Social Sciences & Humanities Open 4 (2021) 100172
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Social Sciences & Humanities Open
journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/social-sciences-and-humanities-open
Rethinking theories of lesson plan for effective teaching and learning
Md. Hafiz Iqbal a, *, Shamsun Akhter Siddiqie b, Md. Abdul Mazid a
a
b
Government Edward College, Pabna, 6600, Bangladesh
National Academy for Educational Management (NAEM), Dhaka 1205, Bangladesh
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Keywords:
Knowledge management
Constructivism theory
Gagne’s nine events
Formative assessment
Lesson plan
Traditional teaching practice in the classroom is dominated by teacher-centered lecture practice where a welldesigned lesson plan is rarely followed. Having no lesson plan in the classroom, students’ role become pas­
sive. This study explores the potential contributors to lesson plans and designs a policy for effective lesson plans.
A mini-experiment was conducted at the Department of Economics in Government Edward College, Pabna and
the survey were conducted at different colleges in the same district of Bangladesh. The survey (n = 151) is used
for attributes selection, questionnaire development, and data collection. Theory-based lesson plan, seating
arrangement in the classroom, monitoring class activities, and teaching experience are essential for designing
and implementing lesson plans in the classroom. Findings of the study are very important for every teacher to
enhance their quality of teaching and assessment technique. These are also significant for every student because
it provides support to increase the engagement of learning in the classroom.
1. Introduction
Teachers in Bangladesh generally conduct classes following lecturer
method with a fixed duration of class where a teacher plays role like a
supreme spokesperson in the class for providing all types of information
to students where students are merely passive listeners (Hillman &
Ocampo Eibenschutz, 2018). This traditional teaching practice is known
as the chalk-and-talk method or the jug-and-mug where a teacher writes
and speaks only in the whole class time and students get least interaction
opportunity with their respective class teacher (Stehlik, 2018). This
teaching method is very insignificant to draw students’ attention
(Schwerdt & Wuppermann, 2011). Students having very little engage­
ment in the classroom activities, feel bored and sometimes become
diverted from the lesson in the class under this teaching method
(Bergdahl, Nouri, Fors, & Knutsson, 2020). As a result, they involve in
operating a mobile phone, or gossiping with their peers (see Fig. 1).
A teacher is treated as a sailor on a boat without a rudder in the
classroom when has no deep seated knowledge of designing lesson plans
using the basic theories and concepts of curriculum, learning, and
assessment. More specifically, a teacher in the classroom fails to stay on
track and unable to disseminate the learning outcomes of a lesson when
has no lesson plan. In general, aimless wandering in the classroom, nonacademic discussion, inconsistencies between previous and present
lessons, and no effective and lifelong learning are the ultimate outcomes
of having no lesson plan for a teacher. In such cases, most teachers
provide some suggestions to students on what to read and what to skip to
perform well in the examination. As a consequence, students depend on
memorization to pass the examination while teachers follow the sum­
mative assessment technique to assess students’ performance in the
examination. It is a common scenario of school, college, and university
education in Bangladesh.
Although the lesson plan is essential for improving teaching and
learning capacity, in practice, the implementation of lesson plan in the
classroom is rarely practiced in the classroom (Garrison & Kanuka,
2004). The literature often reports that having no knowledge of making
lesion plan is the main challenge to make and implement lesson
plan-induced session in the classroom (Cullen, Long, & Reback, 2013).
In general, teachers at college level have no idea about necessary the­
ories of lesson plan and their blending strategy for making lesson plan
(Jahjouh, 2014). According to an extensive body of empirical work,
every teacher needs to follow a lesson plan for effective teaching, stu­
dents’ learning and classroom management for fulfilling the learning
outcome because it is labeled as ‘the hidden world of teaching’ or
‘quality improvement activity’ (Saad, 2011; Shen, Poppink, Cui, & Fan,
2007). Lesson plan helps a teacher to utilize time, resources, materials
and techniques at an optimum level (Chickering & Ehrmann, 1996). The
evidence from observational studies of the determinants of lesson plan
can be summarized as follows: lack of knowledge for making lesson plan,
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: vaskoriqbal@gmail.com (Md.H. Iqbal), r.siddiqie@gmail.com (S.A. Siddiqie), dr.mazid.bangla@gmail.com (Md.A. Mazid).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2021.100172
Received 17 February 2021; Received in revised form 14 May 2021; Accepted 21 May 2021
Available online 3 June 2021
2590-2911/© 2021 The Authors.
Published by Elsevier Ltd.
This is an
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
open
access
article
under
the
CC
BY-NC-ND
license
Md.H. Iqbal et al.
Social Sciences & Humanities Open 4 (2021) 100172
and reliable.
no idea about relevant theories of lesson plan, shorter duration of class
time, mismanagement in the big classroom, shorter internet facilities,
lack of monitoring teachers’ class performance in the classroom, lack of
institutional support, and knowledge gap on formative assessment
technique (Crawford & Jenkins, 2018; Kristanto, 2017; Xu & Shi, 2018).
