed.
Coarsed. Horizontal joints.
Uncoarsed or random. No horizontal joints.
Bond stone. Perpendicular to the wall faces for tie.
Mortar. To join the units to each other, or to their supporting members, while preventing moisture penetration. Composed of Portland
cement, lime (workability), sand and water. Masonry cement or mortar cement may be used instead of Portland cement. Mortar should not be
used three hour of being mixed.
Types M or S: for masonry that is load-bearing and/or exposed to the weather.
Types N and O: lesser compressive strength required.
Mortar joints.
Weathered
Round rodded
Flush
V-shaped
Beaded
Troweled
Raked
Stripped
Squeezed or extrude
Masonry accessories.
Strap anchors
dove tale anchors
cramp anchors
pin
threaded dowel
hangers
expansion joints
water stops.
WOOD
Terminology.
Wood is the hard fibrous substance lying beneath the bark of trees.
Lumber is wood that has been sawn into construction members.
Timber is lumber that is 5in. or larger in its least dimension.
Classification.
Softwood. Pine, fir and spruce. (evergreen). Used structurally for framing, sheathing, bracing, etc.
Hardwood. Maple, oak and sycamore. (shed their leaves). Used for flooring, paneling, interior trim and furniture.
Characteristics. Available almost everywhere; lower in cost than concrete, masonry and steel structures; timber construction resist fire
better than unprotected steel.
Strength of wood. Generally stronger in compression than tension. Much stronger when the load is applied parallel than perpendicular to
the grain for both tension and compression. For shear, stronger perpendicular to the grain.
Seasoning of wood. Drying of wood. Detailing should allow for shrinkage or swelling.
Air drying. Takes several months and leaves 10 to 20% moisture.
Kiln drying. Takes a few days and leaves 10% moisture.
Cutting and Sawing lumber.
Cut tangent to the annual rings: Plain sawed (hardwoods) and flat-grained or slash-grained (softwoods).
Radially to the rings: Quatersawed (hardwoods) and edge-grained or vertical-grained (softwoods).
Plain sawed. Grain is 0 to 45d to the wide face. Distinct grain pattern shrinks and swells more in width, less in thickness and is less
expensive.
Quarter sawed. Grain is 45 to 90d to the wide face. Even grain pattern, shrinks and swells more in thickness, less in width and is
more costly.
Wood defects.
Natural defects. Knot, peck, pitch pocket and shake.
Manufacturing defects. Check, split, wane & the warp (bow, crook, cup and twist)
Grading Lumber.
Softwood grades.
By use.
Yard lumber (gral. const.)
Factory and shop lumber (remfr products)
By size.
Boards. Graded for appearance. Used as siding, subflooring and trim. Types: Select and common.
Dimension. Graded for strength. Used for load-bearing members. Types by size: Joists, planks, light framing and
decking.
Timbers. As dimensions. Types: beams, stringers, post & timbers.
By manufacturer.
Rough. Visible saw marks.
Dressed or surface lumber is planed smooth to uniform sizes.
Worked lumber is dressed and tongue-and-grooved or shaped to a pattern.
Harwood grades. Based on the amount of clear, usable lumber in a piece. Standard grades are first, seconds, selects, sound
wormy and numbers 1, 2, 3a and 3b.
Lumber sizes. Specified in nominal dimensions, 2”x4” (1 ½”x3 ½”). Measured, computed and priced in board feet: 1”x12”x12”
Plywood. Manufactured wood panel consisting of several thin wood veneer sheets permanently bonded together with the grain of each ply
perpendicular to the adjacent. Central ply: core, outer plies: face and back. Odd number of plies for flatness. 4’x8’x5/16” to 1 1/8”. Used as
wall and roof sheathing, subflooring, underlayment and formwork. Joint types: butt, vee, shiplap, batten, metal tee.
Classification. Interior (moisture resistant adhesive) and exterior (waterproof adhesive). Softwood (used in construction) and hardwood
(more expensive, decorative applications, book, edge, and random matching). Graded from A to D per face and back.
Miscellaneous panels.
Hardboard.
Prefinished hardboard. Used for exterior siding, soffits, interior walls, ceilings, cabinetry, and acoustical treatment.
Fiberboard. Acoustical tile, sheathing, and interior wall finishes.
Flakeboard. Good insulation value and acoustical properties, but fragile.
Particleboard. Core for plastic laminate or hardwood veneer.
Bead board. Insulating material.
Plastic laminates or Formica. Counter tops, wall coverings and furniture.
Glued laminated lumber. Glulams are more weather resistant, consistent in size, appearance, and strength than solid timber. Appearance
grades: Industrial, architectural and premium. Shapes: straight, single tapered-straight, double tapered-curve, double tapered-pitched,
double-tapered-straight, curved and pitched. Joints: scarf & finger joint.
Wood preservation.
Insects. In warm and humid climates. Termites eat wood form within. Measures include proper drainage, good ventilation and
impervious concrete foundations. Use the preservatives, which penetrate the wood, are recommended instead of metal termite
shields. Heavy treatment with creosote at marine borings.
Decay. Caused by fungi in mild temperatures, moisture and air. Treated with preservatives, kept well ventilated and dry.
Preservatives. Types: oil-borne solutions and water-borne solutions. Pressure applied for more effectiveness.
Fire. Prevention by impregnating a chemical solution (ammonium phosphate) or by surface treatment (intumescent paint).
Wood Framing. Trusses, rigid frames, built-up girders, and glued laminated beams.
Types of laminated wood frames and arches: two-hinged arch, three-hinged frame and three-hinged arch.
Types of trussed rafter types: pitched, flat, scissors and saw tooth.
Types of wood wall framing: platform framing (one story studs) and balloon framing (full height studs, two stories)
Wood Joining. Types by location: exterior and interior. Types by connection: lap, shoulder, rabbet, miter, shoulder miter, quirk miter, t&g
miter, butt, t&g, shiplap, spline, fillet, v-joint, batten, squared splice, splice, scarf, mortise & tendon, dado, dovetail, t&g, open joint, metal joint,
metal u insert, open joint w/filler (p.19). Types of nails: common, box and finish nails.
Finish woodwork.
Millwork. Shop-fabricated items that need to be protected by a primer or sealer.
Wood trim. To cover joints. Shapes: ¼” round, ½” round, cove, bead, crown, casing and base.
Wood siding and paneling. Better grades of wood used. Patterns: channel, board & batt, t&g, shiplap, bevel, rabbeted bevel, vee
joint t&g and drop t&g.
METALS
Characteristics: Luster, opaqueness, hardness, ability to conduct heat and electricity. Alloys: combination of pure metals (lead, copper, iron)
with controlled quantities of other substances. Classified as ferrous (contain a lot of iron: stainless steel, galvanized iron) and non-ferrous
(aluminum, copper and zinc).
Deterioration. Galvanic action or electrolysis occurs when different metals are in contact and depends on the amount of moisture present.
List of metal based on galvanic activity:
Aluminum
Zinc
Iron and steel
Stainless steel
Tin
Lead
Brass
Copper
Bronze
Gold
Forming metal. Process by which extracted metal is transformed into a useful product that has a finished shape.
Cast: By pouring molten metal into a mold.
Wrought: By forcibly shaping solid metal to a required form.
Ferrous metals.
Iron. Most abundant metal. Wrought iron: used for ornamental work, grilles, pipes, and outdoor furniture. Cast iron: pipes, plumbing
fixtures, ornamental work, hardware and special castings.
Steel. Methods of steel making: open hearth process, basic oxygen process and electric furnace process. The most widely used
structural metal in building construction. Used for structural framing, concrete reinforcing bars, lathing, conduit, pipes, fixtures,
miscellaneous and ornamental work, and connectors (nails, pins and bolts)
Structural steel.
Alloy steel.
Weathering steel.
Heat-treated steel.
Case-hardened steel.
Non-ferrous metals.
Aluminum. Light weight, good thermal and electrical conductivity and resistance to corrosion. Used for framing of lightweight
structures, railings, grills, siding, curtain walls, windows, doors, flashing, insulation, roofing, screening, and hardware.
Copper. Resistant to corrosion, electrical and thermal conductivity. Used for electrical work, water distribution lines, roofing and
flashing, and for screening mesh.
Other metals.
Brass. Resists corrosion. Precise casting, finish hardware and plumbing, heating and ac components and fittings.
Bronzes. Similar to brass.
Lead. Toxic, heavy, soft and weak. Corrosion resistant and workable. Used for foundations and machinery, rough hardware
item, roofing and flashing.
Zinc. Roof coverings, flashings and protective coatings for steel.
Monel. Roofing, flashing, counter tops, sinks.
Metal finishes.
Anodizing. Metal finish applied to aluminum.
Galvanizing. Most popular method. Zinc is applied by immersing the steel in a bath of molten zinc.
The use of metals in construction.
Structural
Hollow metalwork
Miscellaneous metalwork
Ornamental metalwork
Flashing
Miscellaneous
Structural steel construction. Consists of the fabrication and erection of hot-rolled members which are manufactured from medium carbon
steel. Rolled steel section: beam & column w-shape, beam s-shape, channel c-shape, L-shape, tee wt-shape, t st-shape, structural tubing,
bars and plates. Built-up steel sections (p.11)
Cable and tent structures. (tended cable structures) Used to cover very large areas with thin sheet material.
Space frames and domes. Truss type structural systems which span in tow directions.
Lightweight metal framing. Light gauge steel members are used. It is lightweight, incombustible, and impervious to decay, warpage,
shrinkage and termites.
Open web joists or bar joists. Shop fabricated standard lightweight trusses.
Metal decking. Ribbed, corrugated, cellular or flat ribbed.
Miscellaneous and ornamental metal. Ferrous metal used for metal stairs, railings, fire escapes, gratings, and fences. Shop drawings
required. Non-ferrous metal and stainless steel are used for decorative grills, and louvers, mesh and wire cloth, metal treillage and flagpoles.
MOISTURE AND THERMAL PROTECTION
Ground water control.
Surface water.
Ground water. Water contained in the voids and crevices under the earth’s surface which flows slowly through aquifer (permeable
material). Ground water table is the level below which the earth is saturated with water. Terms in order of water tightness:
Permeable
Water-resistant
Water-repellent
Waterproof
Damproofing. Materials and methods which prevent moisture from penetrating a building at or bellow grade. Asphalt base coatings, cement
plaster and liquid silicones are used. Draining surface water from a building, installing a polyethylene film vapor seal and footing drains.
Waterproofing. Materials and methods which prevent water under hydrostatic pressure from penetrating those parts of a building which are
in direct contact with the earth.
Membrane waterproofing consists of several layers of asphalt-saturated felt hot mopped together with tar or asphalt pitch.
Waterstops create waterproof construction joints in walls and floors below grade.
Precipitation control. Roofing describes the materials and methods used to weatherproof the exterior top surface of a structure. Climate
affects its durability. Roofing needs to be fire resistant. Type of roof and slope of roof are related factors:
Bituminous and soldered or welded metals: 0:12 to 3:12
Asphalt roll roofing: 1:12 to 3.5:12
Asphalt strip shingles: 3:12 to 4:12
All types of shingles & metals: 4:12 to 8:12
Tile & slate: 5:12 to 8:12
A square is the unit of measure used to express roof surface area and it’s equal to square feet. Roof types: shed, gable, intersecting gables,
hip, mansard, gambrel, flat w/parapets and sawtooth.
Roofing materials.
Asphalt. Built-up (plies), shingles and roll
Wood. Shingles and shakes
Metal. Sheet, corrugated and strip
Clay, cement and slate. Tiles. Types: Greek, roman, Spanish, mission, shingle English.
Glass and plastic. Sheets. (wire-reinforced glass and fiberglass-reinforced acrylic sheets are commonly used)
Plastic. Liquid coatings.
Condensation control. Water vapor moves from high to low pressure areas, usually from inside to outside. Vapor barriers for prevention,
made from aluminum foil, various types of sheet plastic or asphalt-saturated felt. Vapor barriers are installed on the warm side.
Thermal control. Methods: caulking and weather-stripping (cracks and openings), tinted, reflective or insulating glass (windows) and thermal
insulation (wall and roof assemblies). Thermal insulation materials have thermal resistance ‘R’. Thermal conductivity ‘k’, reciprocal of ‘R’.
Loose fill
Glass, mineral wool
4” thick = 3.90 R value
Batt or blanket
Glass, mineral wool
3 ½” thick = 11.00 R value
Board or sheet
Cork, glass or fibers
1” thick = 2.75 R value
Reflective
Aluminum
1” air space = 1.39 R value
Foam
Plastics, spray type
1” panel = 6.00 R value
Flashing. Used to provide seal and prevent water penetration at joints exposed to the weather, intersection of different materials and
expansion or contraction joints. Concealed or exposed.
Expansion joints. To anticipate the amount of thermal movement and to provide a complete separation to allow it, while maintaining the
weather tightness and structural integrity of structure. Provided every 125’ in masonry walls, 200’ in steel, concrete structures and roofs.
They are made waterproof with waterstops, elastic joint sealants, metal flashing or caulking.
DOORS, WINDOWS AND GLASS
Doors. Frames: head and jambs; thresholds, sills or saddles; stop; hinge and trim.
By location: interior and entrance doors
By function: fire door and acoustical door
By method of operation: swinging, revolving, overhead, folding and sliding door
By physical type: panel, louvered, flush, shutter, French, sash, jalousie, glass, Dutch, screen, special-purpose. And/or by material:
wood (hollow core, solid core, panel), steel, aluminum and glass.
Wood. Most popular. Waterproof adhesives exterior and water-resistant adhesives in the interiors.
Flush. Solid core door or hollow core door.
Panel. Panels may be wood, plywood, glass or fixed wood louvers. Sections held in place by wood stiles and rails.
Special-purpose. Fire, sound or radiation.
Steel. 14 to 20 cold rolled steel. Interiors and exteriors.
Hollow metal. Steel frame cover w/ sheet metal. (flush or paneled). Rigid, permanent, meet any fire rating.
Metal clad or kalamein. Solid wood core covered w/ sheet metal.
Aluminum. Used in curtain wall and store front. Rarely used for fire doors.
Metal security. Metal mesh or grills. Used for security.
Fire door. Rated and labeled from class A to E. The entire assembly to be fire rated. Doors to be self hatching and have
automatic closing devices.
A
3hrs
Fire walls or fire areas
No glazing
B
1 ½ hrs
Vertical enclosures
100sq.in. (4” min)
C
¾ hr
Corridors & partitions
1296sq.in. (54” max)
D
1 ½ hrs
Exterior walls, severe
No glazing
E
¾ hr
Exterior walls, moderate
720sq.in (54” max)
Glass. ½ to ¾ in thick tempered glass.
By hand convention: Right hand, left hand, left hand reverse and right hand reverse. (standing outside)
Door hardware. Hinges, closers, locking devices, panic hardware and weather-stripping. Knobs: 38” from finish floor, panic bolts: 42” from
finish floor.
Hinges. Exposed, concealed or invisible. 8” from the head, 10” from the floor. Types: mortised, ball bearing, t-strap, cabinet pivot
hinge, olive knuckled and invisible. Full mortise, half mortise, half surface, full surface.
Closers. Parallel arm type and bracket-mounted type. Closing quickly & quietly.
Locking devices. Beveled: latch or rectangular: dead bolt. When bolt is used w/ a latch: lock. Lockset types: cylindrical, unit, rim
and mortise locks.
Panic hardware. Push bars to extend ¾ of the door width.
Operating devices. Knobs, level handles, pulls, push plates, kick plates, escutcheons, etc. Tactile finish on doors leading to
hazardous areas.
Weather-stripping. To make exterior openings weathertight. Interlocking or friction devices.
Windows.
Basic types: residential, commercial, industrial and monumental.
Elements: head, sill, jamb, top rail, bottom rail, stile, muntin, frame, panes & sash.
Types: casement, sliding, double hung, hopper, awning, austral, pivoted, folding, jalousie, fixed.
Wood. +/- Inexpensive, durable and readily available.
Aluminum. Possible for complex configurations (extruded), string, light, durable.
Steel. Hot-rolled solid sections or cold-rolled strip steel.
Stainless steel. Corrosion-resistant. 16-ga, 18-ga, 20-ga or 22-ga.
Replaceable. To supersede or to be applied over an existing window. (renovation work). Energy savings(decrease heat loss and
gain)
Screens. Wire mesh supported by rigid frames to exclude insects.
Door and window systems. Aluminum is the most common used material.
Storefront. Metal framework sections and glass panels designed as a unit.
Curtain walls. Support no weight other than their own. Metal framework and glass, plastic, metal or other surfacing panels. Must be
weatherproof, thermal and sound control, safe and secure.
Skylights. Types: Square or rectangular, pyramid, circular domes, flat or low profile, vent, continuous vault, and continuous ridge.
Frames: aluminum, galvanized steel or copper. Glazed: glass block, wire glass, plastic panels. Must be weathertight, safe have
condensation drains.
Glass. Solid, super-cooled, ceramic material made form sand, soda and lime. Stronger in compression than tension.
Foamed or cellular glass. Used as rigid thermal insulation, spun glass fibers are used for acoustical and thermal insulation and
textile manufacturing.
Window glass. Common type for small windows. AA, A and B (degree of distortion). SS 3/32” thick and DS 1/8” thick (strength). Up
to 35 square feet.
Heavy sheet glass. = window but available from 3/16” to 7/32” and larger areas.
Plate glass. Finest for windows but expensive. 1/8” to 1 ¼” thick.
Patterned glass. Obscure vision & reduce light transmission. Available tempered.
Tempered glass. Heat treated for increased resistance to impact stress. Stronger than plate glass. May not be modified after
manufactured.
Insulating glass. (multi-glazing) Two or more sheets of glass separated by air space to provide thermal insulation, acoustical control
and an absence of condensation. May not be altered after manufactured.
Heat absorbing or actinic glass. Tinted to absorb solar radiation and transmits less solar heat and glare into a building.
Reflective glass. Reflects heat and glare, transmits less heat & glare into a building.
Laminated glass. Plastic sheet between two glass layers. When glass brakes, plastic holds it. Types: safety (automobile and
skylights) and bulletproof glass (banks and prisons)
Wired glass. High resistance to impact and remains intact after breakage. Good for fire resistance and skylights.
Butt joint glazing. No vertical mullions but a clear silicone sealant forms the joint.
Plastics. Used to replace glass. Acrylics, polyesters and polystyrenes are used. Fire resistant or slow-burning. It is not as hard as glass and
not as durable under weather conditions. Expands easily. More expansive than glass, but more resistant to fire and breakage.
Glazing. Process of placing glass in windows and making weathertight joint between the glass and its frame using glazing compounds
(made from rubber, vinyl, etc.). Clearance must be allowed between glass and frame to be surrounded by a watertight seal of glazing
compound and allow for thermal expansion or contraction.
FINISH WORK
Stone Veneer. Limestone, granite, sandstone and marble veneer slabs of 1” thick. Rough, slightly textured, smooth, or polished. Attached to
back-up material with metal anchors and ties and 1 ½ ” thick bed. Durable, permanent but relatively expensive.
Plaster work. Composed of Portland cement (exterior plaster or stucco) or gypsum and lime (interior plaster); aggregate (sand, vermiculite,
perlite) and water. Plaster is applied in two or three coats over a base of masonry, metal lath or lathing board.
Types:
Portland cement or stucco (exterior)
Gypsum plaster (interior)
Acoustic plaster. Acoustics for walls and ceilings.
Bonding plaster. Interior concrete walls and ceilings.
Fire-resistant plaster. Resistance for steel or other materials.
Keene’s cement plaster. Contains lime putty for hard, water-resistant finish.
Lightweight plaster. Contains vermiculite or perlite aggregates for fire resistance.
Veneer plaster. Dense plaster thin coat over gypsum lath. Painted after 24hrs.
Bases:
Concrete or masonry surfaces must be rough and porous for good bonding.
Metal lath. Sheet metal or wire fabric into which a based coat of plaster is keyed. Types; flat expanded (diamond mesh), rib lath
(flat rib or high rib) and woven wire mesh or lath.
Lathing board. (plasterboard, gypsum lath or gyplath) composed of gypsum and water, dried and sandwiched between tow porous
sheets of paper. 16”x48”, 3/8” or ½” thick. Solid sheets with reflective aluminum in one side for vapor and thermal control and Type
X for fire-resistive rating.
Before plaster applied, trim shapes are set: square end casing bead, quarter round casing bead, corner bead, bullnose corner bead, window
stool, control joint base, base screed. Plaster should be 5/8” over metal lath, ½” over gypsum lath. Exterior ¾” to 7/8”. Plaster is applied in
three coats:
Scratch
2 sand – 1 plaster
¼” thick
Brown
3 sand – 1 plaster
¼” thick
Finish
1 ½” sand – 1 plaster
1/8” thick
Gypsum Board (sheetrock or drywall). Prefabricated form of plaster. Faster and cleaner installation. 4’ widths and from 6 to 12’ in length, ¼”
to 5/8” thick. Directly applied to wood or metal framework, or to concrete or masonry walls. Edges and joints: square, beveled, round,
tapered, tongue and groove.
Regular board. Walls and ceilings.
Backing board. Backing for other materials as acoustical tile
Insulating bd. Aluminum foil laminated for reflective insulation & vapor barrier.
Type X board. Fire-resistive rating.
Moisture-resistant board. Backing in moisture areas.
Decorative board. Finished with decorative paper or vinyl.
Ceramic Tile Work. Flat units composed of clay or clay mixtures. Tile shapes: bullnose, cove base, double bullnose, bead, flat tile, cove,
curb or cap. Set in cement mortar 1” thick (Portland cement, water and sand) and grouted and pointed.
Types by vitrification:
Non-vitreous tile. Absorbs from 7% to 15% moisture.
Semi-vitreous tile. Absorbs between 3% to 7% moisture.
Vitreous tile. Absorbs less than 3% moisture. No dirt penetration.
Impervious tile. Repels almost all moisture and dirt.
Types by finish:
Glazed interior tile. Non-vitreous for interior applications.
Glazed weatherproof tile. Semi-vitreous or vitreous for moderate exterior application.
Ceramic mosaic tile. Unglazed, semi-vitreous. Interior and exterior applications.
Quarry tile. Unglazed, impervious. Weatherproof, durable, for heavy duty wear.
Inlaid, faience, and handmade tiles.
Plastics. Plastic sidings, plastic counter tops, plastic bath tubs, shower stalls fabricated from acrylics or fiberglass.
Flooring.
Wood flooring. Hardwood and softwood used. Patterns: Plank flooring, strip herringbone, block basket weave, English parquet,
French parquet, and Georgian parquet.
Strip flooring. Tongue and grooved side and ends. Applied over a wood sub floor on wood sleepers, or directly to a concrete
slab using waterproof adhesives. Fastened by blind nails.
Plank flooring. Laid in random widths with a V-groove. Screwed to the sub floor due to warpage.
Thin block flooring. Squared or tongue and grooved edges. Fastened by nailing or adhesives.
Solid block flooring. Treated with creosote against moisture and decay. Set in a coating of bituminous material. Heavy duty
and durable.
Mortar-set flooring. Includes any masonry material set and utilized as finish floor surface. Brick, slate and stone (limestone,
sandstone, granite and marble) flooring
Poured-in-place flooring. Concrete, terrazzo, magnesite, elastomeric, rubberized plastic and paint type floors.
Resilient flooring. Available in tiles, durable, nonabsorbent, comfortable and easily maintained. Laid over smooth wood or concrete
subfloors with mastic cements. Vinyl, asphalt, linoleum, rubber, cork.
Carpeting. Set directly on concrete slab or plywood sub floor.
By material: acrylic fibers, nylon, polyester, wool.
By method of manufacture: tufting, weaving, needle punching
By texture: low pile, high pile.
Acoustical work
Acoustical tiles. From perforated, textured or pattern wood, mineral or glass fibers. Lightweight and fragile. Square, beveled,
rabbeted, t&g edges
Acoustical panels. Perforated steel, aluminum, fiberboard or hardboard backed with a sound-absorbing batt or blanket.
Wet material. Acoustical plaster and mineral fiber products. Suited for irregular surfaces, quickly installed and effective.
Vibration control. Concrete, solid concrete blocks or lead used to control vibration.
Painting
Components:
Paint. Protective coat that combines a pigment and a vehicle.
Pigments. Finely ground solids held in suspension by a vehicle. Color, hiding power and opacity.
Vehicles. The liquid portion of a paint mixture, binder that forms the paint film, driers to speed up formation of the film, and solvents
and thinners which control consistency and aid in drying.
Types: By location, by material where applied, by their finish and by their unique characteristics.
Pigmented coatings. White pigments to which color is added and a vehicle.
Enamels. Pigmented paints that used varnish as the vehicle. Resistant to weathering.
Baked enamels. Factory applied between 200 to 300 degrees, durable, washable, resistant to wild chemicals.
Clear coatings. Used to protect surfaces without obscuring them.
Varnish. Used as a clear coating and as a vehicle for pigmented paints.
Lacquer. Tough and thin but not as durable as varnish
Shellac. Used as a clear finish for wood work, seal knots, and pitch stains.
Sealers. Used to prepare a surface for its final finish.
Stains. Not strictly a clear coating, it won’t obscure the natural grain of wood.
Bituminous Coatings. Made of coal tar & asphalt.
Coal tar pitch. Used to protect metal and applied by dipping. Waterproofing agents.
Asphalt. Used for damproofing and waterproofing work.
Miscellaneous coatings
Cement mortar. Used for damproofing masonry surfaces and for steel protection.
Fire-resistant and intumescent paints. Unable to support combustion. Stop heat transfer.
Rust-preventive paint. Rust inhibitive qualities, low permeability to corrosive and low absorption.
Antibacterial and insecticidal paints.
Organic coatings. Plastics, rubber & other synthetics for durability and resistance to weather/wear
Epoxy coatings. Resistant to chemicals, moisture and stains.
Paint Application. Surfaces must be clean, dry and free of all corrosion, grease or defects. Paints to be applied between 55 & 85 degrees F.
VERTICAL TRANSPORTATION
Stairs. 36” to 44” wide. Rise max 7” and tread min 11”
Riser + tread
= 17 to 17.5 in.
Riser x tread
= 70 to 75 sq.in.
2 risers + tread
= 24 to 25 in.
Landings should be as long as the stair width, vertical distance between landings should not exceed 12’ and headroom clearance shouldn’t
be less than 6’-8”.
Fire stairs. For emergency exit. Enclosed w/fire resistive walls and equipped with complete fire assemblies.
Monumental stairs. Handrails required if width is over 88”. Rarely permitted.
Residential stairs. Could be narrower. Winders and spiral stairs are acceptable.
Ramps. Wide as corridors leading to them. Handicapped are 36” wide min, max 30” rise & landings must be at least 5’ long. Handrail
required if ramp > 6’long or rise > 6”
1:20 (5%) or less, not considered a ramp
1:15 (6.7%) or more, required handrails
1:12 (8.3%) max. slope permitted for handicapped
1:8 (12.5%) max. slope permitted by building code
Ladders. Used to access roofs or in service areas. Min. of 18” wide, rungs spaces 12” and installed 6” from the wall.
Elevators.
Hydraulic elevators. Pushed up by a rod. Platform sits over a plunger that extends as far into the ground as it rises. Used for lowrise buildings, five stories max. with speeds between 25 and 150 fpm (feet per minute). Cost leas than electric. They do not require
overhead machinery or penthouse.
Electric elevators. Pulled up by cables. Used in 50-foot-buildings or higher, 1800 fpm. Traction transmits lifting power to cables that
run over grooves in the machine-driven sheave. The traction machine, which moves the elevator, could be geared (low-speed
applications) or gearless (high speed applications).
Roping. Traction machines are classified as single-wrap (cables pas only once over the sheave) or double-wrap (for additional
traction, high speed)
Safety features. Brake, mounted on the motor shaft, is self applying and will stop at power failure. The governor measures the
speed by actuating the safety rail clamp. Car bumpers located at the bottom of the shaft stop car. Safety edges consist of a lip that
if encounters a person, package, etc, door will reopen and prevent the elevator from moving. Electric eye prevents door from
pinching passengers or objects. Interlocks and leveling devices prevent the door to open before or after the elevator is leveled.