These studies suggest that among all the problems, idea about relevant
theories of lesson plan should be prioritized for better teaching and
learning in the classroom. To design theory-based lesson plan and ensure
an effective teaching and learning atmosphere, it is crucial to follow
constructivism theory, Gagne’s nine events of learning and formative
assessment blended lesson plan. Constructivism theory describes the
forms and internalized ideas of needs, tasks, and outcomes (Jonassen &
Rohrer-Murphy, 1999). Hypothesis, gathering, sharing information, and
solving a problem are the related issues of constructivism theory (Yil­
maz, 2011) where Gagne, based on the theory of behaviorism and
cognitivism, argues that need, task, and outcome-based learning is
responsible for changing human behavior that happens into the human
brain (Shuell, 1986). On the other hand, formative assessment is an
assessment technique where a teacher can identify a student’s basic
needs and weaknesses, provide corrective and effective feedback to him
for improving concepts and ideas on particular subject matter (van der
Kleij, 2019). These three theories are highly interrelated and lie at the
heart of education in any subject and help to design a lesson plan. They
work as catalysts for making an effective lesson plan (Ghanizadeh,
Hoorie, & Jahedizadeh, 2020; Green & Tolman, 2019, pp. 125–147). A
lesson plan derived from the jointness of these theories can empower
students as active and self-motivated in the learning process (Sousa,
2016). ‘Student-Centered Learning’ is functioning well under the proper
combination of these theories in a lesson plan. Mismatch and indepen­
dent use of these theories in the lesson plan may hamper learning out­
comes (Agnew, Lamb, & Tomann, 2019). However, the following
questions remain: how should theory-base lesson plan be designed?
What are the other factors associated with the theory-based lesson plan?
By answering these questions, our study minimizes the gap of similar
literature.
To date, no studies have suggested three theory-based lesson plan for
improving the teaching and learning. To ensure effective lesson, it is
important to assess how theory-based lesson plan can be enhanced
through few attributes such as teaching experience, students’ attention,
monitoring lesson plan-based class activities by other teachers, students’
interest, and seating arrangement in the classroom. More specifically,
our study identified some significant contributors to lesson plan for
better classroom management while delivering a lesson. We conducted a
mini experiment and the simple linear regression models for better
empirical assessment. Therefore, our estimated results are more valid
2. Theoretical motivation
Every researcher gets important clues for designing the research and
data analysis technique from the relevant theory. Constructivism theory,
Gagne’s 9 events of learning, and formative assessment help us to carry
out our research. The following section will explain these theories
briefly.
2.1. Constructivism theory
Psychologists are continuously having research to explore the ways
how a learner learns or how they should learn. The constructivism
theory helps to explore the root cause of learning (Charmaz, 2017). The
term constructivism derives from the English word ‘construct’ that
generates from the Latin word ‘constrvere’ which implies to rearrange or
to structure. Vico Giambattista, Jean Jaques Rousseau, John Dewey, and
Jerome Bruner are the historical predecessors of constructivism theory
(Stone, 1996). Constructivism theory reveals that learners can learn well
when they actively participate in the learning process. Mattar (2018)
argues that the process of learning occurs as a learner constructs and
changes the knowledge and thinking process in every step with his
sense, language, experience and surrounding environment. In the
learning process, every active learner uses the process of accommoda­
tion, assimilation, and equilibration (Jung, 2009). When a learner faces
something new, he verifies this new concept with his previous knowl­
edge and familiarity (Partington, 2021). In a constructivist learning
environment, a learner can design questions, develop knowledge, apply
concepts in daily life, detect issues, share own views, create own an­
swers, hypothesis test, use data, connect, interact, and involve in the real
world situation (Al Mamun, Lawrie, & Wright, 2020). A learner becomes
an independent and top-level thinker, a problem solver, a discussant, an
analyst, and a responsible learner under this learning environment.
2.2. Gagne’s 9 events of learning
Robert Gagne, an American Psychologist, writer, and thinker has a
great contribution to the field of structured instructional design,
teaching, and learning (Ngussa, 2014). In his article entitled ‘Instruction
and the conditions of learning’ Gagne proposes sequential conditions of
learning and proposes nine steps of learning for both the internal and
external aspects of learning (Gagne, 1974). These steps are necessary for
generating learner attention through the stimulus to preparing the
learner to solve new problems. His nine levels of learning offer a phase
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of an effective lesson plan.
(Source: Prepared by the authors, 2020).
2
Md.H. Iqbal et al.
Social Sciences & Humanities Open 4 (2021) 100172
by phase checklist. Gagne’s 9 events include: (i) capturing attention; (ii)
disseminating learning objectives; (iii) stimulating retention of prereq­
uisite learning; (iv) highlighting the stimulus material; (v) giving
learning guidance; (vi) presenting the performance; (vii) giving feed­
back about performance correctness; (viii) evaluating the performance;
and (ix) developing memory (Wong, 2018). Gagne’s 9 events of learning
have a significant role in developing a lesson plan. Many teachers
worldwide have successfully implemented effective lesson plans
following Gagne’s events (Tambi, Bayoumi, Lansberg, & Banerjee,
2018). It blends the exogenous instructions with the learner’s endoge­
nous cognitive learning process and retention where individual di­
versity, learner’s readiness and motivation to learn are perfectly
reflected (Mei, Ramli, & Al Hertani, 2015).
3. Methodology and research plan
3.1. Ethics statement
The ethical committee of the School of Education under the Uni­
versity of Nottingham, Malaysia Campus (UNMC) approved this study.
The consent form consisted of specific expectations in terms of clear
commitments to anonymity and confidentiality. This form has also
highlighted the details of the collection of data and research procedures.
This form offered a range of concepts and ideas in which consent was
sought and every participant was requested to provide cooperation,
information, and data. Oral information consent was obtained from all
the respondents after the survey objectives and procedures were
explained. The respondents were assured that their participation was
voluntary and they could withdraw from the survey at any time. They
were also assured that they were not identifiable in any resulting pre­
sentations or publications that arose from the study. It was made clear to
respondents that non-participation would not have any adverse conse­
quences. This study assigned a unique identification code to each re­
spondent’s information and data and divided personal identification
information from the response data to maintain the data’s high confi­
dentiality and protect the respondents’ anonymity. All sets of data were
password protected.
2.3. Formative assessment
Assessment is an evaluation process of a task at its different levels. It
is defined as the systematic basis for creating ideas, assumptions, in­
ferences, and knowledge about learning (Suskie, 2018). A teacher al­
ways tries to assess his students in case of education to testify the
progress of students’ learning through examination, homework, quiz,
oral presentation, lab demonstration, discussion, debate, interview,
report or project, log or journal, term paper, coursework essay,
open-book test, teacher observation, fill-out the document, class test,
group work, game-based quiz by Kahoot, assignment, and brainstorming
(Hedgcock & Ferris, 2013). It has several forms such as traditional,
performance (authentic), direct test, indirect test, objective, subjective,
quantitative, qualitative, formative, summative, criterion and
norm-referenced (Earl, 2013). Based on the numerous advantages (such
as learner engagement, triangulation of different facts and findings,
blended learning, reflection on practice, self-assessment, established
objective, several feedback loops, and several internal channels), effec­
tiveness, and applicability, formative assessment is the best assessment
technique compared to those of other forms of assessments (Terblanche,
2017). Under the formative assessment technique, a teacher can adjust
teaching styles to teach students effectively and can observe and assess
students’ affective domain especially their personal and social behavior,
attitude and values (Ruiz-Primo, 2011). Under this assessment tech­
nique, a teacher can evaluate students’ skills of listening, speaking and
reading within a very short period and suggest to them some corrective
guideline feedback (Price, Handley, Millar, & O’donovan, 2010). It en­
ables a learner to be a self-regulated and autonomous learner with the
help of their respective peers and teachers where he can take re­
sponsibility for his proper learning.
Based on the constructivism theory in learning, Gagne’s 9 events of
learning and formative assessment, it is easy to design a good lesson
plan. Although teaching is regarded as an art, a teacher should have a
lesson plan so that he can be on the right track and can deliver a lecture
based on learning objectives, making the lesson interesting, attractive,
significant, and sustainable and increasing the confidence of the teacher
and the learner. Fig. 1 helps us to understand the basic structure of a
lesson plan.
Strong association of constructivism theory, Gagne’s 9 events of
learning and formative assessment is essential for making an effective
lesson plan and fulfilling learning outcomes (Morkie, Dornan, & Eika,
2013). Proper linkage of these theories in a lesson outline provides a
plan to the class teacher to conduct academic sessions within the
designated class time. A lesson plan should comprise the course name,
name of the topic, learning objectives guided by the Bloom’s taxonomy,
lesson steps such as icebreaking or introducing session, recalling pre­
vious lesson, lesson development (explanation, demonstration, practice,
guidance and feedback), and ending session (warp up, assessment and
next step of lesson).
3.2. The experimental design
The Department of Economics of Government Edward College is
selected as a study site. This department started its journey in 1955
under the affiliation of University of Rajshahi, Bangladesh. It changed its
affiliation in 1994 when curriculum and academic activities of Gov­
ernment Edward College was run by the National University of
Bangladesh. This department currently offers undergraduate and grad­
uate programs. Generally, all teachers of this department rarely follow
lesson plans in their class. We conducted our experiment in this
department because of reliable and frequent support from all the faculty
members of this department.
For a better empirical assessment of effectiveness of lesson plan in
teaching of Basic Microeconomics at the Department of Economics, our
experiment occurred in 22 April-27 September 2019. To experiment, we
separated whole first year undergraduate students into two groups.
Section A consisted of 40 students who had odd ID numbers but were
restricted to follow lesson plans. Students of this section were treated as
study or experimental groups. Likewise, Section B also consisted of 40
students who had even ID numbers but were not restricted to follow
lesson plans. Students of this section were treated as usual or a
controlled group. Ms. Siddiqie designed eight lesson plans for eight
chapters of the Basic Microeconomics. Mr. Iqbal taught this course fol­
lowed to lesson plans in Section A and not followed lesson plans
(traditional teaching practice) in Section B, and Mr. Mazid observed Mr.
Iqbal’s lesson plan-mediated teaching practice and traditional teaching
practice in both Sections and provided suggestions to Mr. Iqbal for
further effectiveness of teaching. Our experimental classes were con­
ducted back to back at 9:45–10:45 a.m. in Section A and 10:50–11:50 a.
m. in Section B on Sunday, Monday, and Tuesday. Syllabi were identical
covering the contents: Basic of Economics, concept of demand and
supply, elasticity of supply and demand, utility analysis, theory of pro­
duction, theory of cost, perfect competition, and monopoly. To avoid
selection bias, we did not reveal that these classes were part of an
experiment. The class in Section A was conducted using power point
projector (PPT), mahjong paper, peer and group discussion, YouTube,
Google Podcast, cooperative and collaborative learning, and corrective
feedback to students. Sample of a lesson plan used in Section A is given
in the appendix. Both groups were assigned the same academic tasks
such as group works in the classroom, home works (writing summary,
problem statement, review of literature, result and discussion, and rec­
ommendations), and report writing on a particular topic. The grading
3
Md.H. Iqbal et al.