Capacity and speed. 1.6 x the rise in feet + 350 = rated elevator speed.
Operating systems.
Single automated operation. Car responds to the first button pressed.
Collective operating systems. Calls may be stored.
Selective-collective systems. Answers calls in the direction of travel.
Fully automated systems. Tall office buildings, service can be adjusted for varying traffic conditions.
Architectural considerations. Location (alcove off the main corridor), size and number of elevators, which depend on number of
floors, population, function, volume of traffic, capacity and speed of elevator. Time intervals between elevators should be 20 to 30
seconds. Doors should be 3’-6” wide to allow two people in at the same time (single speed side opening, two-speed side opening,
single speed center opening and two speed center opening).
Freight elevators. Used to transport equipment, material and goods rather than passengers. Hydraulic elevators are appropriate for low-rise
buildings, and electric elevators are more economical if lift exceeds 50 feet. Speeds from 75 to 200 fpm.
Class A. General freight
Class B. Motor Vehicle Garage Elevator.
Class C. industrial truck loading.
Service elevators. Modified passenger elevator for oversize loads.
Sidewalk elevators. Rise to an upper level by opening hatch on ground floor.
Dumbwaiters. Small elevators 9 sq. ft. x 4’ high for materials and supplies.
Escalators. Move large number of people from floor to floor quickly, safely and a low cost. Made up of custom-built steel trusses and endless
belt and synchronized handrail. Standard widths 32 and 48 in. Travel 120fpm.
Moving ramps. Continuous tread instead of steps. Inclined 15 degrees, and when flat are called moving sidewalks. 40” wide. 140 to 180
fpm.
HOUSING PATTERNS
Densities = net or gross
Ratio of inhabitants to land
Net does not include streets, gross does
Lower densities:
expensive utility distribution costs
dependent on automobile
for public transit to be effective and efficient need moderate density = 30 persons per acre.
(30 persons is a high but livable density suburban America, but common in European towns)
Street Front Pattern:
linear with houses lining the street
End On Pattern:
Rows of units on small streets at right angles to the street. Reduces street frontage and increases lot depth.
Court Pattern:
units face into a common open space.
Cluster development:
dwellings are clustered, open space is common.
PUD:
zoning designation used to achieve the cluster development
large developments
mixture of uses
requires phased development
Urban redevelopment and urban renewal are PUDs
reintroduce diversity and mixture
Indigenous Architecture: accepted style of design
CONSIDERATIONS
relationship between site and structure
respond to site (climate, sun, vegetation)
be seen in the landscape
serve its purpose
express its purpose
economy of means to achieve its purpose
utilize technologies
have human scale
utilize materials appropriately
utilize local building techniques
be graceful
exhibit exuberance
hierarchy of parts
be interesting to look at
relationship between interior and exterior
integrity
expressive of the human spirit
demonstrate architecture’s basic principles
have a concept
encourage human contact
Anthropomorphic: associations with the human characteristics
Human body is most important measurement
Fathom: measure of spread of arms
FORM
Point:
Line:
Plane:
Volume:
Shape:
Size:
Color:
Texture:
Space:
Form:
Scale:
Proportion:
Golden Section:
Rhythm:
Balance:
Symmetry:
Light:
Color:
position. No dimension
when a point moves. Has direction and length. No thickness
Line in motion. Has position, direction, and length. No thickness
3D. Plane in motion.
outline
physical dimension
quality of reflected light
surface
3D volume enclosed by building elements
should feel secure, oriented, and at ease
convey different senses
Reference to the human body
relationship between its parts
order of importance: Primary, secondary, or supporting
Provide harmonious order
renaissance concept that the whole is divided so that the smaller part is to the larger as the larger is to the whole.
A:B=B:C
Regular occurrence of elements in time or space.
Equilibrium
Static= parts are equal in size and located about a reference axis
Dynamic = parts are unequal in size and arranged about a reference point axis to compensate for their differences.
Balanced arrangements
radiant energy perceived by the human eye
articulates form and space
HUMAN ELEMENTS
The Senses:
sound gives us an impression of size, shape, and material
smell, touch, etc
Style:
conventional acceptable solutions
maintains consistency and harmony
may also be restrictive
Culture:
different cultures use buildings differently
Beauty:
Architectural Design:
Is the organization of forms to serve functional needs
materials and structure are the science (analyzed)
form and space are the art (experienced or sensed)
Organizational Concepts:
The Human Dimension
Housing projects = sterile
Old neighborhoods = vital, better to rehabilitate
Planning: Create an optimum environment for the widest range of human activity, social contact, privacy, stimulate senses, restful.
Allow…not prescribe.
Man can adapt socially more than biologically and physiologically.
Efficient, specialized societies can collapse when affected by change.
Perception
Diversity of surroundings = mental capacity.
Substitute diversity in time for diversity in space (drive faster on an open highway).
Environment:
Senses, memories, smells, experiences, etc………
Images of the City (Kevin Lynch)
Urban Legibility:
ability to recognize a city and organize it into a pattern
Basis of orientation
(Signs, posts, ability to find one’s way around)
Imageability:
quality of a place
Ex: new York, Paris, San Francisco
Leaves a mental image
5 elements structure mental images:
1. Paths: routes of circulation
2. Districts: sections having an identifying character
3. Edges: Boundaries, seams
4. Landmarks: points of reference
5. Nodes: centers of activity
These elements overlap (edge is a path; node is a landmark)
Sociopetal = encourages social interaction
Sociofugal = discourages it
Demographics
Demography:
Density:
Population size:
Statistical study of human populations
Census taking started in 1790 and continues every 10 years
Number of people per unit of area
actual number of people in a given location
Sociological Considerations
Each individual lives in two interdependent worlds:
2 Social Groups:
Primary:
one’s intimate social interaction (close friends and family)
This association helps a person develop as an individual
Secondary:
less intimate, more specialized (work friends)
Allows a person to give to society
Design fro primary and social needs:
daycare facility at work
old age communities for interaction
Work Groups (Based on one’s work or profession)
Broken up into Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Work Groups:
1. Primary: Deals with resources
Miners, fisherman, farmers
2. Secondary Takes the materials and produced by primary and converts them into products
food processors, factory workers
3. Tertiary: Services society
managers, salespeople, delivery, etc.
In US and Europe, fewer primary and more service (tertiary) create larger cities
In underdeveloped countries, improvements in health and food supply increase population. No opportunities in rural areas.
Use Network:
pattern of places in a city used for work, home, recreation connected by convenient transportation
Human Factors (research)
Time and Motion Studies
Ex: Study the work processes of factories in relation to human operations for reasons of efficiency
Ergonomics:
Design based on the mechanics of the human body
Study relationship between vision, body motion, and response time in product design
Office workstation design and Kitchen and bath design:
Time and motion studies in conjunction with ergonomics to create a good design
Ownership
Land was first owned communally
Primogeniture: land passed from father to eldest son
In England, land was owned by the King and given to people in return for loyalty, support, military
Fee Simple:
land could be transferred and used as the owner pleases.
Homestead Act:
Passed by Congress in 1862. In America, land was transferred to private ownership. 160 Acres were free to anyone who
built a house and lived on it for 5 years.
Catchment Areas
Geographic area from which the participants in an activity are drawn. also called market area, trade area, or tributary area
Increases and shrinks with the activity
Residential catchments are determined by local transportation systems. an extension of a transportation system may encourage the
creation of a new catchment
Land Use and Value
Land Use depends on its role in a catchment area, location, topography and cost.
Eight basic categories of use:
Natural resources
Agricultural
Residential
Commercial
Industrial
Gov
Institutional
Open space/conservation
Vacant or improved, land is valued in relation to the use which will yield the highest return.
Comparison Method:
other similar parcels (used for all classes of land)
Most accurate if data is available.
Residual Method or Income Approach method:
Used for highly developed areas.
Estimate potential income from improvements which would yield highest returns (highest and best use)
Allocation Method:
used to determine value of improved properties. Deduct value of site improvements to get the value of the land.
Development Method:
depends on estimated development costs. Used when comps are not available.
determine ultimate selling price of lot, cost to develop, time to develop, and net sale price.
Over improvement and Under improvement
Over: cost of improvement exceeds potential revenue or income
Under: Not built to maximize revenue
Surveys
Preliminary:
basic for prep of architectural plans
Construction:
precise condition of site and adjacent structures, bench marks
Possession:
records completed development
2 types:
Geodetic: spherical shape of earth (precision)
Plane: flat earth. Many kinds of plane:
Land Survey: description of land parcel
Topographic:
Route Survey: used by CE for roads or utility lines
Hydrographic: oceans, lakes, rivers
City
Aerial: Photography
Construction: system of markers
Topography
Contour interval:
Ground Slope:
Surface features of an area
change in elevation between 2 contours. Smaller the scale of map, larger the interval.
percentage: V/H x 100 = %G
< 4% are flat
4% - 10%
10% - 50%
> 50%
good for all activities
are moderate
are steep and unusable
very steep. Subject to erosion
Storm drains:
Sanitary sewers
Street surface drainage
Planted or large paved
Parking area
Auto ramps
Sidewalks
Streets, paved drives
Lawns
Planted banks
.3% min
.4% to 1.4%
.5% min
1% min
5% max
8% max
10% max (15% for short)
10% max
25% max
50% max
Land Problems
When water table is less than 6’ below land surface
pump out excavation site. Waterproof basement. Resist hydrostatic pressure
rock close to surface of ground
may need explosives
soft clay, water bearing sand or silt
deeper foundations or piles. Remove clay, fill ,etc
underground streams
slides or faults
restrict siting of structure
land is unsuitable
Soils
A level:
B Level:
C Level:
D level:
Topsoil – organic and mineral material
minerals
partially weathered and fractured rock. Little biological activity
Bedrock
Organic or inorganic
Gravel: 2mmmm
well drained, able to bear loads
Sand: .05 to 2 mm
well drained and good foundation when graded
Silt:
.002 to .05
stable when dry or damp, not wet. Swells when frozen.
Clay
<.002
plastic when wet, Stiff when dry. Must be removed.
Macroclimate:
depends on latitude, elevation, and proximity to water
bodies of water reduce temperature extremes. More constant and moderate climate at islands and coastal areas
Arid regions with low humidity experience greater temperature variations. Ex. Desert.
southerly winds from carry moist air from the Gulf of Mexico
cold Arctic air comes in from the North
Mountains force winds to rise
In the Sierra and coastal ranges, winds cool as it rises, clouds form and rain falls. Dry winds come down the leeward side of the
mountain
In Hawaii, the rain usually occurs on the leeward side.
Microclimate:
NOAA (National Oceanic and atmospheric Administration)
Solar radiation is a function of the angle between the ground and the direction of the sun’s rays (Altitude)
perpendicular to the ground is the greatest rays.
Summer Solstice: max hours of sunlight
Winter Solstice: least hours of sunlight
Vernal and autumnal equinox: equal day and night
Best is a south facing site
Top of a hill is too windy
Midway on the hill is best
Fog and cold air settles in the valley
Admit summer breezes while blocking winter ones
Overhangs block summer sun
Courtyards and porches allow summer breezes
Water Sites:
Cooler in summer and warmer in winter
Cool during the day and warm at night
Small body of water moderates the micro as oceans moderate the macro
Best to face south east (morning exposure, less winter glare)
Upper or middle slopes are best as opposed to crest or base
Albedo:
Conductivity:
fraction of radiant energy that is reflected. 0 is a flat black surface which absorbs all heat. 1 is a mirror.
speed with which heat passes through a material. Metals high, sand and soil low.
Climatic Considerations
Comfort Zone:
between 63 and 71 in winter
between 66 and 75 in summer
humidity between 30% and 60%. At 75% = discomfort
Winds:
<50 feet per min not noticed
50 to 100 feet per minute is pleasant
100 to 200 feet per minute is pleasant and noticeable
200 to 300 feet per minute is drafty
more than 300 is uncomfortable
Air pollution:
Temperature Inversion Phenomenon
air temp at ground level is lower than at some elevation above ground. The cold air at the bottom is heavier than the air above it
and cannot move upward. It is trapped and releases pollutants.
Noise:
One decibel is the smallest difference between 2 sounds that the human ear can detect. Each increase of 10 decibels, the human
ear perceives as 10 times as loud.
Comfort is 50-60 decibels (kitchen, conversation)
30 decibels (sleep, study, whisper)
85 decibels is the safety threshold (90 -100 is a rock band)
Doubling the distance between source and ear diminishes sound level 6 decibels.
Doubling the distance between source and ear reduces sound intensity to ¼.
(Except on freeways. Sound level drops 3 decibels and intensity drops to ½ by doubling).
Winds add a “white noise” – a blend of all sound frequencies which blurs out a specific frequency.
trees thin out high frequency noises
a wall close to the source reduces high frequency, but midway between the source and the ear does nothing.
Ecology
Old idea, new term.
George Perkins Marsh published “Man in Nature “ in 1875.
Introduction to the study of ecology
In 1920’s formed Regional Planning Association of America
Lewis Mumford and Benton Mackaye members
In 1926 Clarence Stein and Henry Wright (2 members) wrote an ecologically based plan for the state of NY
water, forest, soil, topo
determined land uses appropriate to resources
harmony between natural and human activities
Ecology:
science of the pattern of relations between a community of organisms and its environment. Forms an ecosystem.
an ecosystem may be a forest, desert, pond, manned space vehicle.
ecosystems are constantly changing
If one species is destroyed, the system will form new relationships.
Simple, uniform ecosystems tend to be unstable.
rural = natural ecology
urban = man made ecology
rural or urban = a balance must be sought.
Circulation Systems
Surface road systems most often determine the patterns of land use and utility systems
Grid System:
regular, simplicity, convenience, gives sense of orientation.
Radial System:
can cause congestion at center. By-passes connecting outlying radials can be created
Linear System:
congestion. No focal point. On and off is dangerous. Useful when it is parallel to an existing artery.
Curvilinear:
responds to topography. Interesting.
Vehicular Circulation
Freeways
Arterial streets or highways 2 or 3 lanes; on/off ramps; traffic signals
Collector-distributor
stop signs; sidewalks; between local & arterial
Local
loop, cul-de-sac, low density
Design Criteria
Crown to curb & Gutter:
1/8” to ½” per foot
6” curb and gutter on heavy traffic streets
minor streets have 4” roll curbs or gravel.
made of: concrete, asphalt, gravel, decomposed granite
Typically 11’-12’ wide
Typical 2 lane highway: 9’ shoulders on each side = 40’-42’ wide
8’ wide parking lanes for parallel
16’-24’ wide parking for angled or perpendicular
landscape strip: 7’ wide for trees; 4’ fro ground cover
roads consist of straight sections (tangents) and curves
Simple curves = OK
Broken back = 200’ tangent between
Reverse = 100’ tangent between
Compound = Avoid altogether
Avoid intersections slightly offset
Avoid intersections where the angle is less than 80 to 85
Cul-de-sacs should be 400’ max with an 80’ diameter turn around
max depth at loop street = 700’
max length of a block = 1600’
12’ min curb radii at minor street intersection and 50’ at major
traffic signal at intersection where volume exceeds 750 vehicles per hour
At intersection with more than 3000 cars per hour, grade separation required
Cloverleaf
Direct left-turn (where 2 expressways intersect). 3 level structures. More lanes operate at high speeds.
Diamond (where expressways intersect secondary roads)
Parking
Cartridge Roads: on site loop distributor-collector drive with access to the local road
8’-4” (9’) wide stall (allows 20” of clearance between cars) and 18-20’ long
12’ wide circulation aisle
the smaller the angle, the less the projection and bay width has to be:
30 = 15’-7” projection; 43’-2” bay width
35 = 16’-7” projection; 45’-2” bay width
40 = 17’-6” projection; 47’-0” bay width
45 = 18’-2” projection; 48’-4” bay width
90 = 60 to 64 feet
90 degree parking can accommodate more stalls than 60 or 45. Convenient and less dangerous with more aisle room
60, 45, or 30 establishes a 1 way circulation system – easy driving
in lots with attendants: 8’ x 18’ stalls and 20’ aisles
3,000 to 4,000 sq feet of parking for every 1,000 of shopping center
Ramps to new levels = 15% slope with an 8’ transition
Pedestrian Circulation
area of a person
easy movement
crowd movement
no movement
Sidewalks
Collector walks
= 3 sq ft
= 13 sq ft
= 7 sq ft
= 3 sq ft
= no less than 5’ wide
= no less than 6 to 10 feet wide
Public Transit
Collective Transit System: needs at least a population density of 30 persons per acre.
Max distance to walk is ¼ to ½ mile
local bus = short trips in medium to high and long trips in medium (15 to 30 mph)
express bus = between medium density areas and within high density areas (40 to 60 mph)
Rail = between areas and within high density (40 to 70 mph)
Handicapped
walks = 1:20 (5%)
curb cut = 3’ plus flared sides with a max slope of 1:10
ramp = 1:12 (8.3%); 3’ wide min; 30’ long max; 5’ long landings; handrails if rise is greater than 6” or run is greater than 72”.
HC parking space no more than 200’ from building entrance
7-50 car lot =
2 HC spaces
51-100 car lot =
3 HC spaces
101- 150 car lot =
5 HC spaces
Service and Utilities
wastewater lines need to be designed first ……pitch and gravity
water and wastewater at least 10’ away. Wastewater at center of street.
gas and electric under sidewalk.
Water Supply & Distribution
Supply is installed in branch or gridiron systems. Looped feeder is good in high density areas. Dual main systems service both
sides of the street.
Water main = 6” in residential areas; 8” in high density
Main lines valves are located that no single break in line effects more than 500 feet of water main.
When density is under 1,000 persons per sq mile, no public water supply.
Wastewater
to convey solid material = velocity of 2 ½ feet per second to 10 feet per second
to convey solid material = ½% to 2% slopes
Electric
electric is generated by turbines powered by steam produced by coal, oil, gas or water
Regulation
of ownership
of land itself
of structures (materials, fire safety, electrical and mechanical equipment, etc)
Types of owners
Joint Tenancy:
Partnership:
each tenant has a share in the whole. Interest of each automatically passes to the survivors
upon death of a partner, the partnership may be dissolved and the assets distributed among surviving partners
and estate of deceased.
independent of its shareholders. If a shareholder dies, his share passes on and corp stays in tact.
hold property for benefit of another.
Corporation:
Trustee:
Federal government land is administered by the US Bureau of Land management
Types of ownership
Fee Simple or Fee Absolute (non conditional)
Condo
Coop (owns shares of stock of a corp that owns the land)
Leasehold (rent. Can sublet sometimes)
Sale and leaseback – sells the property and then leases it back
Transferring Title
Deed
2 methods used to finance:
1. mortgage
2. deed of trust – title is held by a fourth party called a trustee. Foreclosure can happen under the power of sale clause without
court proceedings
First mortgages take priority to second mortgages.
Property Descriptions
North –South lines: Meridians (some are called principal meridians)
between the principal are called range line
East-West Lines: Parallels (Some are called base lines)
between the parallels are called township lines
Check:
Townships:
Sections:
Quarters:
each 24 mile square created by the meridians and parallels
Each check is divided into 16 townships (each one 6 miles square)
each township is numbered and designated as North or South of the base line and east or west of principal
meridian.
Townships are subdivided into 36 square sections (each one square mile)
Sections are divided into 4 quarters and the
Deed Terms
Covenants:
Easements:
Party Wall Agreement:
Right-of-way:
limit the height, size, or appearance of a building
acquired right of use, without ownership.
each has an easement of support in the other half of the wall.
Allows one person to traverse the land of another
Eminent Domain:
an owner must relinquish his property to government if needed for a public project.
Involves a condemnation proceeding. The compensation is the fair market value of the land.
Public utilities also enforce eminent domain in the form of an easement for access.
Zoning
introduced in NY in 1916
health, welfare, and safety
After the depression, to stimulate building, the government started home loans guaranteed by the Federal Government. To
safeguard investment funds, began the uniform standards of construction.
protects property values
regulates use of land
protects against nuisances (factories)
Protects against undesirable businesses (porn)
protects against danger (hazardous)
protection of light, air, open space.
Nonconforming use:
Conditional use:
Variance:
Spot Zoning:
building that was built prior to zoning and now does not meet the codes
use that is permitted when it normally is not
where the application of ordinance would cause hardship to the owner.
make a change in the zoning ordinance for a particular area
Building Codes
regulate the design of structures. Safety and soundness of structures.
UBC – Northeast
BOCA – west
SBC - South
Site Planning
Climate:
Described in data:
Temperatures
direction & velocity of winds
precipitation & humidity
effected by microclimate
topography, ground cover, nearby water, elevation
Comfort Zone:
dependent on temp, humidity
also on air movement, air quality
63-71 in winter; 66-75 in summer 30%-60% humidity
can effect climate by:
planning, orientation, building materials, plantings, shading or exposure to sun
Orientation:
ideal at South East
more sun in winter and less in summer
put more glass on South side to get winter sun
E & W sides should get minimal windows because they get morning and late afternoon summer sun
Northern wall fenestration can be good because it is even, but must block the winter winds.
in Northerly latitudes, the sun altitude is smaller all year round as compared to Southern latitudes where the angle is greater.
In Northern latitudes heat transmission through walls is important
In Southern latitudes heat transmission through roofs.
Sun Control:
Summer:
Use overhangs, fins, louvers (much more effective than trying to deal with it after it contact the building)
South: Overhang
E & W: Vertical fin
deciduous trees to block summer sun
Properly designed can reduce air conditioning costs by 15% or more
Wind:
Basic speed 70 to 80 mph
increase with height while almost 0 at ground
pressure varies as the square of the velocity. (Velocity of 70mph = pressure of 13psf. If velocity doubles, pressure increases fourfold)
Windbreaks:
Part of the wind goes up & over, part goes down.
Plazas at ground level or open first floors can be windy
Fenestration:
heat loss of glass is about 20 times greater than an insulated wall.
Shaded daylight can reduce the need for lighting and therefore reduce heat generated by lighting
Exterior Materials:
U-factor:
measure of heat transmission
Low U value means slow heat loss or gain
high U Value means rapid (.064 brick/ 1 for glass)
Thermal Inertia:
Ability of a material to store heat.
EX: Concrete or masonry walls in arid zones store heat and release it at night
Miami:
Semi-Tropical; little temp variation
natural breezes and shading
New York:
Temperate
Heavy insulation on West wall; moderate on others
Minneapolis:
Cool Areas; little temp variation
good insulation all around
Solar Heating & Cooling:
Solar Heating can be cost effective; Cooling not cost effective
Mechanical Equipment:
Design temperature:
Working average, not the lowest recorded temp
Heating design temp: 0 in Boston, 20 in LA, 40 in Miami
Cooling Design temp: 85 in Boston, 110 in LA
GEOLOGY & SOILS
Borings:
quantity depends on nature of the building
100-500 ft apart for uniform conditions
50 ft apart for large structure
1 at each corner and one in center of open warehouse
Should extend 20 feet beyond firm strata
Safe Bearing capacity:
ultimate bearing capacity divided by a factor of safety ranging from 2 to 4.
Ultimate B.C.
max unit pressure to which a foundation soil may be subjected without detrimental settlement
Well graded gravels and sand = 3000 to 12000 psf
Compacted sand and fill = 2000 to 3000 psf
Silt and Clay = 1000 to 4000 psf
Bedrock = 10,000 psf
Spread Footing:
delivers its load directly to the soil. Area is determined by dividing load by safe bearing capacity.
Most economical.
Piles:
End bearing – capacity at the tip
Friction – transmits load between pile and soil
Bearing capacity of pile is limited by the strength of the pile or the soil – whichever is less.
Piles capacities are determined by:
pile driving formulas = energy delivered and penetration per blow.
Static pile formulas = properties of soil and pile dimensions
pile load test
Cast in place pile is most economical for a lightweight building; earth must be stable for drilling.
Driven piles can be 2 to 3 times the cost of spread footings.
Belled Caissons are used when there is a layer of firm strata at bottom. They are actually very deep spread footings.
Mat foundations are used when underlying strata is weak. It acts as one continuous foundation. Very costly. Can be an alternative to
driving piles.
Foundations costs are 5% of total construction costs.
Earthquakes: If there is an active fault, liquefaction can be caused, or possible landsliding, then may want to not use the site.
Topography and Drainage:
Cut and fill should be balanced
Surface Water Management: On site drainage must connect to natural drainage
Design of surface water run off is based on the most severe storm expected once every 5, 10, or possible 25 years.
Sheet flow = water that flows across paved surfaces
To avoid surface erosion, use channels, gutters, or swales.
Slopes:
Level:
Easy:
Steep:
Under 4%
4% to 10%
Over 10%
Suitable for all
Suitable for most
More difficult – complicated foundations and utilities. Sometimes requires split level.
Prototypes
Organizational pattern is determined by site conditions and functional requirements.
Form must be measured against a buildings function, site, cost, etc.
Organizational values:
Behavioral Interest and objectives
Circulation
Health aspects
Adaptive aspects
Cost
Prototypes:
Linear
Radial
Compact
Extended
Single
Multi-level
Space to perform the tasks
Ease of movement
Factors that can cause stress (noise, crowding, glare, etc)
Facilitates future change; flexibility
Lower costs = regular forms, compact arrangements
Organization Factors:
Site
Movement patterns
Soil conditions, topography
Pedestrians and vehicular access; distribution of utilities (Centralized schemes and multi level are
more cost effective for this)
flexibility
Patterns of growth
Organizational Patterns:
Linear:
Axial:
Radial:
Grid:
Precinctual:
can be limited by availability of land; useful where major circulation occurs between 2 points; Can be
economical; lacks a focus; congested
Similar to Linear, but two directions
Central core, Elements have a common origin or destination; somewhat inflexible; compact and allows for max
social interaction.
Emphasis on flexibility; simple, convenient, compact, and suited for complex distribution systems; can become
monotonous without points of focus
Dispersed activities; may or may not have a center; Growth can happen in any direction; flexible, efficient, and
often economical.
Determinants of Form:
There should be an inverse relationship between site and buildings. Strong site, passive building; vice versa.
Forms of building can be inspired by forms in the site. Mountains = roof peaks.
Trees and landscape can also dictate form.
Climate
Structure (Exposed structure)
Mechanical Systems (exposed mech)
Nature of materials.
Elements of traditional form (dome, spire, shed roof, etc)
Function
Cultural Association
Scale = human
Proportion = harmony
Hierarchy = one element takes precedence.
Building Prototypes (Human spatial dimensions first, then spatial dimensions. )
Housing:
Flexible spaces; Noisy vs. quiet spaces
Spaces required
How much space is required
Circulation
Hotels:
Public and private areas separate from service areas; service space at each floor.
Key unit of measure is the bed size. Typical room = 12’6” x 20’
Shopping Centers:
20th Century Suburban phenomenon; Convenient; Easy access by auto and public transportation
Street Mall = 30’-40’ wide and 800’ long max; Each store 20’-30’ frontage and 120’-140’ deep.
Tenant Mix = variety of store types
Loop Road - A collector-distributor
At least 2000 sq ft of parking for 1000 sq ft of building (5-6 spaces)
Schools:
Effective learning environment;
visibility, acoustics, temperature, human scale, warmth, stimulation, repose
Growth rate
Neighborhood character
Extracurricular activities
Type of teaching (team?)
Must establish optimum classroom capacity; 800 to 1000 sq ft
Separate noise from quiet
High safety standards
Churches:
form determined by ritual
clear site lines and good acoustics; seating for congregational unity
Rooms must be flexible
Most common is rectangle: Historical is axial
Circular plan:
Based on idea of intimacy and unity. Good for social activities
Sight lines and seating may be awkward; procession may be difficult
Theaters:
Stage dimensions, seating, and site lines vary with performance.
Curve the row of seats so that the center of the curve is the center of the auditorium. This makes good viewing
Stagger seats
Continental Seating = allows transverse circulation and eliminates the need for longitudinal aisles
Optimum depth is 4 to 5 times the stage width or twice the house width when house width is about 3 times the stage width.