Social Sciences & Humanities Open 4 (2021) 100172
respondents were briefed about the constructivism theory, Gagne’s nine
events of learning, formative assessment, and importance of lesson plan
in teaching and learning. The data collectors do not indulge in any
personal and irrelevant gossiping to avoid anchoring or influencing the
answers of the respondents.
Ordinary least square (OLS)-mediated simple linear regression model
is applied to assess the impacts of our proposed three theories in the
lesson plan. All of our proposed theories-based attributes are included in
the following regression model:
scheme of the writing assignment carried a 10% mark in participation, a
20% mark in a homework assignment, and the rest 50% mark in short
report writing. Our result showed that the experimental group got a
good grade in their tasks (average score 82%) compared to those of the
usual group (average score 71%). This result motivated us to run the
questionnaire survey.
3.3. Survey instrument and data collection
LPi = β0 + βCT *CT + βGNE *GNE + βFA FA
In Bangladesh no prior attempt was made to compare the effect of
lesson plan in the class with the traditional teaching practice having no
lesion plan in the class and there is no existence of any database. We
used the instruments of both the quantitative and qualitative data for
better empirical assessment. Our experiment was conducted at the
Department of Economics in Government Edward College, Pabna but the
variables of the study were selected from existing literature and data
were collected from the survey through the semi-structured question­
naire in few NU affiliated colleges in the Pabna.
A systematic search of electronic databases was performed for
concept development of lesson plan and its role to develop learning
atmosphere for the period of 1986 to 2020. All studies related to the
effectiveness of lesson plans were selected at random to develop its
concepts, and strategies. Relationship between lesson plan and our three
proposed theories were selected from Bofill (2013), Singh and Yadu­
vanshi (2015), Buscombe (2013), Ng (2014), and Figa, Tarekegne, and
Kebede (2020). Other variables such as seating arrangement in the class,
students’ learning interest, attention towards teacher’s lecture, experience of
teaching, monitoring class activities were selected from Correa, Lara, Pino,
and Vera (2017), Hayanga, Lira, Aboagye, Hayanga, and D’Cunha
(2016), McLaughlin et al. (2014), Lotter et al. (2018) and Watson,
Timperio, Brown, Best, and Hesketh (2017). A survey through ques­
tionnaires using five point Likert scale and face-to-face interviews were
used to get students’ perceptions about lesson plans.
The surveys were conducted on 17–26 November 2019. Purposive
random sampling method was applied to capture the related data from
the students of these colleges because of its effectiveness to a target
group like student community (Aziz & Iqbal, 2020). Three colleges
(Government Edward College, Pabna Government Mohila [women]
College, and Ishwardi Government College) were selected from two
urban areas and 82 respondents participated in the survey from these
colleges. Other 69 respondents were selected for a survey from Dr.
Zahurul Kamal College under the Sujanagar sub-district, Haji Jamal
Uddin College under the Bhangura sub-district, Chatmohar College
under the Chatmohar sub-district, and Bera College under the Bera
subdistricts. The selection of respondents was kept random as much as
possible. However, there was a possibility of sampling errors. The
following procedures were taken in reducing the bias of the survey. All
survey interviews were conducted by the trained data collectors. All
(1)
In this basic regression model, lesson plan (LP) is treated as the
outcome variable and constructivism theory (CT), Gagne’s nine events
(GNE), and formative assessment (FA) related variables or attributes are
treated as explanatory variables or attributes.
We consider other attributes such as setting arrangement in the class
(SAC), students’ learning interest (SLI), students’ attention towards
teacher’s lecture (SAL), experience of teaching (EOT), and monitoring
class activities (MCA) with constant (β0 ) to get interaction effects from
lesson plans. The extended regression model takes the following form:
LPi = β0 + βCT * CT + βGNE * GNE + βFA FA + ξ (β0 * SAC) + ξ(β0 * SLI)
+ ξ(β0 * SAL) + ξ(β0 * EOT) + ξ(β0 * MCA)
(2)
The econometric software statistical package for the social sciences
(SPSS) was used to estimate the parameters of both regression models of
equation (1) and equation (2).
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Descriptive statistics
Table 1 presents the distribution, mean and standard deviation of our
proposed lesson plan related theories. About 102 (67.55%) of re­
spondents agreed or strongly agreed to the statement “Learning outcome
and lesson plan has strong association”. Almost two-third of respondents
109 (72%) agreed or strongly agreed to the statement “Formative
assessment is one of the best components of lesson plan”. Approximately 88
(58.27%) respondents agreed or strongly agreed to the statement
“Constructivism theory provides good guidelines to lesson plan”. About 91
(60.26%) respondents agreed or strongly agreed to the statement “It is
very difficult to develop lesson plans without using the Gagne’s nine events of
learning”. About 82 (54.30%) of respondents agreed or strongly agreed
with the statement “Every teacher should follow lesson plans for effective
teaching practice in the class”. Few 67 (44.37%) of respondents expressed
skepticism about the effects of lesson plan on better learning by agreeing
or strongly agreeing with the statement “Lesson plan is a strong contrib­
utor to learning in the classroom”. About 44 (29.13%) respondents dis­
agreed or strongly disagreed with the statement “Students’ attention
Table 1
Attitudes toward lesson plan for better learning outcomes.