In live theater it is about 75’, but Radio City is 200’
Site lines determine splay and house width
visibility limits and house capacity determine depth
min distance from stage to 1st row is a 30 degree viewing line
Parking Facilities:
an outdoor parking space costs 1/5 of an average auto
a parking structure space costs about the same as the auto
an underground parking structure costs twice the auto
a gradual sloped garage system is good
Ramp grades are a max of 8% for maneuvering
90 degree – efficient and 2 way flow
Hospitals:
basic room is 150 sq ft for single; 200 sq ft for double; 400 sq ft for four bed
Double corridor nursing unit = convenient
25 to 35 beds per station
Programming and Space Needs
Programming is problem seeking; Design is problem solving
3 phases:
1. Broad objectives are stated
2. Functional requirements described by size and relationships
3. detailed requirements are noted
Test of concept:
the site.
after programming is complete, develop a simple mass and circulation design to test its reasonableness and relation to
Format for programming: (divide info into)
Function – objectives and needs
Form – site, structural aspects
Economy – construction budget and operational costs
Time – schedules
Programming Process: (main objective is to state the project requirements)
Establish Objectives – Owner’s goals
Collect, organize, and analyze data – Site data, number of occupants, codes, budget, expenses
Formulate relationships – schematic diagrams, relationships
Establish priorities – primary and secondary functions, balance spaces with budget
State the problem –
Good programming:
clarifies owner’s intentions
reduces changes later
provides a basis for resolution of differences of opinion
minimizes wasted spaces due to unnecessary equip, poor relationships.
Always provide for possible change; 10-20% additional space for expansion; modular layout.
Program Format:
Total Building Group:
Component Building:
Activity Center:
Space Unit:
all the buildings that constitute a complex or building group; master plan;
Any single building within the Group;
Spaces related to each other by function; Ex: X-Ray suite;
Each individual space
Example: Civic Center; City Hall; Public Works Dept; Engineering Office….
Determining Space Needs:
Assignable area:
the amount of area needed for uses.
Determined during programming to see the required size of bldg.
Net Area:
measured from INSIDE walls
Gross Area:
Includes net area plus circulation, services, toilets, lobbies, mechanical, electrical custodial.
Measured to EXTERIOR face of walls.
Includes columns, shafts, etc.
Net area divided by efficiency ratio to get gross
Efficiency:
the ratio of net to gross area
Increases as complexity and number of spaces decreases
Usually ranges from 60 – 80%
Net area divided by Gross Area multiplied by 100 to get percent.
Estimating Needs:
Numeric Method:
determine area by use categories that each require a certain amount of space.
Index:
Expresses the amount of space required for each use.
Determined by: square feet required, amount of time in use
Example:
15 sq ft per student station
30 hrs/week classroom is in use x 60% each station is occupied
15 (30 x .60) = .833 sq ft / weekly student hr
1,000 students; 6 hours per week in a lecture hall = 6,000 weekly student hours
6,000 x .833 = 5,000 net sq ft.
Index can be affected by scheduling and % occupied.
The actual size of classrooms is determined by number of students and sq ft required for each.
Scheduling Section
5 Phases:
1. Schematic Design – most difficult to estimate time
(can be broken down into Conceptual and schematic)
time to complete affected by –
a. Project size and complexity
b. Quality of client’s program info
c. Decision making ability of Client
d. Design Team
Usually 1-2 months
2. Design Development
time to complete affected by complexity of project
Usually 2-6 months
3.
4.
5.
Construction Documents
time to complete affected by complexity of project
Usually 3-7 months
Biding and Negotiation
Usually 3-6 weeks
Construction Administration
Client Approval in between phases
File drawings at end of CD’s so permit is ready
Consider plan review in schedule.
Contingencies:
Add extra time in schedule (8 month project = 2-4 contingency)
Schedule should be flexible
With a Contractor:
GMP (Guaranteed max price): Usually when a builder is brought on board during design phases.
Working with a contractor during design increases time for Schematic and DD, but same time for CD’s. But, contractor can start construction
before all docs are done. SO schedule can shorten. Can also delete bidding phase all together.
Extending the Schedule:
Can increase costs due to inflation
Team members can change causing a learning curve.
Shortening the Schedule:
1. Work Overtime
costly and inefficient
2. Hire more people
new to project, inexperienced
3. Reduce man hours
poor quality of drawings
Overall, causes higher costs for Design and Construction and lower quality project.
Construction Scheduling:
CPM (Critical Path Method)
diagram is called a Network Diagram
Tasks are arrows
Start and finish are circles
Event = when one tasks ends and the next begins
Important events are Milestone events
An event that is common to two separate Network Diagrams for a project is called an Interface Event
the time for each activity is a number below the arrow.
Critical Path:
The path with the longest required time is the Critical Path and the activities on that path are called Critical Activities.
reducing the critical path reduces the whole schedule and increases job costs but decreases overhead costs.
Float Paths:
All paths other than the Critical Path. The difference in time between a float path and the critical path is called Float.
Project Calendar:
Number of working days x 7/5 = Calendar days
Contingencies:
Add a fixed percentage or allow a provision in the contract
Bar Graph:
cannot show interdependencies of activities
Good as a visual aid
Fast Track:
also called accelerated or telescoped
CD’s are issued in phases
requires coordination and precludes against major design revisions
requires staged bidding – may get many contractors and therefore makes it hard to get a fixed price early on.
Usually needs a CM to oversee
Zoning Ordinances & Building Codes Section
Zoning:
Code:
Ordinance:
Variance:
Conditional Use:
regulates land use
organized body of law
municipal law
permission to deviate from the zoning requirements
to avoid hardship of the owner
Granted by ZB for a special purpose or use
for the convenience of the public
Nonconforming Use:
No longer permitted by Zoning Ordinance
Unless unsafe, it is generally allowed to continue
Zoning Code:
Varies from town to town
Influences building form
segregates uses
Controls population density
parking and loading provisions
stabilizes property value
Setbacks:
Building Line:
FAR:
the need for light, air, and spaciousness
Line beyond which a structure is not permitted to extend.
Floor Area Ratio
Area of ground covered by structure can also be limited to a % of the lot.
Penthouses, fan rooms, and skylights are sometimes allowed to exceed height restrictions.
Loading docks are often required in C and M districts to prevent crowding streets
Restrictions on Land Use:
Easements:
the legal right of government or another land owner to use one’s property for a particular purpose
EX: Right-Of-Way : the right of one person to traverse the land of another
To be legal and binding, must be in the deed
Scenic easement Concept: prevent development which is scenic to the public
Deed Restriction:
any clause in a deed which restricts the future use of a parcel of land
Covenant:
a legal agreement used to uphold a condition of use in a parcel of land.
Affirmative Covenant:
commits a buyer to perform certain duties in the future. EX: make payments for common charges in a condo.
Conditional Covenant:
If restriction is violated, land will revert back to original owner or heirs.
Air Right:
Right to use open space above.
Part Wall:
each owner has an easement on ½ of the other
Building Codes:
Prescriptive Code:
specifies techniques, materials, and methods
simple to administer
no innovation
Performance Code:
describes functional requirements
promotes innovation
May require test paid for by owner.
Fire Zone:
Special zones deemed high, moderate, or low hazardous.
effects materials and uses in the zone
Occupancy group:
determined by activities
Fire separation between 2 different occupancies
Type of Construction:
classified according to degree of Fire resistance
determined by fire zone it is located and intended use
influences the height, floor area, and materials
Siting of Structure:
must not spread fire
Floor Area:
max FA based on use, type, and fire zone.
can be increased with better fire resistive design or sprinklers.
can also divide floor into fire resistive areas with fire walls.
Fire dampers
Height:
max based on use, type.
can increase same as with FA
Occupant Load:
specified by code based on activity
Fire Resistance:
permit safe egress
maintain structural integrity and limit spread of fire to extinguish blaze
limit damage and avoid collapse
Fire resistance values are stated in terms of hours and can be increased with the use of sprinklers, etc. (Doors, windows, floors, etc)
Flame Spread Rating and Smoke Developed Ratings measures the amount of flame and smoke a material generates. (Carpet, fabrics,
etc)
Exits:
required number based on number of occupants
required width of exits is determined by occupants on the floor plus an allowance for occupants from floors above.
EX:
1,000 divided by 50 (factor) = 20 feet of exit width
OR
1 unit of exit width (22 in) for every 50-100 occupants with a ½ unit credit for every 12” of clear width.
Fire Tower:
or smokeproof enclosure
buildings 75’ or higher, at least one exit must be
it is noncombustible construction; connected with mechanically ventilated vestibules or balconies (back up power for mechanical
ventilation)
Ventilation Systems:
minimize circulation of smoke by:
isolate circulation system of each fire area
shifts from normal top exhaust when fire
increase air pressure so as to prevent flow of smoke and fumes
Panic:
Panic hardware
Vertical Transportation:
Elevators – not a means of egress
Escalators – provide a conduit for smoke - not an approved exit (to avoid this you can)
Install a rolling shutter to seal floor opening
enclose escalator in structure like a stairwell
install sprinkler and auto ventilation system
Ramps: May constitute a portion of the required legal exits
Revolving Doors: Must collapse to be part of a required exit
Area of Refuge:
Floor space on same level, diff part of bldg or an adjoining bldg. Fire rated separation; Cannot be a dead end.
Standpipes:
required for buildings 3 or more stories
Wet Standpipe:
continuously pressurized with water from public supply or some source
hoses can be used by occupants
hose cabinet locations determined by distance
Dry Standpipe:
not connected to constant water supply
connected to Siamese
cabinets located in smokeproof stair towers for use by firemen
Combination:
both a wet standpipe with a Siamese fitting
Wet or combo must deliver 35gpm from each of two outlets simultaneously.
Standpipes must in working order during construction.
Fire Alarms:
Operate local alarms and also to the FD. The one to the FD
can be manual or can be through automatic fire sensors.
3 types of sensors:
fixed temperature sensor
smoke detector
product of combustion
both SD and Combustion detectors respond to interruption of a light beam.
Lesson 7 – Budget Analysis & Cost Estimating
Adverse geological conditions can result in $$$$
Inflation can result in added $$. An inflation factor should be included in the project budget.
Project Development Budget: (It also includes)
site Acquisition
Construction:
Off Site (utilities to the property)
On Site (10% and 20% of construction cost)
Building Costs (10% & 15% of construction cost)
Professional services
Miscellaneous (Bids, etc.)
Inspection & Testing
Contingencies (5% and 10%)
Financing.
It is normal practice to anticipate construction cost escalation on the basis of an annual increase projected to the midpoint of construction.
Cost Estimating:
For the pre-planning and proposal phase:
unit costs
EX: based on costs per student, per hospital bed, per sq ft of floor area, per cubic ft of building volume
Programming Phase:
Unit cost system – cost per sf
based on similar building types or functions of spaces
Schematic Design Phase:
based on the major elements of each building system
structure, MEP
Design Development Phase:
detailed components
can be unit costs for the component (sq ft of curtain wall)
CD phase: unit
rates for construction components, assemblies and systems. Unit rates are required for pre-bid estimates, cost checks, and cost
breakdown.
Building Cost File:
Description of Categories
Foundations
Building Shell
Interiors
Conveying Systems
MEP
General Conditions
Site Development
Rules of Measurement = calculate for both gross and net area to compare space efficiency
Building Classification Code = allows you to identify and classify info on various projects.
Parameter Costs of Buildings
another system of cost estimating developed by ENR
data comes from contractor reported actual costs
base costs on either gross or net:
EX: structural steel based on gross and finishes on net
Useful in feasibility studies, preliminary budgets, calc prelim costs quickly
can be adapted to a city by using the ENR 20 Cities Building Cost Index or by adding an inflation factor
Other Factors:
Availability of labor and material
Labor rates
Material Prices
Resources to produce the material
Convenience of transportation
Location – remote = $$$
Less predictable costs in rural areas
High Interest Rates = less housing construction = lower material prices
Increased cost of living = increased union wages and higher labor costs
Construction Overhead and profit:
General Overhead:
8-15% of total value of large firm
Project Overhead:
All costs that can be charged to a job other than labor, materials, equipment
4-10% of construction cost
Profit:
15 – 20% for smaller projects
10- 15% for larger
5 – 10% for very large
Pro-forma:
financial analysis of a building project which involves cost and return on investment
Cost of money or debt service: principal and interest payments
Depreciation:
federal tax benefit with the idea that a building loses value as it ages
General Obligation Bond:
used to finance non revenue collecting facilities
Revenue Bond:
Used to finance revenue collecting projects (tolls, etc)
Building Types
Airport Terminals
Houses of Architects
Art Galleries · timeline
Bank Buildings
Bridges
Castles
Cathedrals
Churches · timeline
Commercial Buildings
Exhibition and Exposition
Factories
Gardens
Government Buildings
City Halls
Hotels
Houses, Large & Small
Large Houses
Small Houses
Landscapes
Libraries · timeline
Monasteries
Mosques
Multi-Family Housing
Museums
Offices
Parks
Palaces
Plazas and Piazzas
School and Academic
Skyscrapers · timeline
Temples
Theaters
Town and City · timeline
Villas
Architectural Styles
Neolithic
Ancient Egyptian
Ancient Greek
Ancient Roman · timeline
Medieval
Gothic
Hindu Architecture
Islamic
Romanesque
Traditional Japanese
Renaissance
Baroque
Victorian
Romantic
Art Nouveau · timeline
Richardsonian
Arts and Crafts
Neo-Classical
Art Deco
Early Modern
Prairie Style
Bay Area Regional
Modern - long list
Expressionist Modern · timeline
Deconstructivist Modern
Corporate Modern
Post Modern
High Tech
Expressionist
Vernacular
African Vernacular
Neo-Vernacular
ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
Architectural design is a an exercise in synthesis, or putting together a complex array of disparate parts to form a unified, interdependent
composition. Thus, one of the chief functions of the architect is to coordinate a tem of specialists, who together create a design.
Design is the process of giving form to an idea. It is not a mystical activity. Artful solutions are the goal to be sought.
The term “form must follow function” is most attributed to Sullivan.
The process of design involves the understanding of a functional problem which requires a physical solution. Functional problems are very
complex and each element of a problem may itself be an intricate problem challenging for the architect’s ability to design with it.
During certain architectural periods, designs became so formularized that they constituted a “style”. The problem is that social, cultural, and
industrial patterns are in almost constant transition making certain styles obsolete or even burdensome.
It is more useful in architecture to rely on method than on style.
Traditional design involves the use of a widely accepted style of design developed in the past.
In certain areas where materials are limited, such designs may be called “indigenous architecture” that is architecture of the region. New
England and Mediterranean architecture are examples.
CONSIDERATIONS IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
The purposes of architecture are many, but all derive from the basic purpose of accommodating human activities. An architect, in undertaking
design, should consider the following:
Architecture requires an appropriate relationship between the structure and its site.
Architecture should respond to the natural characteristic of the site, its form, climate, solar position, vegetation, and existing
structure.
Architecture should be placed in the landscape to be seen, conversely, views of the surrounding landscape should be visible from
the building.
Architecture should serve the purposes it is intended to serve; it should function properly.
Architecture should express the purposes it serves.
Architecture should use economy of means to achieve its purposes.
Architecture should utilize available technologies ingeniously.
Architecture must have a human scale, in both its material parts and its spaces, and in its interior and exterior.
Architecture should utilize materials properly.
Architecture should utilize the familiar and commonplace building techniques of its locale.
Architecture should be graceful in silhouette and massing.
Architecture should exhibit a degree of exuberance (expression), it is an assertive act.
Architecture should exhibit a priority or hierarchy of parts.
Architecture should offer the human eye a visually rich and interesting field of view.
Architecture should establish a relationship between interior and exterior spaces.
Architecture should have integrity, honesty, and wholeness throughout.
Architecture should be expressive of human spiritual aspirations.
Architecture work should be regarded as an opportunity to demonstrate architecture’s basic principals.
Architecture should have an all-embracing and encompassing physical design concept.
Architecture should be a place, or spatial forum, that encourages human contact. It is an arena where activity, interaction, and
accomplishments take place. Architectural space, therefore, facilitates a broad range of human activities; it does not prescribe or
limit them.
RELATIONSHIP TO HUMAN BODY
Design is a reflection of the society which produces it, and even more it is the reflection of the whole of human nature.
There is a direct connection between the human body and designed objects. We often judge the success of a design by how well it responds
to or recalls the form of human features.
Anthropomorphic design relationships establish associations between human characteristics and man made objects; objects are described
as they were alive. An example of this is found in classical architecture, where a supporting column was given a human form, such as a
caryatid.
The same concept is expressed in Greek columns by a slight outward curve that gives the impression of vertical strength, as in a leg.
Similarly, the echinus curve of a Doric capital approximates the shape of an upraised hand supporting the entablature above. Pedestals are
vertical supports derived from the Latin term for “foot”.
Design may be viewed, therefore, from a perspective of human associations. Everyone develops an intuitive awareness for judging the
appropriateness of a design, based on personal experience.
Originally, measurements derived from parts of the body. Which is the base for a system of architectural measurement in use in the U.S.?
Inch – was the full width of the thumb to the next finger.
Foot – was the human foot length.
Yard – was the distance from the center of the body to the arm extended.
Fathom – was the spread of the arms.
By the 18th century, in Europe, most systems were replaced by the metric system which corresponds to the earth’s physical entities namely,
the equator and earth’s pole.
System of measurement in architecture are generally derived from and must be related to, familiar human dimensions as well as the
dimensions of the world we inhibit.
NATURE AS A SOURCE OF INSPIRATION
The Crystal Palace, designed in 1851 might have derived its design of shape from that on a water lily. In the lily’s structure Joseph Paxton
recognized a regular, precise, and delicate skeletal pattern. Its constituent veins enabled the stalk to support a very large area of leaf
structure.
Objects found in nature, being the products of evolution, of the natural response to particular forces, are well suited to their purposes.
Otherwise they would not survive. Because natural things are so appropriate to their purposes, and so expressive of them, designers have
always found creative inspiration in the realm of nature.
Houses have been designed which are a form of a seashells. Airlines terminals have been designed which are inspired by symbols of light,
such as wings of a bird. Commercial structures have been designed as tree-like forms, in which floors are cantilevered like branches.
To learn from nature, one must understand the principals underlying natural forms and their evolution, transporting those processes into our
own. We should not imitate form, but rather emulate process.
BASIC SYSTEM OF GEOMETRY
Design concepts are described by a visual language or tools which can be learned; consider the geometry which generates three
dimensional forms:
Point indicates position, it has no dimension nor does it occupy any space. It can represent the beginning or end of a line; it is the
place where two lines intersect.
Line is the path described when a point moves. It has position, direction, and length, but no thickness.
Plane is the path described by a line in motion, in a direction other than its own. A plane has position, direction, length, and
breadth, but no thickness.
Volume is the three-dimensional space described by a plane in motion; it has position in space and is bounded by planes.
When one draws on paper, the drawn lines represent elements of an imagined concept. These concepts have the following attributes:
Shape is the outline or configuration of a thing.
Size is the physical dimension, magnitude, or extent of something. All shapes have size.
Color is the appearance of something caused by the quality of light reflected by it. White is the absence of color, black is the
absence of light.
Texture is the surface characteristic of an object.
The geometric shapes which are particularly useful and are part of the tools include the square, the circle, and the triangle. The
corresponding three dimensional shapes are the cube, sphere, pyramid, cone and cylinder.
SPACE
The aim of all design should be to create spaces in which one will feel secure, sheltered, oriented, and therefore at ease.
Since space also exists to accommodate movement, the shape of spaces can indicate how one is expected to move.
Movement is governed by the amount of spatial freedom, or access, provided. A long narrow space suggests efficient axial movement; a
perfectly square or round room, with no specific orientation implies repose – which one may pause or remain at rest (i.e. at museum).
The term “manipulation of space” describes the relationship between spatial designs and feeling of people in that space, achieved through
design.
FORM
The perception of form is based on memory associations developed in childhood, which involve the tactile as well as visual sense. For
example, to convey a sense of stability, or rigidity, one might utilize straight lines and right angles, or a designer wishing to create an object
which is comfortable to touch would use a curved form.
Form can also imply movement, as in the case of a church spire that extends toward heaven. Similarly, the twisted columns of a Baroque
interior suggest perpetual motion (one that continues forever).
SCALE
Scale in design is the relative size of a structure or space with reference to the human body.
For example, a stair riser is six to seven inches high because that is the distance a person raises his foot comfortably when climbing a
stairway. Similarly, a handrail is about waste high; seat height is approximately the length of the lower leg. All are said to be in scale.
Extra-human scale derives from allowing functions to determine size. A large factory, for example, derives its size from its production
processes. The length of a runway is determined by the laws of aerodynamics that govern flight.
PROPORTION
Proportion is the relationship between the component parts of the structure.
It expresses the order of importance of the parts, casting some into primary roles where others into secondary or supporting roles.
Proportion suggests the role of the part in a structure, for example, a fat column suggests a heavy load where a very slender column
suggests very light loads.
Consistency in the proportional relationship between a structure’s parts make the aesthetic intent easier to comprehend.
From Pythagoras to Leonardo to Le Corbusier, proportioning systems have been devised whose purpose was to provide harmonious order.
The most ancient system in western architecture and art is the so called “Golden Section”, which is based on proportions found in nature, as
well as the human body.
The Golden Section is the basis of the “modular” system devised by Le Corbusier.
The Golden Section was a renaissance concept of proportion in which a whole is divided so that the smaller part is to the larger as the larger
is to the whole. The mathematical expression of the golden section is A:B = B:C.
With reference to the human body; we can see that the full height of the body (A) is to the distance from the feet to the navel, central point of
stomach (B) as (B) is to the distance from the navel to the head (C).
RHYTHM
Rhythm is another design service for establishing order. Rhythm is the regular occurrence of elements, in time or space.
BALANCE
Balance is the equilibrium among the constituent parts of a structure. It is also a visual quality. There are two types of balances, static and
dynamic.
Static balance the parts are equal in size, and located equally about a reference axis.
Dynamic balance the parts are of unequal size, and arranged about a reference axis so as to compensate for their differences. For
example a large window close to the centerline can be balanced by a smaller one at a greater distance on the other side.
A structure that has equilibrium among its constituent parts is considered to be in balance.
SYMMETRY
Symmetry is balanced arrangement of elements’ equally deployed on either side of central axis.
Symmetrical designs are found throughout nature. Throughout history symmetry has come to be associated with formality and authority, as
well as certainty.
Symmetry also requires a relatively uncomplicated building program. Hence, symmetry may not be practical for many structures.
LIGHT
Light is radiant energy that is perceived by the human eye.
Among design elements, daylight is one which a designer is particularly able to control. Not only does the quality of light change during the
day and from one day to another, but its intensity and color might vary considerably in different regions.
Architect must always be concerned with light for the aesthetic contribution it can make to designs.
COLOR
Color and light are inseparable; when we see a color, we are experiencing a sensation caused by radiation of a particular wave length of
light.
We respond emotionally to color as it has associations such as warmth, coolness, etc.
Color can also affect the perception of time, in green environments time seems to pass more slowly than in a red one. Color can also have
psychological effects. Red for example, is exciting where green is soothing. A blue environment is relaxing, a red one is stimulating and a
white environment leads to boredom and restlessness. Architects should be aware of colors as they affect behavior.
Color can:
Affect the perception of form
Affect human emotions.
Hide defects.
Not be distinguished in dim light as readily as in bright.
HUMAN ELEMENTS
Design is a human activity; it is performed by people for people. Therefore, an architect must develop sensitivity to people – to their senses,
habits, and feelings.
Senses – environmental messages are continuously communicated to our sense organs, and we respond to these messages continuously.
Of all the senses, vision is of the greatest concern to the designer. However, the other senses – hearing, smell, and touch are also
significant.
When we speak of hearing architecture, what we experience is the reflection or the reverberation of sound which gives us and impression of
size, shape and material (gothic churches for example).
Style – all societies develop a general consensus about what is acceptable. This applies to social behavior as well as to aesthetic judgment.
Although we are all individuals, we are also members of a society, and, therefore, we conform in most respects to socially accepted norms.
Preoccupation with style in design is both good and bad. On the positive side, style enables the designer to produce buildings that are
functional and attractive. In such cases, conforming to a style – that is, relying on conventionally accepted solutions helps produce building
that conform to accepted design standards.
On the other hand, the rigid acceptance of a standardized style can be overly restrictive, and may prevent innovation where it is needed, as
in a new type of building serving a new type of function.
Architectural design is a practical art concerned with buildings used by people. We should therefore be aware of some of the differences
which exist among peoples of varying cultures.
Responsible architects, therefore, must consider cultural diversity in solving design problems.
Beauty – a beautiful design must express order. It must also possess quality. It must be skillfully made from appropriate materials. It must
also be useful and practical, based on the function it serves. Beauty confirms our ideas of what is right, proper, and fit for the use of human
beings.
The purpose of a beautiful design is to enrich life.
Architectural Design – is the creative organization of forms which are developed to serve certain functional needs. Architecture combines
external form, internal space, materials, and structure into a unified whole.
Organizational concepts – architectural designs satisfy people’s needs in an efficient and comfortable way. The designer can determine the
proper system of organization when he determines what people would want to do in a building and how they will do it.
The organizational arrangements in any project are the key to successful function. Central locations are provided for activities used by the
majority of people.
The activities used by fewer people, or for specialized purposes, are placed toward the periphery (i.e. conference room might be in the center
of an office with smaller workstations on the perimeter).
Architects generally refer to a variety of standard forms that have become part of the vocabulary of design.
These forms are similar in nature to those of urban design and include:
The ring, the radial star, the axis, the constellation, and the grid. Each of these forms has particular functional implications. No system
guarantees good design, even if that system is based on traditional forms.
THE HUMAN DIMENSION
For over 200 years, the increasingly predominant form of human settlement in Western society has been the city. The greater majority of our
population lives in urbanized areas.
The simple reason for this is opportunity, primarily the opportunity to earn a living. Furthermore, the compensations include convenience,
privacy, and proximity to cultural institutions. Therefore we are willing to tolerate the imperfections of urban life.
The purpose of planning is to create an optimum environment for the widest range of human activities, our objective ought to be to create
designs which permit, even encourage, the widest diversity of human activities, designs which offer opportunity for social contact as well as
well individual privacy, sensory stimulation as well as restfulness.
Our designs should not prescribe, but rather allow. A proper design is one that is broadly inclusive of opportunity, rather than narrowly
exclusive.
BIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Cro-Magnon man, named after the area of France where the first remains were found, lived approximately 100,000 year ago, and was
biologically and mentally identical to man. Our biological and physical abilities were fully developed by 100, 000 years ago; however, our
cultural systems- our physical, environmental, and institutional systems – were not.
There are both healthful and unhealthful rural environments, as well as healthful and unhealthful urban ones. Children raised in either setting
may become either well developed or unhealthy human beings.
When we refer to the environment, we mean eve thing that surrounds us: physical, visual, social, etc.
As architects we deal with the physical environment and in doing so we influence all the other aspects of the environment as well.
PERCEPTUAL CONSIDERATIONS
There is a quality required of our physical environment that goes beyond function. That quality may be described as sensory stimulation. Just
as our bodies need food and exercise, our brain needs adequate sensory stimulation.
Diversity of sensory and perceptual experiences is vital to our well being.
There is a clear relationship between diversity of surroundings and mental capacity. Studies have shown that people try to avoid monotonous
environments. For example in NYC social scientist found that pedestrians preferred streets with diversity to ones that are not diverse.
People need and seek stimulation. For example, on a monotonous stretch of open highway, we tend to drive faster. This is a way of
compensating for lack of variety in the visual field.
Knowledge of how people react to their physical environment is extremely important; it is particularly helpful to be aware of the permanent
features in environments, as well as transitory.
Environmental perception is discontinuous, partial, and fragmentary. It involves all the senses.
Each person’s environment comprises numerous memories, experiences, smells, feelings, hopes, and dramas.
Each individual construct a mental picture of his or her environment which may be stable in overall form, but is forever changing in detail.
Thus they form a collective image, which Kevin Lynch as called the “image of the city”.
Urban legibility refers to the ease with which parts of the city can be recognized and organized into a coherent pattern. Legibility in the
environment is important because it is the basis of orientation. Total disorientation can produce anxiety, so maps, street signs, guide posts,
and other devices guide us around a modern city.
Individual environment images are a combination of both immediate sensation and memories of past experiences. A clear environmental
image provides a sense of emotional security, which aids in maintaining a harmonious relationship between an individual and his
environment.