Statements
Level of agreement (% respondents)
Learning outcome and lesson plan has strong association
Formative assessment is one of the best components of lesson plan
Constructivism theory provides good guidelines to lesson plan
It is very difficult to develop lesson plan without using the Gagne’s nine events of learning
Every teacher should follow lesson plan for effective teaching practice in the class
Lesson plan is strong contributor to learning in the class
Students’ attention towards class teacher’s lecture is substitute to lesson plan
Seating arrangement in the classroom is essential for better learning lesson plan
Students’ interests in learning is essential for lesson plan
Experience of teaching is most influential contributor of lesson plan
Monitoring of class activities can develop learning plan
1
2
3
4
5
19.02
13.11
7.68
12.01
13.05
3.81
17.72
2.54
18.52
10.69
9.07
10.41
9.82
22.96
10.44
9.07
21.92
11.41
7.87
26.19
32.44
17.27
3.02
5.07
11.09
17.29
23.58
29.90
42.29
38.59
16.88
13.83
26.65
38.39
24.68
28.96
37.48
36.53
30.01
19.81
13.38
19.40
23.98
28.57
29.16
47.32
29.31
22.78
17.77
14.36
8.77
37.62
19.01
19.06
18.44
Note. 1 = Strongly disagree; 2 = Disagree; 3 = Neither agree nor disagree; 4 = Agree; 5 = Strongly agree.
*** p-value<0.001 of mean being different from ‘3’ (Neither agree nor disagree).
4
Mean
Std. dev.
3.17
3.42
3.77
3.79
3.18
3.58
3.82
3.35
3.29
2.94
2.83
1.14
1.07
1.40
1.02
1.09
1.08
1.17
1.11
1.16
1.13
1.06
Md.H. Iqbal et al.
Social Sciences & Humanities Open 4 (2021) 100172
towards class teacher’s lecture is substitute to lesson plan”. About 77 (51%)
respondents agreed or strongly agreed to the statement “Seating
arrangement in the classroom is essential for better learning lesson plan”.
Some 58 (38.41%), 65 (43.04%) and 71 (47.01%) respondents agreed or
strongly agreed to the statements “Students’ interests in learning is essen­
tial for lesson plan”, “Experience of teaching is most influential contributor of
lesson plan” and “Monitoring of class activities can develop learning plan”.
Table 2
Regression results of the survey.
Variable/Attribute
Extended model
Coefficient
p-value
Coefficient
p-value
65.098* (0.658)
0.199*** (0.392)
0.209** (0.943)
0.573* (0.227)
0.000
0.089
0.053
0.000
71.539** (0.803)
0.183** (0.568)
0.264* (0.047)
0.498* (0.732)
0.375*** (0.058)
0.048
0.022
0.000
0.000
0.103
β0 *SLI
β0 *EOT
Constant
Ct
Gne
Fa
β0 *SAC
4.2. Results of regression model
Basic model
− 0.059 (0.830)
0.127
β0 *SAL
0.320 (0.093)
0.236
0.104* (0.534)
0.000
β0 *MCA
0.033*** (0.688)
0.794
Out of 151 students from seven NU affiliated colleges, 119
(78.807%) were male students and 32 (21.192%) were female students
in the survey. Coefficients of proposed theories and attributes of lesson
plan express the students’ choice possibility for considering the lesson
plan-induced class. The sign, level of significance, and degree of
magnitude make a guarantee of the effectiveness of lesson plan in aca­
demic session. All coefficients are statistically significant at 1%, 5%, and
10% levels. Estimated results ensure that lesson plans in the class have
produced effective learning outcomes.
Results for all 151 respondents from the basic and extended models
are presented in Table 2. The basic regression model shows the result
when it includes only the proposed theories for making lesson plans. The
result in the extended model ensures that seating arrangement, teaching
experience, and monitoring class along with proposed attributes are
found to be significant determinants of lesson plan. But it is not possible
to predict the relationship between students’ learning interest and lesson
plan, and students’ attention towards the teacher’s lecture and lesson
plan. During the survey, a large number of students said that they have
no participation experience in the lesson plan-induced class. Having no
experience in lesson plan-induced class may cause the insignificant
relationship between students’ learning interest and lesson plan, and
students’ attention towards teacher’s lecture and lesson plan. Significant
effects of constructivism theory, Gagne’s nine events of learning, and
formative assessment on designing a lesson plan are consistent with
most lesson plan studies because of their more sensitivity to lesson plan
(Cronjé, 2006; Gagne, Briggs, & Wager, 1988; Lawton et al., 2012; Li &
Tsai, 2013). Seating arrangement, teaching experience, and monitoring
activities have strong interactive power for better lesson plans in the
class. For example, monitoring class activities by senior teachers have a
positive effect on designing good lesson plans. This is consistent with
Todd, Horner, and Sugai (1999) where they argued that academic
engagement in the classroom through monitoring by senior colleges can
improve the lesson plan. Association of seating arrangement and utili­
zation of plan are essential for better learning. Harmer (2008) explained
that fixed seating arrangements in the classroom may hamper the
effectiveness of lesson plans in the classroom. Another statement ‘senior
and experienced teachers can design a lesson plan effectively’ is
consistent with Sahin-Taskin (2017) that fount positive association be­
tween teaching experience and lesson plan which is essential for better
teaching and learning practice in the classroom.
The log-likelihood test was used to determine the acceptance or
rejection of each variable. The goodness of fit (R2) is also improved when
the addition of the covariates is considered. The value of R2 in the range
of (0.20-0.30) is comparable to the range of (0.70-0.90) of an adjusted
R2 of an ordinary least square (OLS) method (Iqbal, 2020). Thus, the
basic and models along with the covariates is deemed the good regres­
sion model.
plan. This study explores the effective theories for designing the lesson
plan, detects the potential contributors to the lesson plan and guidelines
for designing lesson plan in the classroom. We used cross-sectional data
collected from NU affiliated few colleges in Pabna district. We also
depended on mini-experiment and two types of regression models for
proper empirical assessment. Our estimated results suggest that students
preferred lesson plan-induced academic class more. Our empirical
assessment also takes stand on the effectiveness of lesson plan based on
constructivism theory, Gagne’s nine events of learning, and formative
assessment, seating arrangement in the classroom, monitoring class
activities by senior or experienced teachers, and teaching experience. All
these factors are essential for designing effective lesson plans. For
example, Gagne’s nine events of learning help a teacher to design lesson
plan steps chronologically and make the lesson more attractive and
effective. Formative assessment helps a teacher to design an effective
lesson plan. Through the assessment process, a teacher can identify the
strengths and weaknesses of students and give corrective feedback.
Findings of the study is very significant for every teacher to develop their
teaching quality and be suitable for embodying desirable learning and
assessment techniques. These are also significant for every student
because it provides support to increase the engagement of learning ac­
tivities in the classroom. Future researchers, teachers, policy makers and
stakeholders get important facts and findings from our study to design
effective lesson plan and policy formation.
The study is not free from certain limitations due to time and budget
constraints and logistic supports from any instutution. As an essential
concept, it is essential to undertake an in-depth study and a higher range
of questionnaire surveys. For a better assessment, it is essential to
conduct further research in this field. Only a shorter range of the survey
in a few colleges in Pabna district may narrow down the scope, concept,
and effectiveness of lesson plans in the class; this area merits future
study. However, we successfully applied different approaches that
guarantee the validity, reliability, and consistency of our empirical
findings.
5. Conclusions
Funding
The lesson plan and lesson compliments each other like a motor
vehicle and fuel. A motor vehicle is inactive without fuel. Similarly, a
lesson having no plan is fully insignificant to maintain the lesson
perfectly in the classroom. Attractiveness, dynamism, satisfaction, more
engagement towards lessons and students’ interaction and participation
in the classroom are the common characteristics of an effective lesson
This study did not get any grant from authorized or designated
funding agencies in the private public, commercial, or non-profit
organization.
Observation
R-squared
Adjusted R-squared
151
0.434
0.283
151
0.409
0.355
Note. Residual diagnostic tests (p-values): Null hypothesis of normality: ShapiroWalk (0.13), Skewness-Kurtosis (0.36); Null hypothesis heteroscedasticity:
White (0.46), Breusch-Pagan (0.63).
Standard errors are reported in parentheses.
* Significant at the 1% level. ** Significant at the 5% level.*** Significant at the
10% level.
5
Md.H. Iqbal et al.
Social Sciences & Humanities Open 4 (2021) 100172
CRediT authorship contribution statement
understanding of curriculum, learning, and assessment (UCLA) at the
School of Education, Nottingham University Malaysia Campus (UNMC).
The authors would like to express their gratitude to Assistant Professor
Dr. Renee Chew Shiun Yee for her constructive comments and di­
rections. The authors are grateful to the editor and other anonymous
reviewers of this journal article for their essential suggestions for
improving the manuscript. However, any mistake is the sole re­
sponsibility of the authors.
Md. Hafiz Iqbal: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – orig­
inal draft, Software, Formal analysis. Shamsun Akhter Siddiqie:
Investigation, Writing – review & editing. Md. Abdul Mazid: Investi­
gation, Data curation, Supervision.
Acknowledgment
Previous version of this study was submitted as a term paper of
Appendix
Table 1
Sample of a lesson plan based on our proposed three theories
Lesson plan
Subject: Microeconomics
Topic: Utility analysis
Class: Undergraduate First Year.
Total duration: 60 min Theory mapping
Learning Objectives:
In this lesson, students are expected to
1. Understand utility.
2. Explain cardinal and ordinal utility and marginal and total utility with practical examples.
3. Present the law of diminishing marginal utility.
4. Analyze consumer equilibrium.
Lesson steps
Beginning
Starter activities to engage students with declaring the learning objectives
and verifying previous knowledge
Development
The teacher explains the learning contents with verbal, tabulation and
graphical explanation. The demonstration, practice opportunities,
feedback, and formative assessment activities are provided in this segment.
Ending
Wrap up the whole sections of today’s lesson and give some clue what will be
discussed in the next class.
Duration
- Firstly, congratulate all students in the class and draw their
attention by showing few relevant images or short video clip
through PPT.
- Then, ask students what issues they can learn with an apple
providing some clue.
- Then, the teacher will ask students whether they know
something about the concepts of utility. Trying to introduce
and implement scaffolding and retrieve previous ideas.
- The teacher asks the student about utility and its types with
examples and creates some pairs to exchange their views about
utility with each other.
- Teacher draws and explains the marginal and total utility with
examples and instructs students to draw a similar type of
graph.
- Working as a role player when a single person eats the same
items at a time, then links this with the law of diminishing
marginal utility theory.
- Forming a group to think how a consumer can reach in
equilibrium with utility preference and market price.
- After observing the group activities of students, the teacher
provides constructive feedback.
- Then, the teacher makes some quiz type questions to check
and test her/his students’ learning.
- Teacher summarizes the main points of class and receives
feedback from students.
- Recalling students that there are mainly two types of utility:
cardinal and ordinal utility and informing them tomorrow we
will learn about indifference curve analysis which is the main
instrument of ordinal utility.
- Give them homework on indifference curve analysis.