Imageability is the quality of a place which is clearly recognized and is understandable as a physical environment. For example, San
Francisco, NYC, and Paris can be considered imaginable cities.
Kevin Lynch reports findings based upon data gathered in Boston, Jersey City, and Los Angeles.
He asked his subjects to draw a sketch map of their city, to give detailed descriptions of certain routes such as the path from work to home,
and to list the most distinctive and vivid elements of their respective cities. Upon comparing these data, he identified different elements that
seemed common across three different cities.
Kevin Lynch recognized elements for structuring mental images of the environment, he found that five categories of features can be used to
describe and analyze cognitive maps: paths, edges, districts, nodes, and landmarks.
Paths are the routes of circulation along which people move.
Every area has a network of major and minor routes such as streets, foot paths, transit lines, railroads, and rivers. These are the
predominant elements of most of our environmental images, since other elements are arranged along or related to paths.
Districts are sections of the environment having an identifying character.
A district may be a residential neighborhood, a suburb, a college campus, or an industrial area. Many people structure their city by
districts, which often become dominant elements of their mental images.
Edges are the boundaries, terminations, or separations between districts.
When two districts are joined at an edge, it forms a “seam”. Edges may be railroad lines, shore lines, a wall of buildings, or a
highway. A park or pedestrian boulevard may be thought of as a “seam” when it joins two districts.
Landmarks are prominent visual features which act as points of reference.
They may be large and visible at great distances, such as a skyscraper or even a mountain. Other landmarks may be small and
meant to be viewed close up – a statue, a fountain, a sign, or a tree. Landmarks help to identify an area and so serve to orient
people.
Nodes are centers of activity. They are types of landmarks, distinguished by their function.
Nodes may be junctions, such as a square or a plaza. They may be the core of a district, such as a civic center, a financial district,
or an entertainment area.
These elements of orientation and identity are not separate; they exist as mixtures and overlaps, such as an edge that is also a path or a
node that is also a landmark.
These elements are the basic material of environmental images.
They are the structuring elements of city form, and they are quite important in the analysis of the environment.
A large city needs large, working, organizing systems, such as highways, public transit, or utility systems.
The activities which such systems support are varied and juxtaposed. That is what makes a city workable yet complex.
At the turn of the 20th century French architect Tony Garnier, in his Cite Industrielle, suggested the separation of work from housing. Based
on the nature of industry at that time, Garnier designed a model industrial city, in which such separation was appropriate. In our present era
of clean industries, such as electronics extreme separation may not be needed and often desirable.
Another contribution of Lunch’s studies was the writings about the early recollection of those elements of the early childhood environment
which produced the deepest impressions.
Most subjects were keenly aware of ground surfaces.
Lawns were particularly important.
There was also a strong and pleasant memory of materials. Foliage, color, topography, and elements contributing to environmental
the quality or state of being orderly were noted.
Children prefer openness, and spaciousness, and a dislike of crowding.
The majority preferred suburban living and several expressed intense dislike of the city.
Most admitted to the excitement of central urban areas.
Almost all were aware of play and, without exception, stated a preference for playing elsewhere than in conventional playgrounds.
It is clear that most responded to variety, with the opportunity for adventure. A child’s perceptions and memories, and his or her emotional
responses to those experiences, may serve as a useful information resource for design.
DEMOGRAPHIC CONSIDERATIONS
The statistical study of human populations is called demography and includes information on birth, death, marriage, age, sex, education
level, length of schooling, family size, etc.
The study of population goes back to ancient times. In modern times the means for gathering demographic information is via implementing of
the census, a periodic listing of the number of people, their conditions of living, and their resources.
The Romans undertook a census periodically throughout their colonies for purposes of registering adult males and their property for tax
purposes, military obligations, and political status.
In the United States, systematic census-taking began in 1790 and has continued ever since at 10 year intervals.
In our days, more and more people live in urbanized areas at densities far exceeding those in rural areas. But urban densities themselves
are actually declining, because urbanized areas are becoming larger. It is important to distinguish between population density and population
size.
Density refers to as the number of people per unit of area. (I.e. in NYC 100,000 persons per square mile).
Population size refers to the actual number of persons in a given location, without regard to density.
For example, a small town may have a high density if building sites are small and buildings are tall. Conversely, suburbs may have low
density but contain a large population distributed over and extensive area.
High density does not imply crowding. And is therefore not itself bad.
SOCIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Sociology furnishes numerous perspectives for understanding human society, many of which are relevant to the work of environmental
design.
One perspective of framework is to describe two fundamental social groupings, namely, the primary social group and the secondary social
group.
The primary social group is that group of persons with whom one has the most intimate and greatest variety of social interactions. Family and
immediate friends constitute that group. It is also the group which one has the longest association.
The secondary group is that group with which one has less intimate no more specialized interactions, such as one’s work or professional
group. In the case of office of factory workers, it is one’s fellow workers. In the case of a school, it is one’s classmates. For many it is one’s
church congregation.
Both groups are necessary for one’s psychological health.
The association with one’s primary group helps a person develop as a full individual (i.e. develop emotional perspectives).
The association with one’s secondary group allows one to give to the larger society (i.e. team play), which is equally essential to a sense of
self worth.
Each individual is said to live in two social worlds, which are independent of each other. In the creation of new communities, one method of
creating a “sense of belonging” is to establish various clubs or associations, modeled around recreational interests, such as theater, cycling,
hiking, etc. These are secondary group activities, whose purpose is to provide a diversity of primary groups (i.e. families).
PRIMARY, SECONDARY, AND TERTIARY WORK GROUPS
Not to be confused with the two main social groups; there is a there part grouping whose distinctions are based on one’s work, avocation, or
profession.
Primary work group is that one which deals with resources; it includes miners, lumbermen, fishermen, farmers, and cattlemen.
Secondary work group is that one which takes the raw materials produced by the primary work group and converts them into usable
products. It includes food processors, construction and factory workers at all level of skill.
The third work group is one that manages and services society and its industries. It includes professional of all sorts, mangers, salespeople,
teachers, and a broad range of people who provide services of all kinds – repair, maintenance, delivery, communication, etc.
More and more people are living in cities today.
In developed societies, like the United States and Europe, the reason is that production efficiency has resulted in fewer people being required
to produce the food products needed by society.
At the same time, more and more people provide services. Thus, the large city is the result of fewer people needed on farms and factories.
Architects design places to accommodate the primary-secondary social needs of large number of people.
For example, few work places should be without ay care facilities. The elderly (often alone, without their traditional family to care for them)
must be located within communities where they have daily association with a viable and stimulating “secondary group.”
All individuals in a city, or rural areas, develop “Use network” which is a physical pattern of places which they use for residence, for work, for
recreation, and for cultivation. For each individual this differs.
A well designed city should provide places of residence of many kinds, similarly varied places of work, of culture, of commerce, of services,
of leisure, and of learning – all which are accessible by systems of convenient transportation.
HUMAN FACTORS: RESEARCH, DESIGN, AND BEHAVIOR
The most ancient and useful lessons for conducting human affairs are embodied in the many work of wisdom of the world’s cultures. They
are found in religious practices.
Modern times have examined human behavior more systematically, and more narrowly. It has been necessary to study the work process of
factories in relation to human operations, for reasons of efficiency.
The system of studying the factory environment in order to improve productivity of an individual’s physical effort has been called “time and
motion” studies.
As a result of such studies, one recent innovation is to organize individuals as small teams, in which each person task is conducted in view of
all the others. Another has been to alternate tasks, to prevent boredom.
A whole field of behavioral information has grown up, and it has many applications.
For example, ergonomics deals with the design that is based on mechanics of the human body and its various senses.
Office design, and office work station has been improved by design based on human factors.
This work, based on human dimensions also draws on an understanding of color, its affects as well as appropriate level of lighting.
The design of large and complex places involving large volumes of human movement is dependent on the understanding of human
behavioral characteristics (i.e. airport design – legible path and graphics).
In all architectural design, the prime concern is the human being and his or her senses and physical mechanics.
The term “chance encounter” refers to the phenomenon where spontaneous contacts are encouraged in order to achieve greater stimulation
and thereby improve individual creativity.
An example can be found among research laboratory members, the more spontaneous contacts a researcher has with fellow workers, the
more he or she is stimulated mentally – by sharing and explaining the work being done, by posing questions, by expressing ideas of doubt,
etc. (similar situation in architectural studio, open office planning…).
An example of ways to increase the phenomenon of “chance encounter” while designing a research laboratory includes:
Movement and public places (corridors, intersection, and small gathering places like vending areas) are essential to chance
encounters. Seating where provided should be arranged in a sociopetal way. A corridor should be though of as a pedestrian street.
Horizontal (same floor) laboratory arrangement is preferable to multi floor. The fewer the floors the more contact.
When horizontal distances exceed 200 to 300 feet in length, encounter tends to reduce dramatically; therefore, a large laboratory
should be designed as a campus or incremental system, with the design connections being social links.
LAND ANALYSIS
Land has always been a precious resource, for the simple reason that it is limited in amount.
Man has damaged (through poorly planned development) and, therefore in order to prevent this we must plan for the optimum use of land.
The architect must seek ways to establish a relationship between a proposed development on a site and the existing character of the
neighborhood around the site, considering a building and its site as a unity.
Land was first owned communally, establishing the precedent for leading states to own land.
In medieval times, land ownership was in the hands of few people. Under the practice of primogeniture (inheritance to eldest son) land
passed on and therefore limited the diffusion of land ownership.
In 1066, the Normans conquered England and introduced a system under which ownership of land was vested in the king, who granted
parcels of land to nobles in return for loyalty, military support, and financial support.
This system of medieval character relating to land ownership was gradually eliminated in England, and has evolved into the system of “fee
simple” ownership.
Fee simple ownership implies that a parcel of land can be transferred by its owner as he pleased.
Some land in England, remains the property of the Crown, or the public, but its use can be obtained by leasing.
Such leasehold property may be held by the lessee for a period of up to 99 years, after which time it reverts back to the Crown.
Initially land in America was controlled by colonizing companies, publicly franchised and privately financed.
After the Revolution, the colonial lands were placed under the authority of the respective states.
Individuals who had owned their lands under the Crown now owned it under established states.
The land gained from the British, and later the French, which had not been under the control of a colony, became public domain, under the
control of the government.
The original public domain was known as the Northwest Territory, because it was northwest of the Ohio River.
The land of the Louisiana Purchase was purchased from the French during the Napoleonic Wars.
Land was also obtained from Spain and Mexico.
Most of this land has been since sold or deeded to individuals; some was transferred to states and municipalities for public use. Some land
was given to veterans for their service, and a large amount was granted to universities and other educational institutions.
A large amount of public land was transferred to private ownership through the Homestead Act, passed by Congress in 1862. 160 acres of
land were given, free, to anyone who built a house and lived there for five years.
About one third of the nation’s area still remains as public land. The policy of the federal government today, for the land of public domain, is a
combination of conservation and resource extraction.
In the 19th and 20th century building and development has grown, therefore land is scarce and easily damaged resource. And so we have
developed a number of methods for the proper and responsible use of land; including, planning, resource management, and land use
regulations.
CATCHMENT AREAS
The term “catchment” means the geographic area from which the participants are drawn. For example, a catchement may comprise the are
within which the customers of a supermarket reside.
A given parcel of land may be located within numerous catchments simultaneously – some large, some small – each catchement containing
a specific class of participants in a particular activity.
Catchment areas may be distinctly defined by physical boundaries, or the boundaries may be indistinct.
The size and shape of a catchment may be drawn with respect to a particular function or population.
Catchement boundaries may be determined by geographic features. Two neighborhoods, for example, may be separated by a physical
feature such as a railroad or a waterway.
Catchement areas may also be termed “market areas”, “trade areas”, or “tributary areas”.
A catchement area can come into existence, or grow, as a result of population growth in an area or as a result of a municipal development
program – its size can vary and is not fixed.
School districts are catchements serving students residing within established boundaries.
Recreation facilities can also form a catchement areas.
A catchement area may be local, regional, or national (i.e. Disneyland, draws visitors from Los Angeles, Orange Counties, along with other
visitors out of state.).
Zoning ordinances help to create and preserve catchement areas by specifying which land uses are permitted.
LAND USE AND LAND VALUE
The land use depends on its potential role in the catchement area, its location, its topography, and its cost.
Additional factors contributing to land value are:
Topography.
Access to land.
Zoning.
Utilities.
Nearby uses.
Land can be placed into categories of potential use:
Natural resources.
Agricultural.
Residential.
Commercial.
Industrial.
Governmental.
Institutional.
Open space / conservation.
Whether land is vacant or improved, it is valued in relation to the type of use which will yield the most return; thereby location of property is
important (as use is governed by zoning which is a variable of location).
There are 4 ways to determine value of land:
Comparison method or market data approach – comparing identical parcel of land.
Residual method or income approach method – value may be determined by estimating the potential income from site
improvements.
Allocation method – value of land may be estimated by deducting the value of the site improvement from the total value of the
property (including building).
Development method – value of land may be determined by estimating developmental costs of a parcel and determining sale price
of individual lots.
To summarize the four methods, the comparison method of determining land value is applicable to all classes of land. If proper data is
available, this is the most accurate method.
The residual, allocation, and development methods are used when data for comparable parcels is not available.
OVERIMPROVEMENT AND UNDERIMPROVEMENT
The concept of over improvement or under improvement is related to highest and best use.
The term under improvement refers to a property which is not being used to its highest and best use. For example, an owner might build a
structure which produces substantially less income than could be obtained with a better, larger, or different building.
Such an under improvement will reduce the value of the property, because it is not being put to its “highest and best use.”
The term over improvement means that the cost of improvement exceeds potential revenue or income.
In addition to determining the cost of land, other factors must be analyzed:
Suitability
Access
Circulation
Variety
Adaptability
Amenities
SURVEYS
Surveys describe the location, form and boundaries of land. They also describe special features of a site which are pertinent to site
development and building design. There are different types:
Preliminary survey – provide basic information for preparation of building plans.
Construction survey – describes precise condition of the site and adjacent structures, and establishes base lines, offsets, and
bench marks. (i.e. stakeout survey).
Possession survey – made after the completion of the construction to record completed development. (i.e. final survey).
Land surveys are of two types, geodetic and plane.
Geodetic surveying take into consideration the spherical shape of the earth, thus they describe large land areas with great precision.
Plane surveying assumes that the earth is a flat plane. Used for most site development work.
Among the various kinds of plane surveying are:
Land survey – general measurement and description of land where building is sought.
Topographic survey – counter lines are shown to indicate the topography and elevations.
In land surveying, distances between points are measured (in feet and decimals) on a horizontal plane. Vertical distances, or elevation is
expressed with reference to distance above sea level or some other established point of reference.
TOPOGRAPHY
Topography refers to the surface features of an area. The change of elevation between two adjacent contours is called the contour interval.
Ground slope is extremely important in determining site utilization.
A convenient way to measure ground slope is by percentages.
If <H> is horizontal distance & If <V> is vertical distance then, <g> which is grade is
g = V / H (100)
For example 50% slope refers to a vertical dimension of 1 ft and a horizontal dimension of 2 ft.
(for every 1 ft rise, 2 ft horizontal).
General Grades:
Fewer than 4% are considered flat.
Less than 4’ per 100’ horizontal
All activities
Between 4% and 10 % are moderate
4’ -10’ per 100’ horizontal
Require effort to
Climb or descend
Between 10 % and 50 % are steep
10’-50’ per 100’ horizontal
Steep, may be
Usable for limited
Activity only
Over 50% are very steep
50’-100’ per 100’ horizontal
subject to soil
Erosion
Handicapped ramp – for every 1’ vertical 12’ horizontal is required, 1/12 (100) = 8.3 %
Generally, roads should not exceed a 10% slope. A 15 % slope (15’ per 100’ horizontal) approached the limit a vehicle can climb
for a sustained period of time.
Parking lot areas should not exceed 5% slope (5’ per 100’ horizontal).
Grass areas should not exceed 25% slope (25’ per 100’ horizontal).
Streets, Paved Drives should not exceed 10% slope (10’ per 100’ horizontal).
Planted areas should have at least 1% slope (1’ per 100’ horizontal).
Cost of regarding may be excessive, and in general change in natural topography should be kept to a minimum. If grading is required,
however, the amount of cutting should approximately equal the amount of filling.
LAND PROBLEMS
Thorough land analysis must consider the following:
Soil.
Rock.
Ground water.
Surface soil.
Slopes.
Flood hazards.
In analyzing earthwork and foundations, the subsurface material and the presence of water are of fundamental importance. Subsurface
conditions determine excavation procedures.
Water table is defined by the level at which water is present below ground surface.
When water table is located less than six feet below land surface, excavation, utilities, and underground structures will require special
attention, since most excavations are deeper.
If possible, buildings should not penetrate the water table level.
If excavating below the water table, concrete slabs are subject to seepage as a result of capillary action. Other issues include the formation
of hydrostatic pressure on foundation walls.
Other subsurface conditions also pose potential problems for development and require detailed investigations. These include:
Rock formations close to the surface of the ground.
Presence of underground streams.
Presence of soft clay.
Fine water-bearing sand or loose silt.
Evidence of slides or sinking earth.
Areas of recent fills such as garbage dumps.
Presence of swamps or peat.
SOILS
Soil is the pulverized upper mantle of the earth, formed from rock and plant remains through the action of weather and organic processes.
There are 4 levels of soils:
Level A – Topsoil, essential for growth of plants and takes a long time to develop.
Level B – Minerals, it lies below the plants roots and contain minerals, it can support life.
Level C – Weathered and fractured rock with little biological activity.
Level D – Solid Bedrock.
Some conditions of geology and soil which scientifically affect the way in which land may be used and ways to deal with surface or
subsurface conditions:
A high water table requires that construction excavation be braced and kept dry by pumping. Basements must be waterproofed and
walls must be designed to resist hydrostatic pressure.
Construction of buildings over underground streams require special provisions and should be avoided.
Soft clays, loose silts, and soils which are unstable when wet or frozen may require deeper foundations or piles.
If power equipment is inadequate for excavation of bedrock, explosives may be required.
Existing surface drainage courses must remain unless redirected underground by means of a culvert or channels but water must
never be restricted.
The presence of inappropriate fill, swamps, or peat may require removal and replacement with an appropriate substitute fill.
Otherwise piles must extend through to bearing soils.
Evidence of slides, sinking, or faulting may restrict sitting of structures, or even render the land unsuitable for construction.
In many jurisdictions, it is necessary to retain the precipitation falling on the site, rainfall, in holding ponds, so that runoff water can be
released slowly, preventing downstream flooding.
Runoff refers to that portion of rainwater which is not absorbed in the ground. Must be collected in a system of surface and sub surface
drains.
LANDSCAPING
Landscaping completes, links, and harmonizes the connections between buildings, open spaces, natural features, and human beings.
Landscape architect combines earth, rock, water, plants, and other details to develop open spaces to their maximum potential. In contrast to
architectural space, site space is larger, and looser in form.
Exterior space is usually passive (inactive) and intended for exterior circulation, recreation and quite enjoyment. Much of it has no assigned
usage other than complementary relief.
The landscape architect should consider climate, light, weather, orientation, scale, and the activities which are to take place on the site.
Bright light sharpens and emphasizes details. Shadows define surfaces.
Twilight (the light from the sky between full night and sunrise or between sunset and full night produced by diffusion of sunlight through the
atmosphere and its dust) creates unifying composition.
Weather changes the appearance of and outdoor space considerably.
Plants are one of the fundamental landscape materials for site enhancement.
Trees and plants require many years to mature; therefore the planner must exercise great care in preserving existing vegetation on a site.
Deciduous trees are full of leaves in the summer but empty in the winter. (deci = two).
Proper and intelligent planting and landscape design can reduce the effects of climate in the following ways:
Trees may be used to screen winds.
Conifers (cone shaped mostly evergreens) are more suitable for the control of winter winds than deciduous trees (because of their
wider shape).
Trees can be used to direct wind flow, and to increase ventilation in desired areas.
Vegetation, particularly needle leafed trees, captures moisture, reduce fog, and thus increase amount of sunlight reaching the
ground.
Deciduous trees screen out direct sunlight in the summer while allowing it to pass in the winter.
Planted areas are cooler during hot days and have less heat loss during the night.
Vegetation may absorb as much as 90 percent of the light energy that falls upon it and it can reduce wind by speed to less than 10 percent. It
can reduce daytime temperatures by as much as 15 degrees. Grass arrears have low albedo and high conductivity.
CLIMATE
Climate is one of the most influential factors in site development. Climate analysis can be examined at two levels: macroclimate and
microclimate.
Macroclimate refers to the general climate of the region.
Microclimate refers to the local conditions surrounding the site modified by the type of vegetation, elevation, slope, the presence or absence
of water, wind velocity and direction, and man-made structures. (Micro-small)
In site planning and design, information on both macroclimate and microclimate for all seasons, should be obtained and analyzed.
This information helps to determine the orientation of buildings, their protection or exposure sun and wind, fenestration, building materials,
heating and cooling, and the location and selection of plant material.
Aesthetics and appearance is also influenced by these findings. Natural light establishes the conditions under which a building’s mass,
profile, colors, details, and materials are seen.
For example, warm colors are best seen in bright sunlight, and cool colors in overcast light, or northern light which contains more blue.
The macroclimate of an area depends on:
Site Latitude.
The site’s elevation.
Proximity to body of water.
All life depend on the sun, thus, a primary determinant of the climate in a particular location is the amount of solar energy it receives, which
has to do with it’s location with relation to the equator (latitude). Longitude has unimportant effect on solar energy.
Factors which influence climate (macroclimate):
Site elevation – as the elevation increases, the temperature decreases, about 1 degree per 300 feet of height. This is because the
thinner air of the higher altitude is not able to hold as much heat as the denser air of lower attitudes.
The proximity of bodies of water – water is much slower to rise or fall in temperature in comparison to land, and does not reach
extreme high or low temperatures that are reordered on land. The effect of bodies of water is to reduce temperature extremes,
both daily and seasonal.
This moderating influence increases as the size of the body of water increases. Thus, island and coastal areas usually have a more
constant and moderate climate than do inland areas at same latitude.
Prevailing winds also influence climate. The prevailing southerly winds (winds from the south) of the southeastern part of the
country carry moisture and warm air from the Gulf of Mexico into the plains states, altering their climate. Particularly in the summer,
when these areas are quite humid. Similarly, during the winter, cold Arctic air from the north makes the same central plains states
quite cold. Such air is cold, dry and clear.
Climate is also influenced by ocean currents.
Mountain barriers influence climate by forcing prevailing winds to rise. The air cools as it raises, clouds form, and rain falls.
This phenomenon has several factors involved, such as the strength and regularity of winds, altitude, sunlight, soil and vegetation
combinations, etc.
Area in front of mountain (windward) is wetter and colder than the leeward side where the climate is dryer and warmer.
The range of daily and seasonal temperatures is also dependant on weather the sky is clear or cloudy. Clouds are as blankets, on
a cloudy day less solar radiation is received during the day, and less is lost at night. As a result there is a narrow temperature
change on a cloudy day.
There are four zones of climates:
Cool Zone.
Temperate Zone.
Arid Zone.
Tropical Zone.
Each has its own significant implication on the intended use of a land area. See class notes.
Microclimate of an area should be studied individually as it will impact on sitting of a project.
To learn about the microclimate, the architect should walk the site and study the following:
Presence of indigenous plant material, as well as those features that is inherent to the particular site – elevation, land forms, slope,
orientation, bodies of water, and structures.
Another way to learn about an area is to study the climate influenced details of indigenous architecture, such as roof slopes and
overhangs, window orientation, planting, etc. (i.e. existing conditions).
Physical location of site in relation to sun exposures.
Factors of sun radiation:
Altitude is expressed as the angle of elevation measured between the sun and the horizon. In the summer it is a larger angle
and therefore it is more perpendicular, hence more radiation is received.
This also explains why the more southerly latitudes are warmer than those of the northerly; the sun’s angle with the horizon is
higher in the south.
Duration of exposures to sun.
In the northern hemisphere, the hours of sunlight are greater in summer than in the winter.
Summer solstice – occurs on 6/ 21 and is the day that has maximum hours of sunlight.
Winter solstice – occurs on 12/21 and is the day that has minimum hours of sunlight.
Equinox - Summer equinox occurs 3/21 and winter equinox occurs 9/21. A day when the hours of sunlight equal the
hours of darkness.
The slope of a site also affects the amount of solar energy it receives.
Since the sun’s path is inclined southerly in the northern hemisphere, the angle between the ground surface and the
direction of the sun’s rays is greater if the ground slopes to the south than if it is level. Hence, south sloping site receive
more radiation than north sloping sites.
The amount of solar radiation received on a site is a function of the angle between the ground surface and the direction
of the sun’s rays. The more perpendicular the rays, the greater the amount of solar radiation received. This is the reason
for seasonal variations.
Topography which affects the microclimate in a number of ways;
The wind velocity at the top of the hill (crest) is 20 percent greater than on flat, influenced by the steepness of the sloe and
wind direction.
Area in front of mountain (windward) is wetter and colder than the leeward side where the climate is dryer and warmer. Also,
bottom wind velocity there is minimal (the so-called “wind shadow”).
Winds, weather an element of the macroclimate as a whole or the microclimate, are an important characteristics of a site.
Winds can make a site very unpleasant and can have a cooling affect. This is referred to as the “wind chill factor.”
Bodies of water moderate the microclimate; a body of water is usually warmer at night and cooler during the day than land adjacent
to it. Same effect as oceans moderating the macroclimate.
Factors of prevailing winds during the various seasons will have direct affect on energy consumption. (i.e. cooling in summer,
heating in winter). It is wise to plan site developments that admit cooling summer breezes while blocking winter winds.
Site that are adjacent to body of water enjoy a constant breeze. (Due to difference in temperature).
Ground surface material – has a direct affect on the microclimate. Heat energy is absorbed and released later when the
temperature drops.
Albedo – is a measure of reflectivity.
Conductivity – refers to material’s ability to absorb.
Grass areas (soft landscaping) have low abedo levels (they reflect less) and high conductivity (absorb) and therefore are
cooler than nearby paved areas (hard landscaping).
Urban environment (NY City) lacking much planted areas are warmer.
Trees – have a moderating affect on the microclimate, they help to maintain a stable, pleasant microclimate, clean air, and a
naturally pleasing environment by the following:
Rows of trees act as windbreaker, reducing wind speed on a downhill by one half or more.
The wind-chill factor can be dramatically reduced (i.e. less wind).
Trees block the direct radiation of the sun, as well as glare. Deciduous trees that shed their leaves in the winter provide an
excellent way of blocking summer sun and letting in winter sun and light.
Trees and plants can filter the air by absorbing dust, dirt and other pollutants.
Plants absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen in photosynthesis. The air in a forest for example has a natural freshness
that can not be duplicated.
CLIMATIC CONSIDERATIONS
Physical well being as mental health is related to climate. The closer the microclimate is to the comfort zone, the higher the level of health
and energy (temperate zone climates).
Architects must be aware of the factors influencing human comfort which are:
Temperature – comfort zone ranges between:
63-71 Degrees in winter,
66-75 Degrees in summer.
Humidity – comfortable humidity ranges from:
30 to 60 percent.
75 percent relative humidity is uncomfortable regardless of temperature level.
Air movement – makes people more comfortable, by causing a cooling sensation. The greater the speed of air movement the
greater the cooling effect.
Air movement of 50 feet per minute - not noticed.
Air movement of 50 – 100 feet per minute – pleasant.
Air movement of 100 – 200 feet per minute – pleasant and noticeable.
Air movement of 200 -300 feet per minute – drafty.
Air movement of 300 and more – uncomfortable.
Solar radiation – solar radiation and sun has a direct effect on human behavior.
Air pollution – natural weather action can magnify the effects of man-made pollution. Such action is the temperature inversion
phenomenon.
This occurs because air temperature at the ground level is lower than above.
It becomes warmer as we go higher. At some point (temperature inversion point), this changes,
and the air becomes cooler as we continue higher.
The cooler air at the ground is heavier than the air above (blanket) and can not move upward, trapping pollutants; they linger over
the city in the form of smog (smoke and gases).
An increased public awareness tends to control air pollution but can not eliminate it entirely.