References
Duration
Theory mapping
10 Minutes
Gagne’s 1st step
Gagne’s 2nd step
Gagne’s 3rd step
Gagne’s 4th step
40 min
Gagne’s 5th step
Gagne’s 6th step
Gagne’s 7th step
10 min
Gagne’s 8th step
Gagne’s 9th step
Bofill, L. (2013). Constructivism and collaboration using Web 2.0 technology. Journal of
Applied Learning Technology, 3(2), 31–37.
Buscombe, C. (2013). Using Gagne’s theory to teach procedural skills. The Clinical
Teacher, 10(5), 302–307.
Charmaz, K. (2017). The power of constructivist grounded theory for critical inquiry.
Qualitative Inquiry, 23(1), 34–45.
Chickering, A. W., & Ehrmann, S. C. (1996). Implementing the seven principles:
Technology as lever. AAHE Bulletin, 49, 3–6.
Correa, R., Lara, E., Pino, P., & Vera, T. (2017). Relationship between group seating
arrangement in the classroom and student participation in speaking activities in EFL
classes at a secondary school in Chile. Folio, (45), 145–158.
Crawford, R., & Jenkins, L. E. (2018). Making pedagogy tangible: Developing skills and
knowledge using a team teaching and blended learning approach. Australian Journal
of Teacher Education, 43(1), 127–142.
Agnew, V., Lamb, J., & Tomann, J. (2019). The routledge handbook of reenactment studies:
Key terms in the field. London: Routledge.
Al Mamun, M. A., Lawrie, G., & Wright, T. (2020). Instructional design of scaffolded
online learning modules for self-directed and inquiry-based learning environments.
Computers & Education, 144, 103695.
Aziz, A., & Iqbal, M. H. (2020). Paddy farmers’ adaptive measures to salinization in
southwest coastal region of Bangladesh. BUP Journal, 8(1), 75–94.
Bergdahl, N., Nouri, J., Fors, U., & Knutsson, O. (2020). Engagement, disengagement and
performance when learning with technologies in upper secondary school. Computers
& Education, 149, 103783.
6
Md.H. Iqbal et al.
Social Sciences & Humanities Open 4 (2021) 100172
sultan idris education university Malaysia (UPSI). European Journal of Language and
Literature, 1(3), 32–37.
Morkie, A. M., Dornan, T., & Eika, B. (2013). Outcome (competency) based education: An
exploration of its origins, theoretical basis, and empirical evidence. Advances in
Health Sciences Education, 18(4), 851–863.
Ng, J. Y. (2014). Combining Peyton’s four-step approach and Gagne’s instructional
model in teaching slit-lamp examination. Perspectives on Medical Education, 3(6),
480–485.
Ngussa, B. M. (2014). Gagne’s nine events of instruction in Teaching _learning
Transaction: Evaluation of teachers by high school students in Musoma-Tanzania.
International Journal of Educational Research, 2(7), 189–206.
Partington, A. (2021). Developing inclusive pedagogies in HE through an understanding
of the learner-consumer: Promiscuity, hybridisation, and innovation. Postdigital
Science and Education, 3(1), 102–119.
Price, M., Handley, K., Millar, J., & O’donovan, B. (2010). Feedback: All that effort, but
what is the effect? Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 35(3), 277–289.
Ruiz-Primo, M. A. (2011). Informal formative assessment: The role of instructional
dialogues in assessing students’ learning. Studies In Educational Evaluation, 37(1),
15–24.
Saad, A. (2011). A case-based System for lesson plan construction (doctoral dissertation.
Loughborough University. Retrieved from:https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace- jspu
i/bitstream/2134/8794/1/ASLINA_SAAD.pdf.
Sahin-Taskin, C. (2017). Exploring pre-service teachers’ perceptions of lesson planning in
primary education. Journal of Education and Practice, 8(12), 57–63.
Schwerdt, G., & Wuppermann, A. C. (2011). Is traditional teaching really all that bad? A
within- student between-subject approach. Economics of Education Review, 30(2),
365–379.
Shen, J., Poppink, S., Cui, Y., & Fan, G. (2007). Lesson planning: A practice of
professional responsibility and development. Educational Horizons, 85(4), 248–258.
Shuell, T. J. (1986). Cognitive conceptions of learning. Review of Educational Research, 56
(4), 411–436.
Singh, S., & Yaduvanshi, S. (2015). Constructivism in science classroom: Why and how.
International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 5(3), 1–5.
Sousa, D. A. (2016). How the brain learns (5th ed.). California, United States of America:
Corwin Press, SAGE.
Stehlik, T. (2018). Educational philosophy for 21st century teachers. Cham: Palgrave
Macmillan.
Stone, J. E. (1996). Developmentalism: An obscure but pervasive restriction. Education
Policy Analysis Archives, 4(8), 1–32. Retrieved from https://epaa.asu.edu/ojs/article
/view/631/753.
Suskie, L. (2018). Assessing student learning: A common sense guide (3rd ed.). San
Francisco, United States of America: John Wiley & Sons.
Tambi, R., Bayoumi, R., Lansberg, P., & Banerjee, Y. (2018). Blending Gagne’s
instructional model with peyton’s approach to design an introductory bioinformatics
lesson plan for medical students: Proof-of-Concept study. JMIR Medical Education, 4
(2), e11122.
Terblanche, T. E. D. P. (2017). Technical and vocational education and training (TVET)
colleges in South Africa: A framework for leading curriculum change (doctoral
dissertation). Stellenbosch: Stellenbosch University.