NOISE
Noise is defined as unwanted sound. The sound (sonic) within a building is a primary design concern. External noise is more difficult to
control.
Noise can be confined to its place of origin by:
Careful acoustical design.
Absorptive insulation.
Isolation devices.
Noise levels are measure in decibels, on a logarithmic scale with values between 1 (threshold of hearing) and 140 (threshold of pain).
One decibel is the smallest difference that the human ear can detect.
Generic Noise Range:
10 – 60
60
30
70
80 – 90
90 – 130
140
Decibels
Decibels
Decibels
Decibels
Decibels
Decibels
Decibels
Whisper to comfortable conversation.
Normal conversation.
Recommended for Sleep or Study.
Normal Office Conversation.
High level, safety to hear is jeopardized.
Dangerous level and can case damage.
Threshold of pain.
Noise can attribute to stress, especially when it disrupts sleep. Apartment dwellers are subject to noise invasion from outside sources (traffic,
nearby apartments, corridors, elevators).
Ways to deal with noise:
Sound level diminished with distance, doubling the distance reduces the sound intensity to ¼ (1:6).
Gusty winds reduce the effect of sounds by adding white noises which are a blend of all frequencies. Thus, wind sound minimized
the effects of traffic noise.
Trees thin out high frequency noises.
Building solid barriers, such as earth, walls, and structures.
In general, noise can be controlled either by locating activities at some distance from the noise source, or by placing physical barriers
between the noise and planned activity.
GLARE
Glare is a common environmental problem that can be controlled by careful planning.
Glare occurs when there are two sources of illumination of extremely different intensities, such as very light against very dark.
Glare is not a result of too much light, but rather of too much contrast.
Some structures create problems of glare, looking out from a south window facing a lake is an example. While consideration must be given to
the desirable aspects of solar radiation, glare must also be dealt with.
Exterior sun control devices such as overhangs, fins, or louvers are effective in reducing glare and heat.
ECOLOGY
Ecology is the science of the patterns of relations between a community or organism and its environment, the community comprising all the
living animals and plans occupying a given area.
Ecology is a term relatively new in environmental planning however an ecological approach to planning goes well back into history.
In general, the environment should be altered as little as possible. Grading should be minimal, natural drainage patterns left intact, and points
of interest, left undisturbed.
MOVEMENT AND UTILITY SYSTEMS
The usefulness of any parcel of land, whether urban, suburban, or rural, depends on the existence of adequate roads and utility system to
serve it.
Land is useless for development it is not readily accessible, or if t cannot be serviced by the various required utilities.
A primary consideration in the planning of the use of the site includes the adequacy of circulation access and utility services.
Circulation access includes: pedestrian, vehicular, and public transit movement systems. Utility services include water, sewer, gas, electricity,
and communication systems.
As the amount of vehicular or pedestrian flow increases, the need to organize and define the channels of flow also increase. Channels that
carry large volumes over greater distances are often physically separated from the region served. Expressway, freeways, and railroads are
examples of this separation.
Urban circulation must utilize all possible means of transport available: individual auto, public transit, and truck or rail.
The planner must determine the best possible system for a given set of conditions; however, in all cases, the system selected must be
compatible with the overall pattern of circulation of the surrounding region.
The forms of circulation networks have evolved as:
Grid
Radial
Linear
Curvilinear
Grid – the grid system consists of equally spaced streets or roads which are perpendicular to each other. This is used because of its
regularity, simplicity, and convenience.
The grid system simplifies the subdivision of land for both agricultural and urban use, as well as providing a sense of orientation, if
it is not used too extensively and if it contains sufficient orienting landmarks.
Well suited for level ground.
Grids can be used for complex distributions of flow, provided hierarchy of flow channels is established. Traffic can be increased in
some channels, while decreasing in others.
Grid does not have to consist of straight lines, nor need it enclose blocks of equal shapes ad sizes.
Grid can provide efficiency of movement and ease of orientation without necessarily being monotonous or ignoring the topography
of an area.
A Grid looses its efficiency when its channels become congested. Before this occurs, an expressway or freeway system is
introduced, relieving local streets of high speed thorough traffic.
Radial – the radial system directs flow to or from a common center, with straight channels of circulation radiating from this center point.
Radial systems are the patterns that circulation routes assume as cities grow outward radialy from small settlements.
Congestion grows as radial routes converge at center. To avoid this, a series of bypasses can be introduced (beltways).
Linear – the linear system of circulation connect flow between two points, either along a single line or along a series of parallel lines.
Various activities are located along the linear route.
In theory, the shortest time to get from one point to another, however congestion is an issue.
Other disadvantage, no focal point is created, and the numerous off-on movements will impede the smooth flow of traffic.
Linear route of circulation is useful where development is restricted by natural topography (i.e. narrow valley).
Linear routes are most often referred to as “strip commercial” where retail stores are located; they are a common outgrowth of
urban expansion into the developing suburban countryside.
Curvilinear – the curvilinear system responds to the topography of land and aligns with natural contours.
Desirable form at small scale, and helps in reduction of traffic speeds.
Harmonizes with the natural surroundings.
Curvilinear system can also be used in planned residential developments PUD’s to create interesting streets, better views, and
adaptability to topographic changes.
VEHICULAR CIRCULATION
The planner must be aware of the problems in gaining convenient and safe access to a site in relation to site use. For example, the
placement of a regional shopping mall in the heart of a residential development would place a burden on the local streets.
An understanding of the classification and patterns or urban roadways is essential.
The basic categories of traffic arteries are:
Freeways – Expressway - Motorways.
Arterial Streets - Highways.
Collector - Distributor Streets.
Local Streets.
Freeways – (expressways) are designed to allow movement of large volumes of traffic between, around, or through urban centers.
Movement is at greater speed because access and egress are limited and occur at greater intervals. Crossings are handled by means of
underpass or overpass and eliminating all grade intersection. Intersections (off-on ramps) are approx. ½ to one mile apart.
Arterial Streets or highways are continuous channels that connect with expressways (at exits from expressways). These are typically two or
three lanes wide in each direction and parking is not allowed, direct access to adjacent commercial is restricted while residential access is
provided. Traffic is controlled by traffic signs. Intersections are at least 800 feet apart.
Collector – Distributor Streets serve as transitional channels between local access to a neighborhood and arterial channels. These are
sometimes discontinuous to prevent through traffic (which reduce speed). Curbside parking is allowed, but at limited times. Intersections with
Arterial Street are handled with traffic lights, and local streets intersections may only have stop signs.
Local Streets – provide access to low intensity uses in front of them. Loops, cul-de-sacs, are a typical form. They allow unrestricted
pedestrian use and speeds are kept to a minimum.
Vehicular traffic flows in sequential order, from low to high intensity:
Local Streets Collector, Distributor Streets Arterial, Highways Freeways, Expressways.
Design Criteria of Streets:
The paved vehicular right of way (property line to property line) slopes from a high point at the center (crown) at 1/8 to 1/2 inch per
foot for positive drainage.
Streets with heavier traffic are designed with a six inch curb and gutter.
Minor residential streets might be designed with “roll curbs” that are four inches high or simple gravel shoulders flanked by narrow
drainage devices.
Road paving consist of: concrete, asphaltic concrete, gravel, decomposed granite, stabilized soil, and graded compacted earth
shaped for drainage.
Street widths are determined by the number of traffic lanes, typical lane is 11 to 12 feet. A typical two lane highway or arterial
street, allowing nine feet for shoulders is about 40 feet.
Parking lanes are 8 feet wide for parallel parking and 16 feet to 20 feet for perpendicular or angled parking.
Planting strip to divide lanes must be at least 4 feet wide if ground cover material only is provided and 7 feet wide if trees are to be
planted.
Paving of sidewalk might extend to the curb line to allow for maximum pedestrian use of sidewalk.
Road alignment must be designed to conform to the natural topography of the area, all route patterns require variations in grade to
allow for integration into topography and drainage.
A hypothetical center line is used as a reference in describing the alignment of a road. Roads consist of straight sections called
“tangents” and curves.
Road design is important factor in order to achieve safety, efficiency and visual interest. Factor to consider are:
Two curves in the same direction should be separated by a tangent distance of 200 feet.
Two curves in opposite direction should be separated by a tangent distance of 100 feet.
Acute angle intersections (less than 80 degrees) should be avoided because it limits driver visibility and hard to handle.
Offset intersection should be avoided as movements in those intersections are difficult.
The length of a cul-de-sac should not exceed 400 feet. Minimum turnaround at the end should be 80 feet in diameter and free of
parking to allow for fire department trucks.
Curb radii at minor street intersection should be 12 feet minimum and 50 feet minimum at major streets to allow for ease of turning.
Volume of vehicular traffic is defined as number of cars per lane per hour. When the intersection volume exceeds 750 cars per
hour, traffic singles are used.
Grade separation, are the most expensive and space consuming intersections, they include: the cloverleaf, the direct left turn
interchange and the diamond intersections. The critical design elements for these intersections are the ramp grades, turning radii,
and length of acceleration and deceleration ramps.
Parking constitutes a major land use in itself. Some considerations:
The location of a parking area should be given a consideration, a desirable arrangement is to locate the on site approach drive
between the building and the parking area providing a clear view of the building entrance.
Safety and distribution of traffic is a consideration of parking lot design especially for parking areas of large shopping centers. On
site loop distributor collector drive is developed often termed “cartridge roads” are used to disperse and receive cars one at a time.
Parking areas should be designed to allow for the largest permitted vehicle. (i.e. bus, etc.)
All parking areas must provide clearly marked reserved parking for handicapped persons. These must be located near building
entrance and designed to allow unimpeded movement by handicapped persons. Number and dimensions are specified by code.
Parking stalls should be of a minimum of 8’-4”, (8’-6”), (this allows for 20” clearance between full size cars when centered in the
lane). 18’-20’ is the general length.
Angled parking (4o degrees or less) may lead to reduction in stall width.
Parking aisles widths are a function of the maneuvering space required to get in and out of the stalls.
Aisle serving one way circulation (my space…) is 12 feet in width.
Angled parking at 30 degrees is most economical because stall projection is smaller (about 15’-6” verses 18’ of 90 degrees).
However, requires greater curb length and triangular space at end is wasted.
Parking spaces are estimated as 400 sq. ft. per vehicle, this includes 270 square feet of actual required foot print and additional
circulation.
Ramps at parking lots should not be more than 15 percent, slopes over 10 percent should be provided with transition of at least 8
feet in length.
Pedestrian Circulation:
An understanding of the characteristic of movement and the physical dimensions of the body assists in the determination of the required
width of walkways, stair and entrances.
The area covered by a person standing still is approximately 3 square feet. In order to stand comfortably and move about easily a
total of 13 square feet per person is required.
If the allowable area is less than 7 square feet, people tend to move in groups rather than individuals.
In general sidewalks should not be less than five feet in width, collector walkways handling larger number of people at least six to
ten feet. All depending on use (i.e. shopping streets…).
Walking distance should not exceed 2.5 miles per hour. This is the rate of walking on an average person.
Provision for Handicapped: (Basic, see ANSI).
The non-ambulatory disabilities, which confine persons to wheelchairs, are of particular concern in design and planning, since they affect the
physical layout of sites and buildings.
Minimum required for two wheelchairs to pass each other is 60 inches, so public walks should be minimum 5 feet wide.
Walks should have a maximum gradient of 5 percent (1:20), and maximum cross gradient of 2 percent (1:50)
The incline of a curb ramp should not exceed 8.33 percent (1:12) and flared sides 1:10.
Ramps should be a minimum of 3 feet wide, and not exceed 30 feet in length. At landings a 5 feet long area should be provided.
Handrails should be located at each side of ramp if its rise is greater than 6 feet. A protective curb should be installed on the side
where a ramp is above grade (to eliminate falling off).
Handicapped parking stalls should have a 5 feet access aisle between every two spaces.
LAND AND BUILDING REGULATION
Ownership is the legal possession of a property, such as land and buildings. Ownership of land constitutes, rights and prohibition which are
to serve the interest of society as a whole, these are called regulations.
Types of owners:
Land or buildings may be owned or leased by individuals (singly or groups), corporations, churches, government entities, or such legal
entities as trusts and estates.
Joint tenancy – two or more people, each holding an undivided interest; that is, the land is not physically divided into individual
pieces, but rather each owner has a share in the ownership of the whole. The advantage is that if one dies the survivor becomes
the sole owner of the decead’s share.
Partnership – the land is owned as a group. Upon a death of one of the partners, the partnership may be dissolved and assets
distributed among surviving partners and the estate of the deceased partner.
Corporation – is a legal entity with rights and liability independent of those of its shareholders. Thus, if a shareholder dies, his
shares pass on to his heirs and the corporation remains unchanged.
Trustee – is a type of ownership that holds property in his own name for the benefit of another person or group for whom he acts.
Its common uses are when property ownership passes to someone who is unable to act in his own interest, minor child or old
person. He may buy or sell the property which he holds in trust.
Types of Ownership:
Fee simple or Fee absolute – the owner has absolute title or ownership, which he can transfer by sale. (For example, as in private
homes).
Condominium – the buyer obtains fee simple ownership for a portion of a structure. Usually, one also owns part of shared services;
in some cases the seller of such ownership has to give first right of refusal to other owners through a tenant or owners’ council.
Cooperative – differs scientifically from condominium in that the owner does not legally own a specific piece of physical property.
He owns instead, a share stock in a corporation which in turn, owns the land and structures.
Leasehold – is an even more restrictive form of real estate tenancy. Lessee, the person whom the lease is granted, has the right to
use a piece of property under certain conditions for a certain time limit. Lease assumes all rights as an owner (i.e. sublease…) and
liabilities (i.e. taxes…) but has no right to sell the property. In some cases, the lease period is as long as 99 years.
Sale-and-leaseback – an arrangement in which one party sells a property to a buyer and the buyer immediately leases the property
back to the seller. (It’s a special form of leasehold.)
This arrangement allows the initial buyer to make full use of the asset while not having capital tied up in the asset. Leasebacks
sometimes provide tax benefits, also called leaseback.
METHOD OF TRANSFERRING TITLE TO A PROPERTY
When a property is sold, the seller of the property gives a buyer a deed, which is a document conveying property from one owner to another.
There are two ways to finance the purchase of the property: the mortgage and the trust of deed.
Mortgage – is a contract by which a buyer of a property (mortgagor) borrows money from a bank or any other landing
institution (mortgagee) to purchase the property; he also pledges the property as a security to the loan.
Trust of deed – as in a mortgage, the buyer borrows money from a lender, who transfers it to the seller, who in turn, gives a
deed to a buyer. The buyer transfers title to a fourth party (called the trustee) by means of the trust deed. When the loan is
completely paid the trustee transfers the title to the buyer.
DEED TERMS AND RESTICTIONS
Covenants are defined as a written agreement or promise usually under seal between two or more parties especially for the performance of
some action, i.e. restriction of some kind.
Covenants came to use in large scale residential land development prior to the advent of zoning. Their purpose was to maintain aesthetic
harmony between building and maintaining or even increasing value of properties.
Deeds contain restrictive covenants which are normally used to limit the height, size, or appearance of a building.
Other restrictive covenants include:
Restriction on minimum cost and floor area.
Restriction on the type of construction.
Restriction on the style of construction.
Covenants must be legal and enforceable (as in new towns of the new urbanisms) and court injunction can be sought for person violating the
covenants. In a subdivision, this applies to all homes, otherwise it may be deemed illegal.
Easement – is another form of restriction on a property. An easement is defined as an acquired right of use, interest, or privilege by one party
on the property of another, without the ownership of the portion of the property and usually without compensation.
A utility company may use private land to gain access for the placement and maintenance of utility services, such as sewers, etc. by means
of an easement. Easements also permit access across or through a parcel of land when there is no alternative method.
An easement which allows one person to cross the land of another in order to reach his property creates a private right of way.
Other type of Easements includes:
Party wall easement – used in row housing, when a common or party wall is shared by two adjacent owners.
Joint easement – used when it is required for two private owners to use a strip of land between two houses which has a property line running
in the center.
Historic façade easement – may be established by a municipality to protect a historically valuable architectural façade in an area where
redevelopment is occurring, and where the existence of the façade is threatened.
Condemnation easement – is an easement for public good. As in the case where required for a street, highway, railroad right of way or for a
telephone or electric power line.
AIR AND SUBSURFACE RIGHTS
Air right – the process which allows the usage of the air rights above a land (Grand Central Station, Madison Square Garden…).
Solar right – refers to the right of a site or building to have access to solar radiation, therefore restricting height on neighboring buildings.
EMINENT DOMAIN
An owner may sometimes be required to relinquish his property to a government entity if the property is needed for a public project, and for
the public welfare; such as a highway or school.
The constitution states that the owner receives fair market value when property is appropriated in this way. In practice, government does not
exercise the power of eminent domain unless necessary as this involves a condemnation process and complex legal proceedings.
ZONING
Zoning was the product of the late 19th and early 20th century growth of American cities, in which the stability of the development, particularly
long term investment required protection.
The principal purpose of zoning is the protection of property rights.
The first modern system of zoning was introduced in the United States in 1916 in New York City where unregulated construction of tall
buildings had created a perceived threat to property values.
Zoning ordinances were adopted under the rationale of protecting the public’s right of access to adequate light and air.
In comparison with covenants which were used mostly for residential development of fairly large scale, zoning was used for all types of land
development and was less stringent in its requirements for residential requirements.
Zoning is the division of the land of the city, county or any other jurisdiction into districts, or zones and the allocation of different uses to these
different zones.
In support of that purpose, zoning exercises the following restrictions:
Regulation of the use and intensity of use of a particular parcel of land.
Protection against discordant nuisances.
Protection against undesirable businesses.
Protection against danger.
Protection of light, air, and open space.
Early zoning ordinances recognized three basic land uses: residential, commercial, and industrial. Within these broad categories, many subclassifications have developed. The various uses are ranked on a scale of priority, starting with single family dwellings, multi family, and
commercial, industrial ranking lower.
Zoning must also provide for the so called nonconforming uses; that is, uses which do not comply with current zoning regulations, but which
were permitted by zoning when the structure was built.
A conditional use is a use that is permitted by a zoning authority with certain restrictions attached, when the proposed use is not normally
permitted in that location.
Zoning ordinances may place unintended burdens on particular parcels of land, or make it difficult to develop a particular parcel. For that
reason municipalities refer requests for a variance to a zoning board of review.
In theory, a variance, is granted only where exact and literal application of the ordinance would cause undue hardship or practical difficulties.
Zoning was not originally intended to be a determinant of design, but it has clearly become so.
Zoning, as a design determinant, assures uniformity at the cost of subtlety, refinement, and variety, which are the basis of sensitive
architecture. And, too often, such uniformity creates environmental sterility and monotony.
Other forms of Zoning:
As established in European countries, and in urban renewal projects; it is a design plan in which land use and performance
specifications are established and for which a design review procedure is utilized.
To avoid uniformity of conventional zoning, a new type of zone, called the planned unit development (PUD) has been devised,
which allows a mixture of uses not otherwise achieved in conventional zoning. (This is been widely used in the development of the
new urbanism).
BUILDING CODES
As zoning ordinances regulate the use of land, building codes regulate the design of structures. Building codes are concerned with the safety
and soundness of structures.
They cover such areas as fire resistive construction, structural safety, size and location of rooms, means of egress, windows and
ventilation, sanitary equipment, electrical installation, chimneys, heating plant, illumination of exits, and standpipes.
Building codes are revised periodically to reflect advances in materials and construction methods and respect a consensus with
regard to optimal and safe practices.
Study Questions:
1.
What are the five phases of an Architect’s schedule?
Answer: Schematic Design, Design Development, Construction Documents, Bidding and Negotiations and Construction Administration.
2.
One of the earliest concepts of zoning in city planning was created by which of the following?
a. Haussman’s Plan for Paris, 1850’s
b. The Cite Industrielle, 1917
c. The Garden City, 1898
d. The gridiron street system of 1682
e. none of the above
Answer: B - The Cite Industrielle of 1917 by Tony Garnier” This theoretical plan was developed due to conditions of the industrial revolution.
The city was divided into several different districts for different uses. Examples would be Civic, Agricultural, Industry and Housing.
3.
Define Proforma Statement
Answer: It is a means of determining a project’s construction budget by listing construction costs and labor.
4.
Which of the following organizations forms would be most appropriate for a building located in Vermont?
a. Decentralized
b. Compact
c. Linear
d. Vertical
Answer: B – Compact A compact building form has the least amount of exposed surface area for thermal conductance of outside climates.
5.
The number of Handicap parking spaces needed for a project is determined by what factor?
a. The distance between the entrance drive and front of curb on the building
b. The capacity of the site
c. The type of project being designed
d. The distance to the main entrance
e. The number of exits required
Answer: C – The number of handicap parking spaces depends on the type of facility being designed. Warehouses would require less
handicap parking than office buildings.
6.
Which of the following would not be included in the program of a new hospital in historical DC?
a. Budget analysis
b. Bed Count
c. Construction scheduling
d. Historical district design requirements
Answer: C – This is not necessary during the initial phase of programming. But one should include any construction schedule limitations for
completion of the project.
7.
Which of the following would not be considered a part of the programming process done by Architects?
a. Establish the circulation plan
b. Site Analyzes
c. Defining functional relationships
d. Review the project budget
Answer: A – this is part of the programming phase. Establishing a circulation plan begins to address forms to functions and takes place
during the Design phase of the project.
8.
A Setback would be defined by which of the following?
a. Easement
b. F.A.R.
c. Deed restriction
d. Local Zoning Codes
Answer: D – The partitioning of a city into districts and the regulations of land use, location and building size fall within those districts.
9.
In project development budgets, what element does an architect affect least?
a. Construction Cost
b. Professional fees
c. Financing and Borrowing cost
d. Site development cost
Answer: C – This is all up to the owner
10. What form below would reduce the most noise from a busy highway?
a. A row of Conifer trees 12 feet from the highway
b. a 5’ wall 14’ from the highway
c. a 16’ wall 5’ from the highway
d. a 20’ wall 5’ from the building
Answer: C – a solid barrier form closest to the source of the noise functions best to lesson high frequencies.
11. What item is most important in establishing an catchment area?
a. Runoff
b. Water table level
c. Ground transportation
d. Contour intervals
Answer: C – Catchment areas are based on population within a give geographical area. Surveys and other data are used to assess the
economical viability of a particular development. Boundaries are drawn up using transportation lines, political factors and the types of races
that fall within these areas.
12. According to AIA Document B141, programming by the architect is considered which of the following?
a. Part of the contract documents
b. Part of Design Development
c. An additional service outside their scope
d. None of the above
Answer: C – Programming for a client is not a part of the Architect’s basic services.
13. Which of the following adjacency relationships is probably not mandatory in the program of a client’s new house?
a. Bedroom – Bathroom
b. Kitchen – Garage
c. Entry – Living Room
d. Kitchen – Living Room
Answer: D – this has the least functional relationship
14. Which of the following could be a restriction against mobile homes on a tract of land?
a. Easement
b. Zoning
c. Covenant
d. F.A.R.
Answer: C – A limitation placed on a development as described in the properties deed documents.
15. What would you replace peat with in the soil?
a. Silt
b. Clay
c. Sand
d. Cedar Chips
e. Potato Chips
Answer: C – Sand is excellent in bearing and drainage.
16. Using a long span structural system would not be a good choice for the following project?
a. Bowling Alley
b. Auditorium
c. High School
d. Casino
Answer: C – this type of project normally consists of a lot of smaller spaces.
17. If you have a building efficiency of 80%. The overall gross square footage of the building is 100,000. What is the net square
footage?
a. 80,000 s.f.
b. 82,000 s.f.
c. 110,000 s.f.
d. 150,000 s.f.
Answer: A – The net square footage of a building is found by multiplying the gross square footage by the efficiency ratio.
18. What would have the least impact on the program for a new library?
a. The size of the land
b. The number of books and equipment
c. The city’s budget
d. The overall weight of the books
Answer: This is the least significant element to be considered compared to the budget and spatial requirements. A building program is a
guide for the architect to establish goals for the project and client.
19. Define Liquefaction?
Answer: The transformation of granular soil from a solid state into a liquefied state due to vibrations in the earth’s surface.
20. What are the four main site factors that affect the physical form of a building?
Answer: Climate, Vegetation, Site to Form Relationships and Site to Structure Relationships
21. What aspects of urban site development are of particular environmental concern?
Answer: Normally it is the impact that a building has on other surrounding structures. These include wind patterns, drainage, noise, traffic,
shade and possible emissions.
22. What are the five basic elements of an urban environment, according to Kevin Lynch in The Image of The City?
Answer: Paths, Edges, Districts, Nodes and Landmarks
23. Define Pre-Design?
Answer: It is a wide field of environmental analysis that includes architectural programming and review of architectural services,
responsibilities and management.
24. What are the primary concerns of site development?
Answer: Existing public facilities and neighborhoods, the transportation network in place and Catchment area.
25. What are three types of adjacency needs to consider in a building program?
Answer: Information, Products and People
26. A client wants to build a home on a undeveloped plot of land. What should the architect be worried about?
Answer: All the following site features: land values, deed restrictions, easements, zoning, municipal utilities, wind direction, solar orientation,
automobile and people access, soil type, views
27. How is climate quantitatively described and measured?
Answer: By the following four factors. Amount of relative humidity and precipitation, wind direction and velocity, hours of daylight and
temperature range and distribution.
28. Rome is an example of which of the following types of city planning?
a. Star shaped city form
b. Grid city form
c. Rococo planning
d. Baroque planning
e. I am planning on passing this test
Answer: D – This is defined when a city is laid out using radial streets over a series of grid streets. Monuments are placed at the main axis.
29. Philadelphia is based on what form of urban plan?
a. Radial Layout
b. Haussman’s design for Paris
c. Gridiron street
d. Garden City concept
Answer: C – The urban layout incorporates public parks and open spaces. It also contains uniform spacing and setbacks.
30. In a typical neighborhood comprising of single-family dwellings, the optimum density is considered to be about?
a. 10 dwelling units per acre
b. 10 families per acre
c. 20 households per acre
d. 20 persons per acre
Answer: D -Regardless of how density is calculated, by dwelling units, families, households, or persons per acre, it is generally
acknowledged that 20 persons or 5 dwelling units (which is the same as families or households) per acre is optimum. This relatively low
density generally applies to suburban development, where cost for roads and utilities may be high and distances to work and school lengthy.
Although it may not always be desirable from a planning viewpoint, the majority of our population prefers low-density residential
developments.
31. A client has purchased income property for $900,000, and after deducting operating expenses and depreciation it yields
$36,000 each six-months period. If the client wished to increase the rate of return by 25% per year, how much money would
she have to borrow at seven percent interest?
a. $420,000
b. $600,000
c. $630,000
d. $800,000
Answer: B - Using a smaller investment to generate a larger rate of return by borrowing is called leverage. In our example, by using all cash,
the client receives a return of $36,000 each six months or $72,000 per year. This represents a return of eight percent on the investment
(72,000 / 900,000). To generate a return 25 percent greater, the $72,000 yield must represent a return of ten percent (25% more than 8%).
Since the percentage yield is the return on investment divided by the amount of the investment, the 10 percent yield equals the net return o
investment (less the cost of interest) divided by the amount invested (less the borrowed amount). If we let the unknown borrowed amount
equal X, the formula is as follows:
10% = (72,000 – 7% X) Divided (900,000 – X)
72,000 - .07X = 90,000 - .10X
.03 X = 18,000, and therefore X = $600,000, which is the amount of money that must be borrowed at 7% x 600,000 = 42,000 interest paid
each year. Subtracting the 42,000 interest expense from the 72,000 gross income results in net income of 30,000, and this amount divided
by the original investment of 300,000 (900,000 less the loan 600,000) equals 10 percent.
32. A section through a new building is shown below together with a key elevations and finish grades indicated at several points.
What is the height of this building according to the Uniform Building Code?
a. 17 feet
b. 19.5 feet
c. 20 feet
d. 22.5 feet
Answer: B - The Uniform Building Code defines buildings heights as the vertical distance between the highest point of the coping on a flat
roof (or parapet) to the elevation of the highest adjoining ground surface within a five-foot horizontal distance of the exterior wall of the
building, providing the ground surface is not more than 10 feet above the lowest grade. In the case illustrated here, the highest point of the
roof is 24 feet, and the highest adjoining ground surface within five feet of the exterior wall is 4.5 feet. The building height, therefore, is 24 –
4.5 = 19.5 feet.
33. The development of a site always results in
a. Alteration of a site’s equilibrium
b. Increased levels of pollution
c. Changes in the ecological balance
d. Environmental modifications
Answer: D - Every building site is unique, and each consists of several interrelated factors that are in balance at any given moment.
Development of a site implies change, and at times, this change produces undesirable effects. There is no reason to assume that site
development automatically alters a site’s equilibrium, increases pollution, or changes the ecological balance.
34. The principal purpose of site analysis is to determine if a site?
a. Is capable of being developed
b. Is suitable for a proposed use
c. Has a character compatible with the project
d. Will be adversely affected by development
Answer: B - Site analysis is the process of investigating fundamental data that relate to a particular site, such as survey information,
topographic data, geological information, zoning ordinances, microclimate, and social patterns. The purpose of this extensive study is to
determine if a parcel of land is suitable for a specific proposed use.
35. You have been asked to plan a college campus to serve a large student population that is diversified socially, racially,
economically, and culturally. From this fact alone, which of the following conclusions appears most valid?
a. Social programs, including popular speakers, musical performances, and other entertainment should be designed to
encompass all cultural preferences
b. Personal merchandise, such as toiletries and sportswear sold through the student store should include low-cost as
well as higher-priced items
c. The type of food served at various campus eating facilities should reflect the diversity of the student population by
offering ethnic-type dishes
d. Off-campus religious facilities should accommodate all major faiths represented by the student population
Answer: D - If any off-campus religious facility is planned, it is desirable to provide facilities for all the major faiths.
36. What is the floor area ratio (FAR) of a five-story building on a one-acre parcel of land, if each floor contains 17,420 square
feet?
a. One
b. Two
c. Three
d. Five
Answer: B - The definition of FAR and the number of square feet in an acre. FAR is the ratio between the gross floor area of a building and
the gross land area on which the building sits. In this case, the gross floor area of the building is 17,420 square feet on each of five floors, or
17,420 x 5 = 87,100 square feet. The gross land area is one acre, which contains 43,560 square feet. The FAR is 87,100 divided 43,560 =
1.999. Note that in calculating FAR ratios, gross areas are always used, with no regard for building circulation or site setbacks.
37. Pile foundations should normally be used where
a. The soil strata are compressible
b. Live loads are heavier than usual
c. Earthquakes are prevalent
d. Pile-driving equipment is available
Answer: A - Since piles are invariably more expensive than spread footings, they should only be used in those situations where the soil strata
are weak or compressible and, therefore, not capable of supporting the required loads.
38. A developer wishes to construct an office building consisting of five stories of 10,000 square feet each. Half of the ground
floor will consist of public areas, and the remainder will be retable as retail space at $3.00 per square foot per month. If the
four offices floors are to have an efficiency of 75 percent, how much must the developer charge per square foot per month to
generate a gross annual income of $1,000,000?
a. $1.66 per square foot
b. $2.22 per square foot
c. $2.28 per square foot
d. $2.66 per square foot
Answer: C - An annual income of $1,000,000 equals $83,333 per month. The rentable half of the ground floor generates 5000 square feet x
$3.00 per square foot = $15,000 per month. That means that the rentable area of the other four floors must generate the balance, or
$83,333 - $15,000 = $68,333. Each of the other four floors has a rentable area of 10,000 square feet x 75% efficiency = 7500 square feet.
7500 square feet x 4 floors = 30,000 square feet. Thus $68,333 divided by 30,000 square feet = $2.2778.
39. The chief goal in creating an architectural program is to
a. Establish the project intent
b. Identify the nature of the problem
c. Organize the project standards
d. Determine the project form
Answer: B - The chief goal of the programming process is to identify and understand the nature of an architectural problem.
40. The principal reason that architects in all contractual relationships should use standard AIA documents is that?
a. The construction industry is accustomed to their use and familiar with their provisions
b. They have been developed over the years to protect the interest of architects
c. Their language is more precise than customized documents
d. Their use benefits the entire architectural profession
Answer: A - The AIA standard documents have evolved on a continual basis over years of usage, and they are periodically modified to reflect
developing trends in technology, techniques, and administration. In addition, they reflect important legal, insurance, and liability concerns
and consequences. Because the AIA standard documents are so comprehensive, their provisions and principles on which they were
founded have become well known in the construction industry. This familiarity avoids the unnecessary legal risks and liability that may
accompany unfamiliar provisions expressed in uncommon language. AIA standard documents are designed to protect all parties, adding or
deleting paragraphs may customize them, and their use benefits the profession in a minor way but is of greater advantage to the individual
practitioner.
41. A hotel owner wishes to convert a large convention space into banquet rooms that may be used for a number of various
functions. The space is 40 feet x 50 feet and must be sufficiently flexible to accommodate any of the following arrangements:
• One large room to serve 125 people
• Two rooms to serve 60 people each at the same time
• One room to serve 80 people and one room to serve 40 people at the same time
• Two rooms to serve 40 people each at the same time
All access and circulation will occur outside of the space, and the occupancy allowance is 15 square feet of space per person. To
satisfy these requirements within the limitations of the existing space, which of the following arrangements should you advice?
a.
b.
c.
d.
Advice one large space with five-foot-high, flexible moveable screens to be used when division of the space is
necessary
Advise the use of built-in folding partitions capable of dividing the space into four equal rooms.
Advise the use of built-in folding partitions capable of dividing the space into two rooms of 650 square feet each and
two rooms of 350 square feet each
Advise the use of built-in folding partitions located at the third points of the 50-foot-long wall.
Answer: C - The solution to this problem is made easier if one considers each of the program requirements separately. Remember that all
arrangements must be accommodated within the 40 feet x 50 feet space, which is 2000 square feet in area.
• 125 people x 15 square feet = 1875 square feet. This arrangement uses the entire room.
• 60 people x 15 square feet = 900 square feet. This arrangement divides the room in half.
• 80 people x 15 square feet = 1200 square feet, and 40 people x 15 square feet = 600 square feet. This arrangement divides the
room into two unequal spaces, one-third and two thirds of the total area.
• 40 people x 15 square feet = 600 square feet and 20 people x 15 square feet = 300 square feet. This arrangement divides the
room into four spaces, two spaces that are one-sixth of the total area each and two spaces that are two-sixth (one-third) of the total
area each.
In the sketch shown below, you can see that the only arrangement flexible enough to accommodate every condition is found in choice C.
42. Considering climate only, which of the following sites is preferable for a residential development in the hot and arid
southwestern area of the United States?
a. At the top of hills
b. At the bottom of hills in valleys
c. Near a body of water
d. Protected from northerly winds
e. Protected from southerly winds
Answer: B, C, and E - Preferred development sites in the southwest are those that recognize desert-like characteristics, including clear skies,
dry air, hot days, and frequent cold nights. Such sites include valleys (b) where the coldest ground surface and air are found, those near
water (c), because water is a moderating influence, and those sheltered from northerly winds (d), which can be uncomfortable in the winter.
Sites at the top of hills (a) are often the windiest and most unpleasant during winter months. Summer breezes often come from the
southwest (e), therefore sites exposed to such breezes are preferred over those protected from them.
43. Architectural scale refers to?
a. The equilibrium that exists among parts of a structure
b. The proportional relationship between parts of a structure
c. The magnitude of space within a structure
d. The size of a structure relative to human form
Answer: D
44. The grade of a paved parking area should?
a. Be as level as feasible to prevent cars from rolling
b. Not exceed a slope of 1:12 to accommodate handicapped users
c. Not exceed a slope of 5% for pedestrian circulation
d. Not exceed a slope of 3% for reliable surface drainage
Answer: C - Paved parking areas should never be level, because that would prevent them from draining. There is always the possibility that
cars that are not in gear may roll on a slope, but that is not a common problem. A slope of 5% is the comfortable limit for pedestrian paths.
In addition, the average wheelchair user can negotiate paved areas with grades up to 5% independently. The upper limit for wheelchairs is
8.33%, but at that slope, level areas are required at 30 feet intervals. Finally, reliable surface drainage of a paved surface may be achieved
with any slope between 1% and 5%.
45. Solid contour lines on a topographic map do which of the following?
a. Connect points of equal elevation
b. Represent proposed landform modifications
c. Indicate natural topographic configurations
d. Never close on themselves
e. Never split in two
Answer: A, B and E - Contours are lines that connect points of equal elevation. Those that are solid represent proposed modifications to the
existing landform, while dashed lines are used to represent existing or natural topography. Although contours lines may close on themselves
when indicating a summit or a depression, they may never split in two, since this would indicate an implausible topographic configuration.
46. The design of structures is generally regulated by means of?
a. Building codes
b. Restrictive covenants
c. Zoning ordinances
d. Environmental impact statements
Answer: A - All of the choices influence the design process, but Building Codes specifically regulate the safety and soundness of structures.
Codes cover fire-resistive construction, structural standards, exiting ordinances, mechanical regulations, and other matters of health and
safety.
Restrictive covenants regulate the height, size or appearance of buildings.
Zoning ordinances regulate land use
Environmental impact statements assess the effects of development on the environment
47. Fortified towns during the Middle Ages were generally built in a circular patter. The principal reason for this was that?
a. Technological applications, such as the ability to construct a right angle, were lost during the Dark Ages
b. Circulation surrounding walls enclosed the most area for the least effort and expense
c. Most towns were circular in shape, thereby establishing a pattern for the enclosing walls
d. Most town were built along irregular terrain, and the walls followed natural contours
Answer: B - Towns of the Middle Ages were often fortified because of frequent hostilities among feudal lords. When a town was established
around a church, monastery, or a castle, protective walls were constructed for safety and security. Because labor and materials were in
short supply, walls were constructed in a circular fashion, which circumscribed the greatest area with the least amount of enclosure.
48. Architects generally prepare preliminary estimates of construction cost during the schematic design phase of a project, and
as the design evolves, the original estimates may be revised. Which of the following statements concerning this situation are
true?
a. Architects should avoid revising preliminary cost, since such changes may indicate oversight that could lead to client
mistrust
b. Architects’ preliminary cost estimates are generally based on project area or volume multiplied by historic cost factors
c. If architects use area or volume cost calculations initially, they should use them in all subsequent estimates.
d. Architects’ cost estimates should be as detailed as those submitted by the contractor.
Answer: B
49. The principal purpose of an environmental impact statement is to
a. Establish administrative regulations concerning the environment
b. Disclose potential damages to the environment caused by an existing project
c. Assess the economic feasibility of a proposed project
d. Determine the impact of a proposed project on an area’s environment
Answer: D - Environmental impact statements are detailed reports used to determine whether the implementation of a proposed project will
have any adverse effects on its immediate environment.
50. A bioclimatic chart, which describes the comfort zone for the average person, includes which of the following factors?
a. Radiation
b. Relative humidity
c. Air movement
d. Elevation
e. Temperature
Answer: B and E - The comfort zone consists of that combination of humidity and temperature in which the average person feels comfortable.
It is an approximate measurement, since it varies with climate, clothing, and a person’s age, sex, and culture. The comfort zone on a
bioclimatic chart is roughly between 65 and 75 degrees Fahrenheit and between 20 and 75 percent relative humidity. The other factors
mentioned all affect the climate of an area.
51. If you wished to increase the intensity of street lighting in the most economical way, you would most likely?
a. Reduce the spacing of fixtures
b. Lower the height of fixtures
c. Increase the height of fixtures
d. Increase the wattage of fixtures
Answer: D - Reducing the fixture spacing implies adding more fixtures, which would increase lighting intensity, but would be the least
economical way to do so. The standard mounting height for street fixtures is about 30 feet above the pavement, and most fixtures are
manufactured at that height. Although lowering the fixture would increase lighting intensity, deviating from the standard height is not
economical nor is it recommended.
52. Buildings are often sited parallel, rather than perpendicular, to the contours because that orientation generally?
a. Minimizes the amount of grading required to fit the building to the site
b. Minimizes the amount of disturbance to the existing natural surface drainage
c. Maximizes the available are for construction
d. Maximizes the solar advantage in northern latitudes
Answer: A - Building on a level site is easier, more flexible, and less expensive than building on a sloping site. However, most sites do slope.
By orienting a building’s long dimension parallel to the contours, less earth is removed in the building’s short direction when fitting the
building to the site.
53. Which of the following topographic profiles correctly represents the section cut through the plan below?
Answer: A
54. The first winter after completion of a construction project, the building remained stable, but large paved areas of an adjacent
parking lot rose several inches above their original level. The probable reason was because?
a. Of frost and heaving of the subsoil
b. The parking lot was built over filled land
c. The paving subsurface was insufficiently compacted
d. A subsurface water or sewer pipe froze and burst
Answer: A - Any of the other choices had occurred, the land beneath the paving would have settled, not risen. Only the penetration of frost
and ice would cause the subsoil to heave and the paving to rise above its original level.
55. If the owner of a medium-sized construction project wishes to obtain the best job for the least cost, he should solicit
construction bids from
a. The contractor with the best reputation
b. The two largest contracting firms in the area
c. Three to five capable contractors
d. Each of the qualified contractors in the area
Answer: C
56. A bubble diagram of the type illustrated here is useful in
a. Establishing functional plan relationships
b. Determining the gross area of the project
c. Considering patterns of pedestrian traffic
d. Estimating required lengths of duct runs
e. Verifying the distance between emergency exits
Answer: A and B - Bubble diagrams are graphic representations of functional relationships. Each programmed space is represented by a
bubble or circle, containing the space tile. Each bubble is then connected with straight lines to other spaces bubbles with which it has a
function relationship. Exterior access points may also be indicated with arrows.
57. Thomas Jefferson is considered to be the only American president who had ideas of his own about architecture, and the
ideas, according to most critics, were sophisticated and wise. In fact, Jefferson was almost single-handedly responsible for
instigating?
a. The Roman Revival
b. The Gothic Revival
c. Georgian Architecture
d. Federalist Architecture
Answer: A - Thomas Jefferson, diplomat, statesman, and gentlemen architect, chose as his earliest mentor the Renaissance architect
Palladio, who was the foremost authority on Roman Architecture. Though generally a practical man, Jefferson’s demand for correct Roman
form led him to copy earlier historic buildings, regardless of their appropriateness. His home at Monticello was copied from Palladio’s Villa
Rotunda, the library at the University of Virginia was another Pantheon, and the State Capitol at Richmond was an adaptation of the Maison
Carree, a Roman temple in Nimes.
58. The following description applies to which historically important suburban development? The plan of this community
featured the superblock concept. In a block of some 30 acres, using roads that surrounded, rather than penetrated, the
development, eliminated through-traffic. Single-family dwellings were grouped around cul-de-sacs and oriented with garages
adjacent to roads and living areas adjacent to gardens. Pedestrian paths, free of vehicular traffic, led to continuous green
strip of a common park. This development became known as the town for the motor age.
a. Sunnyside
b. Greenbelt
c. Radburn
d. Broadacres
Answer: C - All of the suburban developments listed are noteworthy for their enlightened design approach for a residential community. The
description, however, refers to Radburn, New Jersey, designed in 1928 by Henry Wright and Clarence Stein.
Sunnyside Garden, Long Island, also designed by Wright and Stein just prior to Radburn, provided cul-de-sac roads with groups of houses
running through from street to street.
Greenbelt, Maryland was a government-sponsored suburb of the 1930’s based on the Garden City principles of Ebenzer Howard. Greenbelt
communities were essentially self-sufficient small towns in a country setting.
Broadacre City designed by Frank Lloyd Wright in 1935, was a utopian, decentralized plan and another form of the Garden City concept.
59. With reference to the classical order shown below, the parts identified in the order indicated are?
a. (1) Entablature, (2) metope, (3) fascia, and (4) column
b. (1) Cornice, (2) entablature, (3) architrave, and (4) volute
c. (1) Cornice, (2) frieze, (3) architrave, and (4) capital
d. (1) Entablature, (2) frieze, (3) fascia, and (4) capital
Answer: C
60. The system of ownership of most private land in the United States is known as
a. Sovereign ownership
b. Primogeniture ownership
c. Fee simple ownership
d. Leasehold ownership
Answer: C - Our system of land ownership came from England, where the principle of fee simple had evolved over the course of several
centuries. Originally, those who occupied and could successfully defend it owned a piece of land. Later, land was vested in a sovereign,
who granted parcels to nobles in return for military and financial support. Under the practice of primogeniture, land passed from a father to
the eldest son. This feudal system gradually evolved into the fee simple ownership under which land could be used or transferred by the
owner as he pleased. Leasehold ownership is a contradiction in terms, since land is rented, not owned, under a leasehold agreement, often
for a period of 99 years.
61. Select the correct statement concerning parking.
a. Parking aisles designed to serve parking stalls on both sides of the aisle should be wider than aisles designed to serve
stalls on only one side
b. Since parallel parking allows narrower parking aisles, it generally requires less overall space
c. Given the same total area, more cars can be parked at 90 degrees than at either 45 or 60 degrees
d. Parking aisles with two-way traffic are designed for 90-degree parking stalls
Answer: C - The width of a parking aisle is determined by the maneuvering space required to get in or out of a parking stall. Therefore, the
aisle width is the same for single or double loaded parking aisles. Aisle widths may be narrower for parallel parking, but it is inefficient,
because additional maneuvering space must be built into each stall. Invariably, the overall requirement of space is greater for parallel
parking than any other arrangement. In any given area, 90-degree parking is more efficient than angled parking because it requires less curb
length for each stall, and the triangular area at the end of each angled stall is wasted space. Finally, parking aisles with two-way traffic may
be used with both 90-degree and angled parking.
62. A metes-and-bounds property description employs
a. Lengths of lines
b. Bearings of lines
c. A known beginning elevation
d. A known beginning point
e. Known soil conditions
Answer: A, B, and D - Metes-and-bounds is a method of describing property which is often used in legal documents where a high degree of
accuracy is required. The limits of a land parcel are described by line length or metes and bearings or bounds. Starting at a known point and
using lengths and bearings, a highly accurate description of land can be attained.
63. Which of the following facts has the LEAST relevance in determining the preferred orientation of a commercial building on a
specific site?
a. The building will be partially heated by solar energy.
b. Most neighboring structures employ caissons drilled to bedrock
c. The principal source of traffic noise is the neighboring six-lane parkway
d. Prevailing summer winds are diminished by an adjacent grove of deciduous trees
Answer: B - Building orientation refers to a building’s placement in relation to a compass point. Preferred orientation is determined by the
benefits or disadvantages of external influences, such as exposure to sun, wind, noise, and views. Orientation unquestionably determines
the effectiveness of solar collector plates (choice A). It is also important in minimizing the effects of air-borne noises, prevailing winds, and
shadows cast on a structure (choices C and D). Orientation, however, has nothing to do with a structural foundation. That is more a matter
of location on the site than of orientation.
64. For the design of a new civic center in a small town, the architect has proposed an arrangement of buildings that is
revolutionary in its modern style. The most valid reason for this expression is that?
a. It is the only possible solution by a responsible architect in today’s society
b. The arrangement is no more visually extreme than many structures in other cities
c. It is an opportunity to educate those who have little understanding of modern architecture
d. The civic center should be prominent, since it is the focal point of the entire community
Answer: D
65. The City Beautiful Movement from the 1890’s resulted in all of the following, EXCEPT?
a. It restored human scale to the new industrial cities
b. It launched a classic revival movement throughout the country
c. It led to a greater awareness of city planning
d. It resulted in a profusion of dome-topped civic buildings
Answer: A - The City Beautiful Movement was an outgrowth of the enormous influence generated by the Chicago World’s Fair of 1893. On
the shores of Lake Michigan, Daniel Burnham created the spacious, classically scaled White City, which launched a classic revival that swept
the country. This surge of development led to the creation of city planning organizations, and resulted in a profusion of classically inspired
civic centers, dome-topped structures, and grand plazas, complete with monuments and fountains. Unfortunately, the scale of development,
far from restoring a more human expression, promoted the monumental and grandiose.
66. An ordinance in a small city prohibits new buildings from exceeding the height of the city hall dome, which is at elevation 168.
For the construction of a new five-story office building along Main Street, between 1st Avenue and 2nd Avenue, which is the
highest site that would comply with the ordinance?
a. Site I
b. Site II
c. Site III
d. Site IV
Answer: C - By adding the widths of the sites along Main Street, we determine that the block between 1st and 2nd Avenues is 300 feet long.
Since Main Street slopes 15 feet downward along its length, from 123 to 108, the slope is calculated to be 15 / 300 = .05, or an assumed
uniform slope of 5 percent. Using this slope and moving eastward from the corner at 1st Avenue, the elevation at each of the site corners
along Main Street are 123, 120, 115, 111, and 108 at the 2nd Avenue corner. We assume that a five-story office building would have 9-foot
ceilings and construction between floors of about two feet. Therefore, with an 11-foot story, the building height would be 11 x 5 = 55 feet. In
order not to exceed the City Hall dome elevation of 168 feet, the ground floor elevation of the new 55-foot structure would have to be at 168 –
55 = 113, which is the exact midpoint of Site III. If one assumed eight-foot ceilings, Site III would still be the appropriate choice.
67. A 50-foot x 200-foot lot has an allowable floor area ratio (FAR) of 3 and a maximum allowable lot coverage of 60 percent. What
is the maximum height of a building that can be built on this lot?
a. 3 stories
b. 5 stories
c. 6 stories
d. 12 stories
Answer: B - The maximum allowable lot coverage is the total site area multiplied by the allowable lot coverage. Therefore, 50 feet x 200 feet
= 10,000 square feet x 60 percent = 6000 square feet of coverage on the ground floor. The FAR is the ratio of total allowable building area to
total lot area. Since the lot area is 10,000 square feet and the FAR is 3, the maximum allowable building area is 10,000 square feet x 3 =
30,000 square feet. Finally, 30,000 square feet / 6000 square feet = 5 stories.
68. At point X on the site above, surface water would drain?
a. Down the valley
b. On either side of the ridge
c. In the northerly direction
d. Parallel to the contours
Answer: C - Water always flows in a direction perpendicular to the contours, not parallel. Thus, at point X water will flow downward from the
higher to lower contours in a northerly direction. Normally, water flows down valleys, but the configuration illustrated is a ridge, not a valley,
as indicated by the contours pointing downhill.
69. Among the following statements about trees, which is LEAST correct?
a. Trees provide an effective barrier against unwanted sound
b. Trees beneficial in controlling erosion and flooding
c. Trees cool, humidify, and filter the surrounding air
d. Trees can provide a sense of both vertical and horizontal enclosure
Answer: D - All of the statements are true with the exception of the first one where trees are poor barriers against unwanted sound. The
most effective sound barriers are dense masses, such as structures, solid masonry or concrete walls, and earth berms.
70. It has been suggested that two different architectural philosophies have prevailed during the last third of the 20th century: one
that is “exclusive” and the other that is “inclusive.” Mies van der Rohe, Paul Rudolph, and Richard Meier represent the
exclusive viewpoint, while the inclusive position is represented by?
a. Le Corbusier
b. Minoru Yamasaki
c. Robert Venturi
d. Kevin Roche
Answer: C - Robert Venturi is the most capable spokesman for the inclusive point of view in architecture. His redefinition of architecture
accepts what he describes as the “complexity and contradiction” of modern life. As a response to Mies’s dictum “less is more,” Venturi
believes “less is a bore.” The inclusive approach rejects the heroic assumption that orthodox modern architecture is the sole source of
cultural value. Instead, it favors a more modest and flexible position in which architecture incorporates the values of all society, not just those
of other architects. It approaches each problem as a distinct issue and rejects the prototypical solution in favor of the individual case. The
architects in the other choices follow the exclusive approach, to one extent or another.
71. The contours illustrated above describe a slope that is relatively?
a. Horizontal
b. Level
c. Moderate
d. Uniform
Answer: D - The slope shown is represented by contour lines that are spaced approximately equally, which indicates that the land rises or
falls an equal amount between each contour. In other words, the slope is uniform, and a section cut perpendicular to the contours would
show a straight-line profile. The other three choices, horizontal, levels, and moderate, refer to the steepness of the slope, and this is
impossible to determine without knowing the scale of the drawing.
72. According to model building codes, a sleeping room in a residential occupancy must meet which of the following
requirements?
a. The area of the room shall not be less than 70 square feet
b. The width of the room shall not be less than 7 feet
c. The ceiling height of the room shall not be less than 7-1/2 feet.
d. The amount of natural light in the room shall not be less than 10 square feet
e. A window opening used for emergency escape shall not be less than 3 square feet
Answer: A, B, C, and D - All of the statements concerning a residential sleeping room are true with the exception of statement E. Sleeping
rooms below the fourth story must have at least one operable opening approved for emergency escape and leading directly to a public way.
Such openings must have a minimum net clear area of 5.7 square feet, with a minimum height of 24 inches and a minimum width of 20
inches, and their sills shall be located no more than 44 inches above the floor.
73. An invert elevation is the elevation of?
a. The rim of a catch basin
b. The flow line of a drainage pipe
c. The edge of a trench drain
d. The top of a swale
Answer: B - The term invert, used in connection with drainage, refers to the lowest point or lowest inside flow line of a channel, pipe, conduit,
drain, or sewer.
74. A school board has determined that the budget for a high school project must be reduced by five percent. They agree,
however, that the size of all facilities shall remain unchanged. In order to preserve the health, safety, and welfare represented
by the original design, you, as an architect, should recommend cutting the budget of which of the following groups of items?
a. Foundation and superstructure
b. Roofing, plumbing, and electrical
c. Partitions, finishes, and cabinets
d. Walls, openings, and mechanical
Answer: C - Certain elements of a construction budget are more susceptible to adjustment than others. Elements such as foundations and
superstructure are largely governed by building codes and not easily modified. The same reasoning applies to the mechanical and electrical
categories, although qualities of lighting and air-conditioning conceivably could be reduced. Almost every category of construction can be
reduced to some extent, and even if health and safety were preserved, welfare, which comprises the intangible pleasures of design, would
probably suffer. A five-percent reduction in the quality of partitions, finishes, and cabinets would have a minimal effect on the health, safety,
or welfare of the overall project.
75. A client has requested that you investigate a building site for a potential project. Which of the following site conditions would
indicate the probability of poor drainage?
a. High water table
b. Adjacent flowing stream
c. Dense ground cover
d. Relatively level site
Answer: A and D - A high water table is generally a sign of poor drainage, since little water is able to seep into the ground before the ground
becomes saturated. Another sign of poor drainage is a relatively level site, since water of flat land tends to pond rather than flow. Choices B
and C indicate reliable drainage. A flowing stream acts as an efficient surface drainage system, and dense ground cover obstructs water
flow, slows runoff, and permits the earth to absorb the moisture.
76. The design of a two-story senior citizen center includes, as its largest space, a multi-purpose meeting hall that seats 300
people. It is anticipated that this meeting facility will be used frequently; therefore, it should be located?
a. At the extreme end of the structure, for easy exiting
b. On the second level of the structure, for privacy
c. Near the structure’s ground floor entrance
d. At the side of the structure with the best view
e. Within easy access of the toilet rooms.
Answer: C and E - Large spaces used often by many people should be located on the ground floor, in a central location near the entrance so
that they are easy to find and use and circulation is minimal. It is also a good idea to make toilet rooms readily accessible wherever large
groups gather. At the extreme end is vague (choice A), but it sounds too distance, on the second level (choice B) is unnecessarily
inconvenient for senior citizens, and the best view (choice D) seems to be an unimportant feature for a meeting room, where the focus is
directed more toward the activity taking place within the space.
77. Ad valorem tax is best defined as a tax?
a. Assessed on the sales price of a property
b. Assessed according to the value of a property
c. Used to discourage a specific type of development
d. Used as an exemption to provide an incentive to development
Answer: B - Ad valorem literally means according to the value. It is a tax based on a property’s value, as distinguished from a tax on income,
personal possessions, or sales price. This tax was originally a general tax on land, buildings, and possessions, such as livestock and tools.
However, possessions could easily be concealed when the tax assessor came around, and thus, it gradually became a tax on physical
property that was impossible to conceal or move elsewhere. The value that is taxed is not necessarily the property’s market value, but only a
valuation for tax purposes. Thus, valuations and/or tax rates may be raised or lowered in order to produce desired tax revenues.
78. The cluster-type residential development would be most appropriate for an area that has?
a. A restricted size
b. Dense natural foliage
c. Unusually high fuel costs
d. Highly irregular contours
Answer: D - The cluster-type arrangement feature a concentrated grouping of residential units surrounded by open space. The idea of
clustering is to place the units in a tight group by reducing lot sizes, and thereby end up with large common areas of open space that can be
developed or simply enjoyed in a communal way. In cluster plans, the lengths of streets and utility runs are generally reduced, and most
residential units adjoin some open space. For these reasons, such a development is most suitable in a hilly area, an area defined by
irregular contours. Clustered units may be sited on moderately sloping land, while more steeply sloping land could be left undeveloped as
common open space. The other three choices have little relevance in the arrangement of residential units. The problems and influences of
land size, natural foliage, and fuel costs are similar regardless of the development type.
79. Storm drainage systems are designed to accomplish all of the following, EXCEPT?
a. Enhance plant growth
b. Reduce topsoil erosion
c. Improve the immediate environment
d. Eliminate the need for slab waterproofing
Answer: D - Storm drainage, which is the collection, conduction, and disposal of unwanted rain water, is necessary where the density of
development prevents rain water from being absorbed by the natural open land. A typical storm drainage system begins with roof water from
an individual building and directs the water flow through drains and pipes until it reaches a lake or other body of water. By reducing soil
saturation, storm drainage enhances plant growth (choice A) and reduces erosion (choice B) by controlling the rate and velocity of water flow.
Less obvious is the way that drainage improves the immediate environment (choice C) by eliminating standing water that often leads to
insect and pollution. Storm drainage may reduce the overall quantity of sub-surface water, but unfortunately, it cannot eliminate the need for
waterproofing a slab on grade (choice D).
80. A governmental urban renewal agency has planned a redevelopment project for a blighted area near the urban core of a large
city. The owner of an unoccupied three-story building within this area has refused to sell his property at the price offered by
the urban renewal agency. Which of the following statements concerning this situation is true?
a. The property may be taken and the building razed before negotiations are complete and the final price is determined.
b. Under the principle of eminent domain, the owner is required by law to accept the price established by the urban renewal
agency
c. The owner is entitled to the fair market price of the land, as well as the salvage value of the unoccupied building
d. The owner must be paid the same price for his property as the average paid for adjacent properties.
Answer: A - Eminent domains the right of a government agency to take private property for public use, usually with reasonable compensation
paid to the owner. When an owner refuses to sell, the government agency may expropriate the property through court action, in some cases
even before the price has been determined. The owner is entitled to an equitable price, but the court, not the renewal agency, establishes
that price. The price established by the court is generally the fair market value of both the land and the improvements, not merely the
building’s salvage value. Finally, the owner need not necessarily receive the same price as that paid to his neighbors if the properties are not
entirely equivalent. The court’s only obligation is to establish fair market value.
81. You have designed a two-story office building, which is situated at 40 degrees north latitude. What kind of trees would you
recommend using in front of the south windows of this building if you wished to reduce summer radiation but allow natural
solar heating in the winter?
a. Native trees
b. Specimen trees
c. Deciduous trees
d. Evergreen trees
Answer: C - At 40 degrees north latitude (Philadelphia, Denver, Columbus, Ohio) it is often desirable to reduce radiation when the weather is
hot and receive it when the weather is cold. Deciduous trees are ideal for this purpose, since their leaves block the sun only during the warm
months of the year. During the winter, the trees are bare, and maximum solar heating can occur.
82. If a commercial project requires an open parking area for 100 cars, what is the approximate amount of undeveloped level land
that should be acquired for this project?
a. 1 acre
b. 2 acre
c. 5 acre
d. 10 acre
Answer: A - The total area required for parking, including stalls, aisles, driveways, and other circulation varies between 300 and 400 square
feet per vehicle. One should know that there are 43,560 square feet in an acre. Thus, at 400 square feet per car, 100 cars would require
400 x 100 = 40,000 square feet. This total is just under 43,560, the number of square feet in one acre.
83. In planning a community college for a medium-sized city, which of the following programmatic objectives would be LEAST
important to the average disadvantage (low income) student?
a. The location of the new facility will be at the core of the inner city
b. The gym will be available to all student after normal class hours
c. The new college plans to offer vocational studies related to jobs
d. Degree programs will be available on a part-time basis
Answer: D - Each of the objectives has some importance to disadvantaged students. The location of the campus at the core of the inner city
(choice A), where many of the disadvantaged live, would make commuting less costly and time consuming. The availability of vocational
studies related to jobs (choice C) means that students could learn specific trades from which they could earn a living. The convenience of
part-time classes (choice D) implies that some students would be able to work while acquiring an education. Compared to the foregoing
objectives, all of which have economic value to low-income students, the use of the gym after hours (choice B), is far less important.
84. Prior to the start of construction on a large medical building project, the architect should allow the greatest amount of
contingency time for?
a. The contractor’s bidding process
b. The owner’s review of the documents
c. The review of shop drawings
d. The municipality’s building permit process
Answer: D -The amount of time allowed for each specific process varies considerably with the project. However, contingency time refers to
the amount of additional time beyond the time originally anticipated to complete a task. Choices A and B, the contractor’s bid and owner’s
review, can be anticipated fairly closely. Similarly, in the review of shop drawings (choice C), both the contractor and architect are obliged by
standard A.I.A. agreements to perform “with reasonable promptness.” The permit process (choice D), depends on a government agency,
and that is a far more difficult matter to predict.
85. Mannerism is an architectural style that may be accurately described as?
a. An expression in which classic elements are used unconventionally
b. An expression in which classic motifs are harmoniously integrated
c. The expression most frequently used by postmodernist architects
d. The expression most closely identified with Charles Moore
Answer: A - Mannerism was a style of architecture in Italy and elsewhere, which evolved between the Renaissance and Baroque periods.
The style was an expression of the manner, rather than the substance, of classical elements, and it was characterized by a lack of classical
harmony and order, as well as the incongruous use of classical motifs (choice A). Principal examples of this style in Italy are Michelangelo’s
Medici Chapel and Laurentian Library. Some postmodernists have been likened to mannerists (choice C), because elements from the past
may be used in unconventional ways in some of their buildings. An example of this are the classically inspired columns used by Charles
Moore (choice D) in his own house in Orinda in 1961. Nevertheless, Mannerism is not the same as Postmodernism (choice C), nor is it a
term that characterizes the work of Charles Moore (choice D).
86. A community group has proposed preserving and restoring a number of early 20th century commercial buildings within a
neighborhood redevelopment project. In addressing the city council, a number of arguments were advanced to promote their
cause. Which of these has the LEAST validity?
a. It is important for the community to preserve the local architectural heritage as a cultural link to the community’s past
b. Restoration of older buildings may provide suitable commercial facilities at a cost comparable to or lower than the cost of
new buildings
c. The preservation of familiar buildings generates a cooperative spirit among neighboring residents
d. New buildings frequently lack the scale, warmth, and interest of existing older structures
Answer: D - The first three arguments for preserving older buildings are valid. Communities should preserve whatever architectural heritage
they have, restoration costs are often comparable to or less than new construction, and familiar buildings can generate more cooperative
feelings among neighbors. The least valid argument is contained in choice D. One cannot assume that replacement buildings will lack scale,
warmth, and interest simply because they are new.
87. Which of the following is the LEAST suitable merger of building use with specific site?
a. A hotel adjacent to an international airport
b. A gambling casino on the shore of a recreation lake
c. A library in a downtown urban center
d. A residential development in a hilly terrain
Answer: B
88. As part of the drainage system of a large development, the architect proposes using a retention pond that is 225 feet wide and
300 feet long. What will be the average depth of this pond in order for it to have a capacity of 4 acre-feet of water?
a. 1.5 feet
b. 2 feet
c. 3 feet
d. 4 feet
Answer: C - Solving this problem requires one to know that an acre-foot of water is the volume of an acre of water that is one foot deep. One
must also know that an acre has 43,560 square feet. A pond with the capacity of 4 acre-feet would therefore have a volume of 43,560 x 4 =
174,240 cubic feet of water. The area of the retention pond is 225 x 300 = 67,500 square feet. Thus, the depth of the pond is the volume
(174,240 cubic feet) divided by the area (67,500 square feet) = 2.58 feet. Since choice B is 2 feet, must choose the next greatest depth of 3
feet.
89. During the programming phase of a commercial project, the client abruptly reduces the project budget by 20 percent. As the
architect, which of the following should you do?
a. Propose significant modifications to the program
b. Propose using more economical materials and systems
c. Reduce the size of all programmed spaces by 20 percent
d. Abandon the project
Answer: A - Candidates should understand that a decrease of 20 percent is a project budget is a drastic reduction. The only reasonable way
to reduce a budget to that extent is to modify the program, and that frequently means fewer spaces or smaller spaces. It is unlikely that
changing building materials and systems, without also modifying the building area, would result in sufficient savings. Reducing all building
spaces equally is arbitrary and probably not feasible. Finally, abandoning the job is an option that may lead to serious legal liability. If other
alternatives exist, it is more professionally responsible to pursue them.
90. The difference between problem seeking and problem solving is the same as the difference between?
a. Establishing goals and determining needs
b. Defining problems and testing concepts
c. Programming and design
d. Creativity and synthesis
Answer: C - Problem seeking is the process of programming, which involves establishing goals, determining needs, testing concepts, and
analyzing facts, all of which leads to the statement of an architectural problem. Problem solving, on the other hand, is the essence of design.
Programming seeks to define the problem through analysis, while design attempts to solve the problem through synthesis.
91. When the construction industry in the United States completes its transition to the metric system (SI), all of the following
conversions might be applied EXCEPT?
a. Acre feet to cubic meters
b. Board feet to square meters
c. British thermal units per hour to watts
d. Feet per second to meters per second
Answer: B - The metric system of (SI) is the measuring system used in most parts of the world. The notable exception is the United States,
where voluntary conversion to the metric system by trade, professional, labor, consumer, and government organizations is slowly taking
place. If and when the conversion is complete, the volume measure of acre feet (choice A) will be replaced by cubic meters. British thermal
units per hour (BTUs/hr) will be replaced by the heat flow measurement of watts (choice C), and the velocity measurement of feet per second
will be stated as meters per second (choice D). However, the traditional standard of board feet (choice B), which is a measure of the volume
12” x 12” x 1”, will become cubic, not square meters.
92. Covenants in a residential development may have as their purpose which of the following?
a. Aesthetic compatibility
b. Ethnic consistency
c. Architectural harmony
d. Construction cost standards
e. Floor area standards
Answer: A C D and E - Covenants are legal agreements established by developers to provide desirable standards for a development. Their
purpose is to maintain harmony among buildings and prevent detrimental land uses or structures, thus maintaining the value of the
development. Covenants are generally legal and enforceable except when they are discriminatory.
93. For the site illustrated below, the floor area ratio (FAR) is .85 and the allowable site coverage is 75 percent maximum. What is
the maximum floor area that would be permitted for a one-story building on this site?
a. 6500 square feet
b. 8400 square feet
c. 9520 square feet
d. 11,200 square feet
Answer: A - In development problems such as this one, candidates must calculate the maximum allowable floor area based on each of the
given constraints. The most restrictive restraint governs; that is, the one resulting in the smallest floor area will be the answer. We begin
with the allowable site coverage, which is given as 75 percent. This factor is applied to the gross site area, ignoring the setbacks. Therefore,
80 feet x 140 feet = 11,200 square feet, and .75 x 11,200 = 8400 square feet permitted. Next we calculate the allowable floor area using the
FAR of .85. This factor also applies to the gross site area. Thus, .85 x 11,200 = 9520 square feet. The final restraint is imposed by the
setbacks. The remaining area, after subtracting the setbacks, is calculated as follows: [80 – (2 x 7.5)] x [140 – (25 / 15)] = 65 x 100 = 6500
square feet. This is the most limiting of all three constraints, and therefore, the answer to the question.
94. Where topography is steep and irregular, the installation of an underground sewer line is generally?
a. More expensive than for a level site, because the line requires more sewer manholes
b. Less expensive than for a level site, because the line can follow the natural slope to drain
c. Less expensive than for a level site, because the line will require less excavation
d. About the same expense as for a level site, because the underground work for both is similar
Answer: A - Steep and irregular land is invariably more expensive to develop than level land, and underground sewer line installation is only
one reason. Such land requires more sewer manholes because a manhole is required wherever there is a change in the lines direction.
Choices B and C use similar reasoning; that lines following the ground’s natural downward slope will save excavation costs. However,
underground utilities must be run to where they are needed, which is not always in the downhill direction. In addition, if sewers below street
level require pumping stations to connect lines to mains in the street, the overall cost will rise substantially. Finally, the expense of installing
underground utilities on sloping land exceeds that of level land, because of generally increased excavation, length of runs, and number of
direction changes in the line.
95. Which of the following statements about ground water are correct?
a. Underground water generally flows slowly
b. The ground water table is usually a level surface
c. Foundations should never extend beyond the ground water table
d. The ground water table fluctuates seasonally
e. The permeable material through which water flows is an aquifer
Answer: A D and E - Underground water does flow slowly (a), but water tables are generally sloping, not level, surfaces (b) that roughly
follow the shape of the ground surface. Foundations may extend beneath the ground water table (c), provided the construction excavation is
braced and kept dry by pumping. The ground water table fluctuates with wet and dry seasons (d), and finally, (e) accurately describes an
aquifer.
96. Illustrated above is a proposed retaining wall superimposed on naturally sloping land. If the area on the west side of the wall
were graded to a constant elevation of 4, what would be the elevation necessary at the highest point along the wall’s top in
order to retain the natural grade?
a. 4 feet
b. 8 feet
c. 12 feet
d. 16 feet
Answer: C - There is only one factor to consider: since the south end of the wall terminates at elevation 12, the wall must extend to that
elevation in order to retain the earth at the east side of the wall, irrespective of the elevation of the level area at the west side. The high end
of the wall would extend 8 feet above the adjacent grade at the west (12 – 4 = 8), and the elevation at the top of the wall would be 12 feet.
97. Among the potential advantages of planned unit developments (PUD) are all the following, EXCEPT?
a. An improved site design that is free of standard lot pattern limitations
b. Lower street and utility cost made possible by reduced frontages
c. Greater flexibility in the mixing of residential building types
d. Greater project density that would be otherwise allowed
Answer: D - A planned unit development is a residential development in which the subdivision and zoning regulations apply to the project as
a whole, rather that to its individual lots, as in most other housing developments. The more comprehensive land use plan of a PUD generally
results in the advantages listed in choices A, B, and C. The density, however, is based on the total project, which permits the clustering of
houses and common open space, but it does not exceed that of conventional residential developments.
98. Federal guidelines for rehabilitating historic buildings include all of the following, EXCEPT?
a. Every reasonable effort shall be made to use a property for its originally intended purpose or to provide a compatible use
that requires minimum alteration of the building’s structure, site, and environment
b. Changes that have taken place in the course of time may have acquired significance in their own right, and this
significance shall be recognized and respected
c. Deteriorated architectural features shall be replaced rather than repaired, whenever possible, with materials that match
the design, color, texture, and other visual qualities of the original materials
d. Contemporary design for alterations to existing properties shall not be discouraged when such alterations are compatible
and do not destroy significant historical, architectural, or cultural material.
Answer: C - All the guidelines presented are accurate, with the exception of the manner in which deteriorated architectural features are dealt
with. These should be repaired, whenever possible, in preference to their replacement. If repair is not feasible or architectural features are
missing, their replacement should be based on accurate duplications that are substantiated by historical evidence.
99. The highest efficiency ratio would most likely be found in a?
a. Department store
b. Museum
c. Theater
d. Hospital
Answer: B - Efficiency ratio is the ratio of net usable area to the gross area in a building. Net usable area generally excludes circulation
space, mechanical and equipment rooms, stairways and elevators, vertical chases, and any other spaces not used for the building’s primary
purpose. With reference to the building types of this question, the ranges of efficiency ratios are as follows:
Department store 70 to 75 percent
Museum
75 to 80 percent
Theater
60 to 75 percent
Hospital
50 to 65 percent
The building type with the highest efficiency ratio, therefore, is a museum with its vast exhibit spaces and relatively minimal service
requirements.
100. Concentric contours that close on themselves indicate?
a. A summit
b. A valley
c. A ridge
d. An overhang
e. A depression
Answer: A and E - Concentric closed contours represent either summits or depressions. The only way to determine which topographic
feature is being represented is to note the spot elevation within the form itself, as shown below. One can see that a spot elevation higher
than the surrounding contours indicates a summit. A valley is indicated by contours pointing uphill, a ridge is shown with contours pointing
downhill, and an overhang is identified by over lapping contours.
101. Throughout history, the most important monuments have always reflected the dominant concerns of the civilizations that
produced them. For example, the ancient Egyptian pyramids reflected the contemplation of death and the everlasting life
hereafter. Which of the following terms describes the principal motivation of the Renaissance?
a. Intellectual pursuit
b. Religious fervor
c. Love and beauty
d. Power and domination
Answer: A - The Renaissance of the 15th century had its birth in the prosperous commercial city of Florence, where it was cultivated by the
great merchant families of the times. This complex period was energized by religion, beauty, and power, but no impetus was as powerful as
the new intellectual movement, which was first manifested in classic literature and then in classical architecture. The invention of printing
promoted a general spirit of inquiry, which led to a reformation in religion, a revival of learning, and new scientific research. Religious fervor
(choice B) describes the predominant quality of the Middle Ages, beauty (choice C) was a passion of the ancient Greeks, and power (choice
D) was the principal preoccupation of the ancient Romans.
102. Which of the following would NOT be considered a Basic Service under the architect’s agreement with an owner to perform
professional architectural services?
a. Site selection studies
b. Preparation of schematic design studies
c. Preparation of bidding documents
d. Administration of the construction
Answer: A - The Architect’s Basic Services are divided into five phases: Schematic Design, Design Development, Construction Documents,
Bidding/Negotiation, and Construction Administration. Of the choices listed, therefore, the only service not considered to be a basic service
is selection of the site. Architects may be requested to assist the owner in site selection, but this would be considered an Additional Service.
Additional Services generally include those not covered under Basic Services, such as providing program analyses, financial feasibility
studies, comparative site studies, measured drawings of existing facilities, future facilities studies, detailed construction cost estimates, and
major revisions to work already performed.
103. Before deciding on the roof covering for a new residence, an architect should review the?
a. Zoning regulations
b. Building code
c. Restrictive covenants
d. Lender’s provisions
Answer: B and C - Regulations concerning roofing materials are based on weather protection, fire retardancy, and appearance. The first two
are matters of health and safety, and these are covered by the building code (b). Appearance is generally covered by restrictive covenants
(c) that may limit or regulate the use of the property. For example, restrictive covenants for a residential tract might impose limitations on
sizes and styles of structures, permitted exterior materials, and even restrictions on color. The purpose of these constraints is to create a
more uniform and harmonious group of structures. Zoning regulations and provisions dictated by leaders do not generally involve roof
coverings.
104. You have been asked to design a new art museum for a prominent downtown site. The building committee has not indicated a
stylistic preference for the new structure, but they have indicated that its most important design quality will be a harmonious
relationship with the neighboring municipal buildings, all of which are in the formal, Italian Renaissance style. The emphasis
of your earliest preliminary sketches should be on?
a. Balance
b. Proportion
c. Rhythm
d. Symmetry
Answer: D - Balance (choice A) is equilibrium among various parts of a structure around an invisible reference axis. It may be achieved with
or without symmetry, but either way, it is the quality that imparts a sense of stability to stationary objects. Proportion (choice B) is the visual
relationship among parts of a structure. Proportions that are pleasing are generally found in nature and are considered harmonious. Rhythm
(choice C) is the regular occurrence of an element in a structure. The elements may include structural members, window openings, the
repetition of a brick pattern, or any recurring design feature that creates a visual order. Finally, symmetry (choice D) is the balance
disposition of elements in a structure, equally arranged on either side of a central axis. Symmetry is found throughout nature, such as in the
human form, and it was a guiding visual principle during the Italian Renaissance. Over past centuries, symmetry has become associated
with authority and formality, as can be seen in many government buildings throughout the world.
105. Most space design is based on dimensions of the human form. In this regard, what is the minimum amount of space required
for the average standing adult male in a crowded elevator?
a. 1.5 sf
b. 2.0 sf
c. 3.0 sf
d. 5.0 sf
Answer: B - Under the crowded conditions of a packed elevator, an average standing adult male requires a minimum depth of 13 inches and
a minimum width of about 22 inches. Thus, 13 x 22 = 286 square inches or about 2 sf. The required space for an average adult woman
under the same circumstances is about 1.75 sf.
106. An owner wishes to develop a shopping center on a large parcel of land that is zoned for multiple dwellings. He should,
therefore, apply to the proper authority for
a. a variance
b. a conditional use permit
c. an easement
d. a code exemption
Answer: D - A variance is granted to an owner when the literal application of a zoning ordinance would cause undue hardship in the
proposed development of a site. That is clearly not the case here. In this situation, the owner requires a conditional use permit to change
from a permitted use to another not generally allowed in that zone. Such flexibility is permitted if a public hearing had been held and the local
governing body has granted approval. Approval is normally given if the project is considered to be in the public interest. The granting of a
conditional use permit does not change the zoning of a parcel; if development is abandoned, the conditional use no longer applies. An
easement is the right to use someone else’s property in a specific way, such as a right-of-way over a neighbor’s property for access
purposes. Finally, a code exemption has nothing to do with land use, but rather to modifying a provision of the building code.
107. A hospital cafeteria is designed to serve doctors, nurses, and visitors. An important goal of the hospital administrators is
maximum flexibility, economy, and comfort. Which among the following seating options best expresses these goals?
a. Individual counter seating
b. Two-person rectangular tables
c. Four-person round tables
d. Four-person booths
Answer: B - The differences in economy and comfort among the various choices are relatively minor; however, the differences in flexibility
are significant. The least flexible seating options are those that are fixed, such as (a) and (d). Between (b) and (c), rectangular are
preferred, since they may be joined end to end to create a variety of groupings. Finally, two-person tables are most suitable, because the
greatest flexibility is always by using the smallest unit.
108. With regard to the handicapped, which of the following statements is accurate?
a. Braille characters used by the blind to ID room number should project from the wall and be mounted no higher than 30
inches from the floor.
b. Safe stairways suitable for the physically handicapped require abrasive nosing material on the treads, with the exception
of carpeted stairs.
c. A person using a cane requires about 27 inches of clear passage width, the same as a person using crutches.
d. In place of a bathtub, a roll-in shower is generally more convenient for the wheelchair disabled.
Answer: D - Braille characters do project from the wall, but their max mounting height is 60 inches. All safe stairways require abrasive nosing
material on the treads, even carpeted steps. On C, don’t confuse passage width, the actual physical space required to maneuver, with the
recommended width of a corridor, which of course is much greater. A person using crutches requires a clear passage width of about 27
inches, but a person using a cane requires about 6 inches less.
109. In the critical path network diagram shown, which is the critical path?
a.
b.
c.
d.
1-4
1-3-4
1-2-4
1-2-3-4
The critical path diagram indicates the order in which various operations comprising a project are to be accomplished. Each event has a start
and finish, represented by circles, and referred to by a number. Between events are letters representing activities and below the letters are
numbers representing the number of days each activity is estimated to take. Since each path of a diagram must be traversed to complete
the project, the path with the greatest amount of total time establishes the total project time. This is known as the critical path. IN the
network diagram of this problem, the critical path is 1-3-4, with a total time of 4+2=6 days. The path of choice A is 3 days, choice C is 4 days,
and D is 5 days.
110. Foundation costs are LEAST likely to be affected by a site’s
a. topography
b. vegetation
c. soil conditions
d. water table
Answer: B - Almost every distinctive feature of a site affects foundation costs. For example, sloping topography often leads to more
expensive stepped footings, solid rock close to the surface might require blasting, and a high water table may call for deeper than normal
footings. B has little or no effect on foundation costs, except for the occasional removal of a large tree.
111. High density, which is defined as many people per unit of area,
a. is the result of tall buildings
b. is the result of relatively small building sites.
c. Generally implies crowded conditions.
d. Generally leads to diversity.
Answer: D - The buildings on small sites may have hi density, but a tall buildings situated in a park-like setting is not necessarily a highdensity development. Nor are small building sites considered high density, if the structures on them are also small. High density doesn’t
necessarily imply crowding, since one must consider other factors, such as one’s activity, attitude, and the duration of the activity.
112. A second mortgage on a piece of property generally carries a higher interest rate because
a. the mortgagee has no right of foreclosure on the property
b. the mortgagee may have greater difficulty in obtaining repayment
c. the mortgagee is usually an individual rather than an institution
d. the mortgagee is not bound by the normal regulations concerning usury.
Answer: B - A mortgage on a piece of property is a contract by which a buyer borrows money and pledges the property as security for the
loan. Second mortgages are subordinate to 1st mortgages, that is, the holder of the 1st one has first claim against the property. If the buyer
defaults on a prior mortgage, the 2nd mortgagee may pay the defaulted amount, add it to his loan, and foreclose on the property. The
mortgagee may be an individual or an institution, and in any event, 2nd mortgages are bound by all prevailing laws, including those
concerning usury, which is lending money at exorbitant rates. Higher interest on 2nd mortgages is justified by the added risk & difficulty one
has in obtaining repayment on the loan.
113. The principal purpose of zoning laws is
a. to protect property rights
b. to regulate land use
c. to determine lot sizes
d. to promote light, air, and open spaces
Answer: A - Zoning, which is the regulation of land use, accomplishes all of the benefits listed. However, its principal and most significant
purpose is the protection of property rights and values. It is the purpose of zoning to allocate specific uses to different zones so that, for
example, an auto-wrecking yard will not be located next to a residence.
114. A client wishes to construct a 72-unit apartment project comprising of 2 individual buildings w/36 units apiece. Which of the
following available land parcels, all located in Zone RM 16-1, would you recommend purchasing to accommodate this project?
{Reference}
a.
b.
c.
d.
parcel 1 – 3 acres
parcel 2 – 5 acres
parcel 3 – 5 acres
parcel 4 – 8 acres
Answer: C - First, the number of buildings & individual units in each building are irrelevant. It is only important to determine the minimum lot
area required per dwelling unit, the allowable number of units per acre, and the number of SF in an acre. Referring to the Zoning Regs, we
see that in Zone RM 16-1 the minimum lot area required per dwelling unit is 3000 SF. Thus, the 3000 SF per unit x 72 units = 216,000 SF.
Next, one must remember that there are 43,560 SF in an acre, thus 216,000 SF / 43,560 SF per acre = 4.96 acres. It appears as thought the
5-acre parcel will accommodate the project, but first we must check the max number of units per acre. The allowable # of units per acre on
the chart is 14 units per acre. On five acres, therefore, the max # of units accommodated would be 14 x 5, or 70 units. However, since out
project consists of 72 units, the 5-acre parcel is too small.
115. In the analysis of a potential building site, an investigation of subsoil conditions is generally made by means of
a. simple observation
b. surface samples
c. geological maps
d. test borings
Answer: D
116. Over which of the following costs, all of which are part of the project budget, does an architect have the LEAST control?
a. financing costs
b. material costs
c. building costs
d. professional fees
Answer: A
117. With reference to the road and contours shown below, select the correct statement.
a.
b.
c.
d.
surface water drains down the middle of the road.
The road has a central crown that is about 3 inches high.
The road has curbs on both sides that are about 9 inches high.
Sidewalk surface water drains toward the paved road.
Answer: A. The diagram shows a paved road that slopes from a higher to a lower elevation in an easterly direction. Contours pointing uphill,
as seen here, represent a valet, or in this case, a saucer-like configuration in which surface water will flow down the center. The road has a
depression, not a crown, which is approximately 3 inches deep. There are curbs on both sides, but their height is about 6 inches, not 9. We
can estimate this curb height because the contours crossing the curb fall midway between the contours on the road, which translates to half
the height between one-foot contours, or six inches. Finally, the adjacent sidewalks show contours angled so that surface water, which flows
perpend. To the contours, will be guided away from, not toward, the road.
118. If an owner decides to change the seating in an assembly area from fixed seating to movable seating, which of the following
properties of the assembly area will be affected?
a. The building type
b. The occupant load
c. The total size
d. The number of exits
Answer: B
119. A large corporation has decided to add an open parking area adjacent to and on the same level as its suburban HQ building.
In order to shield the vehicles from the view of passers-by, it is proposed that an earth berm be constructed. The angle of
repose for the earth is 2:1, and the berm will have a 2-foot level area at its top. If it is just high enough to screen the cars from
view, how wide will the berm be?
a. 12 ft
b. 20 ft
c. 22 ft
d. 26 ft
Answer: C - The tallest car is about 57 inches high, while the average adult eye level is 62 inches high. Therefore, we can assume the berm
height to be five feet. To slope up to the berm height of five feet, the berm will extend 10 feet in width. At the top, it’s 2 feet wide, and then
it’ll take another 10 feet to slope back down to the ground level.
120. A small dental clinic is being planned for a level, square site in a small but fast-growing community. The developers expect
the clinic to grow with the community’s population, and therefore, they decide that the most appropriate organizational pattern
to use would be:
a. radial
b. axial
c. linear
d. grid-like
Answer: A - The clinic would consist of a central entry and waiting space, small offices, some storage and lab spaces, and several treatment
rooms. The most likely addition to such a facility would be additional treatment rooms, and these are most appropriately added in a radial
pattern for 2 reasons. First, the site is square, and so a lengthy axial or linear pattern is less appropriate than a more compact pattern.
Second, a radial pattern works well where all paths emanate from a common point (the entry) and lead to similar destinations (treatment
rooms). A grid pattern is also compact, but it is better suited for facilities requiring a more complex circulation flow.
121. You have been selected as the architect for a multi-story City Hall in a region that experiences extremes of heat and cold. In
addition, infrequent rains are torrential and often accompanied by fierce northerly winds. The program states that the new
structure should reflect permanence, tradition, and dignity, therefore, you select as the principal exterior finish materials for
walls and sloping roofs a combination of:
a. adobe blocks and clay tile
b. anodized aluminum panels and concrete tile
c. exposed concrete block and 5-ply composition roofing
d. exposed concrete and terne metal
Answer: D - Composition roofs that are subjected to torrential rains, high winds, and extremes of temperatures will not perform well for very
long. Similarly, tile roofs can be damaged by excessively strong winds. Thus, the best roofing here would be terne metal, which is a modern
material that can be used in a traditional way. Reviewing the wall materials, adobe is appropriate for the area, but inappropriate for multistory buildings. Anodized aluminum wouldn’t react well in this harsh climate, and it seems less dignified than the other choices. Exposed
concrete block and concrete should perform well under the existing conditions. Therefore, the materials of choice D would be permanent and
could be used in a traditional and dignified way.
122. A local ordinance permits the theater marquee shown below to project 4 feet beyond the property line over a public sidewalk.
The marquee projects 12 feet from the theater building, and the building setback is 10 feet from the edge of the curb. How
close to the curb edge may the theater building be placed?
a.
b.
c.
d.
10 feet
14 feet
18 feet
22 feet
Answer: C
123. A downtown warehouse is to be remodeled into a housing facility for the homeless. The exterior of the structure will remain
unchanged, but new partitions will be added to create individual rooms. Existing metal awning windows are 2’-9” x 4’-0”, half
of which is operable. If the ventilation requirement for fresh air is five percent of the floor area, what is the maximum room
size that can be planned using one window per room?
a. 10’ x 11’
b. 13.75’ x 16’
c. 14’ x 20’
d. 22’ x 25’
Answer: A - The area of each window is 2.75 x 4 = 11 SF. However, since only half of the window opens, then amount of ventilation in each
room is 5.5 SF. If 5.5 SF represents 5% of the room area, then the max room area is 5.5 / .05 = 110 SF.
124. Design solutions often reflect the unique characteristics of a particular sire. For example, a site with unusually steep terrain
suggests an architectural design that is:
a. arranged on a single level
b. based on an extended layout
c. organized in a radial design
d. planned as a compact form
Answer: D
125. In the hot-arid climate zone of the U.S., which of the following construction elements would be appropriate?
a. thick walls
b. wide overhangs
c. dense windbreaks
d. high ceilings
a.
b.
c.
d.
I and II
I, II, and IV
II, III, and IV
I, III, and IV
Answer: B - This zone is characterized by clear skies, dry air, long periods of heat, and large variations in daily temp. In such a climate one
would use think walls, which tend to make interior spaces cooler by day and warmer at night by absorbing and then radiating the sun’s heat.
Wide overhangs block the high summer sun, and high ceilings allow a greater volume of space for air to circulate.
126. Which of the following well-known buildings is based on a centralized plan?
a. Palazetto Dello Sport, by Nervi
b. Villa Savoye, by Le Corbusier
c. Yale University Art Gallery, by Kahn
d. All of the above
Answer: A
127. Doubling the distance between a sound source and its receiver diminishes the sound intensity level (LI) by how many
decibels?
Answer: 6dB – Although doubling the distance to the source reduces the intensity to one fourth, the sound intensity level (IL) diminishes by
only 6dB.
128. Define Exit Requirements?
Answer: A minimum of two exits are required per building. The width is dependent upon the number of building occupants. The maximum
distance between: 150 feet in an unsprinklered building and 200 feet in a sprinklered building – Verify with Code being used. Panic
Hardware is required in places of assembly. Signs must be illuminated and may require a special electrical circuit, batteries or separate
generator. Escalators and moving sidewalks are not considered legal means of egress.
129. Define Plat?
Answer: A map of surveyed land that indicates the boundaries of a particular tract, parcel, or piece of property, drawn to scale, and giving
dimensions of each boundary. It is a legally recorded document that may also contain easements, restrictions, and lot and block numbers for
a subdivision.
130. Define Fire Zone?
Answer: A zoning classification utilization by some jurisdictions to designate geographical areas of high hazard, moderate hazard, and low
hazard. The classifications are based on the following criteria: population density, street access, traffic flow, building height, and the local fire
department’s equipment and abilities.
131. Define Thermal Inertia?
Answer: The ability of a material to store energy (heat).
132. Define Entablature?
Answer: In classical architecture it is the area of construction between the columns and the eaves composed of an architrave, frieze, and
cornice.
133. Define Warranty Deed?
Answer: A guarantee that the property title will be transferred to a buyer free of liens, claims or other debts.
134. Define Fixed Limit?
Answer: A written statement signed by the owner and the architect to place a maximum limit on construction costs. The Architect has the
authority to decide upon the quality of materials and equipment. The architect may also be required to revise the scope of the program or to
make deductions in the bid package to meet this limit.
135. Define Azimuth and Altitude?
Answer: Azimuth is the angle of the sun measured clockwise from the North Point, in the Northern Hemisphere and from the South Point in
the Southern Hemisphere. Altitude is the angle of the height of the sun measured perpendicular to the horizon.
136. What city plan first separated housing and industry with a beltway?
Answer: Ebenezer Howard’s Garden City (1898). This was an attempt to combine the best of the city with the best of the country in a single
plan, where housing and industry are separated by a beltway.
137. Above what percentage of slope does hillside construction generally become prohibitively expensive?
Answer: Above 10 percent slope.
138. What are the components of the total project development budget?
Answer: Site acquisition – Construction cost – Site development – Financing – Professional services – Inflation – Equipment – Furnishings.
139. A pool deck with a low ALBEDO would most likely be made from which of the following materials?
a. Asphalt
b. Concrete
c. Slate Tiles
d. Redwood
Answer: D – Redwood is a material that would absorb the least thermal energy, enabling a person to walk on it in bare feet during the
summer months.
140. With a desired efficiency ratio of 75 percent, what is the amount of net rental space in a 100’ x 400’ mall with 30 percent of the
lot reserved for parking and sidewalks?
a. 21,000
b. 18,000
c. 35,500
d. 39,000
Answer: A – 21,000 s.f of net rentable space. The parking and sidewalks area is not rentable, so 30 percent of the 100’x400’ foot lot would
be subtracted from the gross lot area this would be (40,000 x .3) = 12,000 s.f. Then take 12,000 s.f. - 40,000 s.f. = 28,000 s.f. Then take the
28,000 s.f. x .75 percent gives us 21,000 s.f. total.
141. What is the best example of a sociofugal school design?
a. An axial plan with shared walkways
b. A cloister
c. One large, subdivided space
d. An axial plan with separate entrances
Answer: D – An axial plan with separate entrances. This scheme precludes a sense of community with the school.
142. Define Programming?
Answer: The process of identifying and organizing the functional, architectural, structural, aesthetic, mechanical, and financial criteria for a
particular building project.
143. Define Basic Road Types?
Answer: Local – Low capacity roads with direct access to a site. Collector – Connection roads between local and arterial streets. Arterial –
Wide, high capacity streets usually connecting to expressways. Expressways – Limited access roads with high speed, high volume
circulation.
144. Hector Guimard is best known for which of the following?
a. Casa Mila
b. Humbert de Romans Concert Hall
c. Paris Metro Stations
d. Hotel Tassel
Answer: C – These stations entrances were made from standard interchangeable iron parts cast in the naturalistic forms of the Art Nouveau
Style.
145. What elements of the total construction budget are considered professional services?
Answer: Architectural and Engineering fees are considered professional services. Topographical surveys, appraisals, soil tests, and legal
fees are considered additional professional services but are not elements of the total construction budget.
146. Developers of an amusement park would probably consider construction in a suburban area after researching which of the
following?
a. F.A.R.
b. Site Locations
c. Catchment area
d. P.U.D.
Answer: C – The catchment area is the population base for a particular area.
147. What are the three common economic incentives used by jurisdictions to encourage the installation of costly automatic fire
extinguishing systems?
Answer: Remember local codes vary, but normally it is reward by an increase in the allowable floor area between fire-rated walls. A
decrease in the number of exits. Reduced insurance cost.
148. What information is included in a topographic survey?
Answer: Site contours – Property boundaries – Existing buildings – Utility poles – Roads – Trees – Natural features.
149. If a high water table is found under a construction site, what portions of the project are affected?
Answer: Excavations – Foundation work – Installation of utilities – Landscaping
150. What are the negative aspects of building an expressway through a town?
Answer: Expressways divide neighborhoods both visually and physically, increased noise, and require a large amount of land for
construction.
151. What are the four basic variables affecting any construction budget?
Answer: Quantity – Quality – Time – Cost.
152. According to the Unified Soil Classification System how are soils classified?
Answer: Grain size and physical characteristics such as well-graded, poorly graded, organic and inorganic.
153. If a project is bid at a higher figure that the fixed limit of construction cost, what options does an owner have?
Answer: Ignore the fixed limit and agree to the higher cost. Re-bid the project. Forfeit the project and end the architect’s contract. Work with
the architect to reduce the scope of the work.
154. What environmental impact does development have on a rural site?
Answer: Alteration of natural land forms, drainage patterns, wild life and existing vegetation.
155. Define Climate?
Answer: The prevailing weather conditions of a region throughout the year and averaged over a series of years. It is affected by topography,
built and natural landscapes, exposure, and bodies of water. A microclimate is a locally varied climate.
156. If the current ratio of inflation is 1 percent per month and a million dollar residence goes over schedule by 2 months, how
much would the owner pay in increased cost?
Answer: (2,000,000.00 x .01) x 2 months = $40,000.00
157. When is the building permit obtained for a construction project?
Answer: The building permit is applied for at the end of the construction document phase. This insures that the permit will be available by the
time the contract for construction is awarded.
158. Which design phase usually requires the most amount of time?
Answer: Construction Document Phase.
159. What is the main dimensional priority of building design?
Answer: The human dimension. This should always be considered before spatial, technical or mechanical concerns.
160. There are three main concerns with analyzing utilities for a particular site. What are they?
Answer: Availability – Location – Capacity
161. During pre-design, what method would probably be used for calculating an estimated budget for a new hotel?
Answer: Hotels are normally based upon a cost-per-room basis.
162. Define Construction Documents?
Answer: The final working drawings and the complete project manual including specifications, bid documents, and contract documents.
163. Define F.A.R.?
Answer: Floor area ratio – a zoning regulation restricting the ratio between total floor area and overall lot area.
164. Define Blighted Area?
Answer: A segment of a community where negative conditions have partially or entirely destroyed its real estate desirability.
165. Define Barrier Free?
Answer: Spaces, buildings, and facilities that are fully accessible to anyone including those who are physically handicapped.
166. True or False – A circular rotunda is less cost efficient to construct that an hexagonal hall?
Answer: True – a hexagonal hall would utilize regular, rectilinear building components, whereas a circular rotunda would require mostly
custom, curved elements and custom finish work.
167. Define Value Engineering?
Answer: Where the owner removes all the cool architectural elements to save a few bucks.
168. Define Model Building Codes?
Answer: A non-regional reference guide for construction requirements compiled by experts. These are some of them – Uniform Building
Code (UBC) – International Building Code (IBC) – Standard Building Code (SBC).
169. The efficiency of a building.
Answer: The net-to-gross area ratio.
170. Define Right-of-Way?
Answer: An easement or access to anther parcel of land. A strip of land that is used by railroad or utility companies.
171. Define Steppe?
Answer: A level or rolling treeless plain usually in an area of extreme temperature ranges.
172. Define Belled Caisson?
Answer: An end bearing pile formed by filling a drilled shaft with concrete. The base of the pile is flared for extra bearing capacity.
173. Define Node?
Answer: A significant intersection through which people may pass. Examples are plazas, squares and subway stations.
174. Define Air Rights?
Answer: The legal right to use the air space over a specific tract of land or and existing building.
175. Define Circulation and Service Areas?
Answer: Floor areas are not included in the Net Floor Area.
176. Define Staged Bidding?
Answer: A method of Fast Track construction scheduling, where more than one contractor at a time is working on a particular job.
177. Define Conditional Use?
Answer: Special authorization granted by a board of adjustment or board of zoning appeal to deviate from local zoning requirements. This is
different from a Variance in that it is granted for a special purpose project deemed to be for the welfare of the public.
178. Define Soil Shear Strength.
Answer: The ability of soil to withstand loads.
179. Define Weir?
Answer: An embankment or dam formed to hold a river or stream or to divert a flow of water.
180. Define Thermal Conductivity?
Answer: The rate of flow of heat through a material as expressed in BTU’s per hour per degree Fahrenheit per square foot. Also known as
the U factor.
181. Define Vernal Equinox?
Answer: March 21st, when the sun’s path is halfway between the high solar angle of the summer solstice and the low solar angle of the winter
solstice.
182. Define Ecology?
Answer: The study of living organisms in relationship to their environment.
183. Define Occupancy Group?
Answer: A classification based upon the user-group for which a building is intended. The number of occupants and their activity determines
the classification. When two or more of these groups co-exist within the same building, a fire-rated separation is required between them.
184. Define Zoning?
Answer: The regulation of building uses, population density control, parking requirements, setbacks, and height limitations.
185. Define Outdoor Design Temperature?
Answer: A working average of low temperatures within a particular area.
186. Define Wall Footing?
Answer: This is one of the most common types of spread footings. It is located under a continuous foundation wall which supports a bearing
wall above.
187. Define P.U.D.?
Answer: Planned Unit Development. An outgrowth of the “Super Block” concept. Parcels of land are developed with a combination of
commercial, residential, recreational, and civic uses. Building standards for a Planned Unit Development establish the F.A.R. and the
parking to living space ratios.
188. Define Smoke-proof Tower?
Answer: Also referred to as a “Smoke proof enclosure” or “ fire tower”, required of structures 75 feet or taller. It is an isolated
noncombustible stair structure that connects to the building’s interior spaces by open air vestibules, mechanically-ventilated vestibules or
balconies. The tower remains smoke free in the event of a fire providing a safe means of egress for the building’s occupants.
189. Define Program Report?
Answer: The stated goals of the project, site analysis, aesthetic goals, organizational form, interior and exterior spatial needs, adjacency
requirements, time schedules, and budget.
190. Define General Overhead?
Answer: The contractor’s cost to run his own business including office rent, utilities, and other recurring costs. These costs are separate from
the project overhead which is the contractor’s expenses on a particular job. General overhead and project overhead are combined to form
the total overhead, usually 10 to 20 percent above the cost of construction.
191. Define Datum?
Answer: A horizontal plane to which ground elevations or water surface elevations are referred. Used in surveying and mapping. Sea level
is the common plane used.
192. Define Expansive Soils?
Answer: Silts and Clays: Both soil types easily absorb water and therefore can change in volume. These soils can heave in freezing
temperatures.
193. Define Non-Conforming Use?
Answer: A special distinction for buildings that pre-date a zoning ordinance or no longer conform as a result of recent changes in the code.
This type of building is allowed to remain in use, but major alterations are prohibited.
194. What is the most economical type of foundation system?
Answer: Spread footing. They use much less concrete and steel than mat foundations or piles and require minimal excavation.
195. For paved areas, what is the minimum slope for drainage away from a structure?
Answer: 1 percent slope: Surface runoff must be directed away from structures to above grade or below grade disposal systems.
196. At what point in the design process is it appropriate to utilize the parameter method of itemizing construction costs and
quantities as opposed to a unit cost method?
Answer: An itemized construction budget is required at the end of the schematic phase and, in a revised form, at the start of the construction
documents phase. The Parameter method is a more detailed budget that the dollar-per-square-foot (unit cost) method which is used at the
beginning of schematic design.
197. What are three means available to the architect for shortening the design schedule when an unrealistic time frame is
requested by a client?
Answer: Work the Design team overtime – Hire more design team members – Reduce the man hours on the project.
198. What is the most common method of determining Land Value?
Answer: The “Market” approach: The surrounding neighborhood is reviewed to determine the sale price, per square foot or per acre, for lots
of approximately the same size. Value adjustments are made for any unique feature a lot may have.
199. What are the main drawbacks of solar energy?
Answer: Utilization of solar energy may complicate the architect’s design program and may add substantial initial costs to the project,
although savings may be realized over time.
200. What factors affect a building’s plan orientation besides climate?
Answer: The building’s relationship to the street – The orientation of nearby structures – The aesthetics of the site.
201. What are the two methods of Construction Scheduling?
Answer: The Bar Chart Method – the Critical Path Method.
202. Well-Graded soil is comprised of what?
Answer: A mixture of coarse, fine and organic material that allows for an adequate rate of percolation. (the flow of water between soil grains)
203. What is a significant drawback to the New Town Concept as developed in Great Britain during the 1940’s?
Answer: This concept had originally aspired to produce self-sufficient urban centers. In actuality, these towns remained suburban and
dependent on larger urban centers, mostly for employment.
204. True – False: Because of their density, Silt particles are more stable than Sand particles?
Answer: False – Sand has a higher degree of Bearing Capacity. Silt is unstable when wet and heaves when frozen.
205. What is the advantage of northern light?
Answer: It has a more even intensity than bright, southern light.
206. The use of metal on an exterior surface should be avoided in what areas?
Answer: Coastal Locations: Humidity and salt are causes of corrosion.
207. How if wind pressure measured?
Answer: Pounds per Square Foot (psf) Corresponds to wind speed which is measured in miles per hour (mph).
208. What is the maximum slope for a lawn?
Answer: Generally accepted to be 3:1. Steeper slopes are possible but bring up maintenance issues.
209. What legal restrictions apply to most building projects?
Answer: Building codes and zoning ordinances.
210. What is the formula to determine the percentage of slope?
Answer: G = d/l (100) Where G = percent of slope of land – d = vertical distance in feet between contours – L = Horizontal distance between
points of a slope.
211. When does a client review the design of a project?
Answer: At the end of each design phase.
212. What are the five architectural orders?
Answer: Doric – Ionic – Corinthian – Tuscan – Composite.
213. What are the two most significant parts of the project schedule?
Answer: Project design time and project construction time.
214. True – False: An efficient, centrally controlled mechanical system allows for individual operable windows?
Answer: False – This requires non-operable windows for efficient climate control.
215. At what point during the design schedule are proposed structural systems presented to the client?
Answer: Specific structural systems are introduced during the design development phase of the project.
216. True – False – The new area of a building includes the floor area of the lavatories?
Answer: False – The net area of a building is the total gross area less all circulation, mechanical and lavatory spaces.
217. True – False: Programming is a process of problem solving?
Answer: False – programming is a process identification and not of problem solving.
218. An architect learns that the size of utility easements has not been indicated on the site survey provided by the owner. How
can they be obtained?
Answer: Utility easements can be obtained from the utility company.
219. What is the minimum slope for an underground drainage pipe?
Answer: .3 percent slope.
220. What are the four primary soil types and their grain size classifications?
Answer: Gravel – over 2mm in diameter. Sand - .05 to 2mm in diameter. Silt - .002 to .05mm in diameter. Clay – under .002mm in
diameter.
221. True – False: Wind loads decrease as the height of building increases?
Answer: False – wind loads are lateral loads that increase in force as the height of the building increases.
222. What is the minimum space required for a wheel chair to turn around 180 degrees?
Answer: 5’ feet.
223. Allowable floor areas are regulated by what authorities?
Answer: Zoning ordinances and Building Codes.
224. After completion of the Schematic Design phase, what is the most significant reason not to proceed directly into the Design
Development phase?
Answer: Project Financing.
225. When tall buildings act as wind breaks, what condition is created?
Answer: A vortex. Wind hits a building and moves both over the roof and down the façade, collecting at the base, and creating a high
velocity swirl of wind.
226. True – False: “Conductance” is synonymous with “resistance”
Answer: False – Conductance is the reciprocal of Resistance. A low “U” value or low conductance indicates a slow heat loss or high
resistance (“R” value).
227. What are three shading devices used to reduce solar energy gain in a building?
Answer: Overhangs, Vertical Fins or Baffles, Deciduous trees.
228. If the construction schedule can only be formalized by the contractor or construction manager, how can the architect inform
the client of time scheduling during the programming phases?
Answer: The architect makes an estimated of total construction time during the programming phase in order to give the client a general idea
of the move-in date. The architect, however, cannot guarantee any time table for the construction schedule.
229. What is the most efficient architectural means of reducing solar heat gain in the summer?
Answer: Solar heat gain can be reduced by 15 percent or more if the building design incorporates sufficient building overhangs and exterior
window louvers. These sun control devices admit light and views but block direct sunlight.
230. How can a construction budget compensate for inflation?
Answer: An inflation factor based on the current cost of construction and various inflation rate estimates gauge what the cost of construction
will be at the midpoint of construction. The difference between the midpoint cost and the original cost is added into the budget.
231. An unexpected foundation repair needs to be made on a renovation project. How is this unforeseen expense accommodated
in the construction budget?
Answer: A contingency allowance is used when unforeseen expenses are incurred on a job. Usually, the contingency allowance is an
amount set aside equal to 5-10 percent of the total construction budget.
232. Which of the following is not considered a municipal service?
a. Snow removal
b. Street cleaning
c. Fire protection
d. Telephone service
Answer: D – This is considered a utility, not a municipal service.
233. Define Master Format?
Answer: The standard outline of construction materials and components developed by the Construction Specifications Institute (CSI). The
format, including the 16 primary divisions, was revised in 2004 and forms the basis by which the building trades organize information.
00 – Procurement and Contracting Requirements
01 – General Requirements
02 – Existing Conditions
03 – Concrete
04 – Masonry
05 – Metals
06 – Wood, Plastics and Composites
07 – Thermal and Moisture Protection
08 – Openings
09 – Finishes
10 – Specialties
11 – Equipment
12 – Furnishings
13 – Special Construction
14 – Conveying Equipment
15 – Reserved for future expansion
234. According to the Secretary of the Interior’s Standards, describe the hierarchy of rehabilitation for a historic building.
Answer: 1. Identify, retain and preserve the form and detailing of materials and architectural features important in defining historic character.
2. Protect and maintain those materials and features that define historic character by using the least degree of intervention possible. 3.
Repair features when their physical condition warrants additional work, while using the least invasive means possible, such as patching,
splicing, and reinforcing. 4. Replace an entire feature if the level of deterioration is beyond that of repair. This is appropriate only if the
essential form and detailing of the feature are still evident, which would enable the feature to be accurately reestablished.
235. IBC Egress Stair Design Guidelines?
Answer: Elevation changes less than 12” should be sloped. – Single steps or short stairways present a tripping hazard and are to be avoided.
– Minimum width is 44” for an occupant load less than 50 the minimum width is 36” – Minimum headroom is 80” for spiral stair 78” – 12’
maximum rise between floors or landings. – Risers must be 4” minimum and 7” maximum. Treads must be 11” deep minimum, for dwellings,
7-3/4” maximum riser height and 10” minimum tread depth. – The radius of the leading edge of the tread must be no more than ½” and must
not project more than 1-1/4” over the tread below. – Treads and risers must be of uniform dimension with a tolerance of 3/8” – Stair risers on
accessible paths must be closed. – Open risers on non-accessible paths must prevent the passage of a 4” sphere.
236. Name four examples of mass produced or pre-fabricated residential architecture?
Answer: 1. Le Corbusier’s 1915-1925 “House-Machine” Often incorporated a structural system of reinforced concrete piers and slabs. 2. R.
Buckminster Fuller’s Dymaxion House, 1927. A hexagonal, free standing, metal prototype. 3. Frank Lloyd Wright’s Usonian House, 1930’s.
Relatively inexpensive architecture for clients of modest means. 4. Moshe Safdie’s Habitat, 1967. An experiment for the Montreal
International Exposition. 158 Apartments comprised of 354 precast concrete dwelling boxes lifted into place by crane.
237. Name five methods of improving soil bearing capacity?
Answer: Fill – poor soil is replaced with the appropriate soil, sand, and gravel mix. Moisture is added and the solid is then compacted.
Compaction – Usually of existing soil with a technique similar to compaction of fill. Densification – Use of heavy pounding piles, vibration or
weights to compact and fill voids. Surcharging – Adding fill to the existing soil and allowing settlement to take place with time. Mixing –
Addition of sand or gravel to the soil.
238. Name several methods used to control erosion, due to runoff or wind, during construction?
Answer: In the interest of site sustainability, these methods have been implemented to reduce the negative impact of construction on water
and air quality, and minimize the loss of topsoil and native vegetation. Silt fence – filter fabric usually fixed to wood stakes filters fine
sediment from runoff before it reaches receiving streams or storm sewers. Straw Bale Dams – Strategic placement prior to grading will
minimize the loss of topsoil by runoff. Hydro seeding or Mulch – Temporary seeding with quick sprouting annual grass or a layer of mulch
will help stabilize the top soil. Retaining Walls – a more permanent solution incorporated into the design.
239. Define Flat Plate Collector?
Answer: A device that collects solar energy for use as an energy source.
240. What three factors are used by an architect to determine building code requirements for a particular project?
Answer: Function – each group is classified by a letter and a number. Construction Type – for example, Type 1 or type V. Location –
Setbacks, alleys, public streets, and property lines.
241. According to the IBC, name the ten building occupancy classifications?
Answer:
1. Assembly: Groups A-1, A-2, A-3, A-4, A-5
2. Business: Group B
3. Educational: Group E
4. Factory and Industrial: Groups F-1 and F-2
5. High Hazard: Group H-1, H-2, H-3, H-4, H-5
6. Institutional: Groups I-1. I-2, I-3, I-4
7. Mercantile: Group M
8. Residential: Group R-1, R-2, R-3, and R-4
9. Storage: Group S-1, S-2
10. Utility and Miscellaneous: Group U
242. Name the three goals of the fire prevention code, in order of importance?
Answer: To protect occupants by means of an egress or place of refuge. To ensure the structural integrity of a building. To enable a building
to survive a fire with minimal damage.
243. What are the two basic energy codes and what does each specify?
Answer: Prescriptive code refers to energy saving techniques in construction. The ASHRAE series is a prescriptive code. Performance code
describes energy saving standards.
244. The number of plumbing fixtures in a building is determined by what?
a. Floor Area
b. Zoning Ordinances
c. Building Codes
d. NFPA
Answer: C – Building codes deal with the structural and mechanical aspects of a building and are intended for the protection of public health,
safety, and welfare. The minimum number of plumbing fixtures is defined by building codes, and according to the IBC it is based on the
occupancy classification and the number of occupants.