Todd, A. W., Horner, R. H., & Sugai, G. (1999). Self-monitoring and self-recruited praise:
Effects on problem behavior, academic engagement, and work completion in a
typical classroom. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 1(2), 66–122.
Watson, A., Timperio, A., Brown, H., Best, K., & Hesketh, K. D. (2017). Effect of
classroom- based physical activity interventions on academic and physical activity
outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Behavioral
Nutrition and Physical Activity, 14(1), 1–24.
Wong, Y. L. (2018). Utilizing the principles of Gagne’s nine events of instruction in the
teaching of goldmann applanation tonometry. Advances in Medical Education and
Practice, 9, 45–51.
Xu, Z., & Shi, Y. (2018). Application of constructivist theory in flipped classroom-take
college English teaching as a case study. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 8(7),
880–887.
Yilmaz, K. (2011). The cognitive perspective on learning: Its theoretical underpinnings
and implications for classroom practices. The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational
Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 84(5), 204–212.
Cronjé, J. (2006). Paradigms regained: Toward integrating objectivism and
constructivism in instructional design and the learning sciences. Educational
Technology Research and Development, 54(4), 387–416.
Cullen, J. B., Long, M. C., & Reback, R. (2013). Jockeying for position: Strategic high
school choice under Texas’ top ten percent plan. Journal of Public Economics, 97,
32–48.
Earl, L. M. (2013). Assessment as learning: Using classroom assessment to maximize student
learning (2nd ed.). California: United States of America: Corwin Press, SAGE.
Figa, J. G., Tarekegne, W. M., & Kebede, M. A. (2020). The practice of formative
assessment in Ethiopian secondary school curriculum implementation: The case of
west arsi zone secondary schools. Educational Assessment, 1–12.
Gagne, R. M. (1974). Instruction and the conditions of learning. 1 pp. 153–175).
Psychological School Learning Views of the Learner.
Gagne, R. M., Briggs, L. J., & Wager, W. W. (1988). Instructional design. New York:
Rinehart and Winston Inc.
Garrison, D. R., & Kanuka, H. (2004). Blended learning: Uncovering its transformative
potential in higher education. The Internet and Higher Education, 7(2), 95–105.
Ghanizadeh, A., Hoorie, A. H., & Jahedizadeh, S. (2020). Higher order thinking skills in the
language classroom: A concise guide. second language learning and teaching. Berlin:
Springer link.
Green, K. R., & Tolman, S. (2019). Equitable means accessible: Using universal design for
learning and student development theory to inform online pedagogy. In Care and culturally
responsive pedagogy in online settings. IGI Global.
Harmer, J. (2008). How to teach English. ELT Journal, 62(3), 313–316.
Hayanga, J. W. A., Lira, A., Aboagye, J. K., Hayanga, H. K., & D’Cunha, J. (2016).
Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation as a bridge to lung transplantation: What
lessons might we learn from volume and expertise? Interactive Cardiovascular and
Thoracic Surgery, 22(4), 406–410.
Hedgcock, J., & Ferris, D. R. (2013). Teaching L2 composition: Purpose, process, and
practice (3rd ed.). United Kingdom: Routledge.
Hillman, S., & Ocampo Eibenschutz, E. (2018). English, super-diversity, and identity in
the State of Qatar. World Englishes, 37(2), 228–247.
Iqbal, M. H. (2020). Valuing ecosystem services of Sundarbans Mangrove forest:
Approach of choice experiment. Global Ecology and Conservation, 24, Article e01273.
Jahjouh, Y. M. A. (2014). The effectiveness of blended e-learning forum in planning for
science instruction. Journal of Turkish Science Education, 11(4), 3–16.
Jonassen, D. H., & Rohrer-Murphy, L. (1999). Activity theory as a framework for
designing constructivist learning environments. Educational Technology Research &
Development, 47(1), 61–79.
Jung, J. W. (2009). Exploring the processes, outcomes, and factors of student teachers’
inquiry. GA, USA: Doctoral dissertation). University of Georgia.
van der Kleij, F. M. (2019). Comparison of teacher and student perceptions of formative
assessment feedback practices and association with individual student
characteristics. Teaching and Teacher Education, 85, 175–189.
Kristanto, A. (2017). The development of instructional materials e-learning based on
blended learning. International Education Studies, 10(7), 10–17.
Lawton, D., Vye, N., Bransford, J., Sanders, E., Richey, M., French, D., et al. (2012).
Online learning based on essential concepts and formative assessment. Journal of
Engineering Education, 101(2), 244–287.
Li, M. C., & Tsai, C. C. (2013). Game-based learning in science education: A review of
relevant research. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 22(6), 877–898.
Lotter, C. R., Thompson, S., Dickenson, T. S., Smiley, W. F., Blue, G., & Rea, M. (2018).
The impact of a practice-teaching professional development model on teachers’
inquiry instruction and inquiry efficacy beliefs. International Journal of Science and
Mathematics Education, 16(2), 255–273.
Mattar, J. (2018). Constructivism and connectivism in education technology: Active,
situated, authentic, experiential, and anchored learning/El constructivismo y el
conectivismo en tecnología educativa: El aprendizaje activo, situado, auténtico,
experiential anclado. REID. Revista Iberoamericana de Educación a Distancia, 21(2),
201–217.
McLaughlin, J. E., Mary, T. R., Dylan, M. G., Nastaran, G., Christopher, A. D.,
LaToya, M. G., et al. (2014). The flipped classroom: A course redesign to foster
learning and engagement in a health professions school. Academic Medicine, 89(2),
236–243.
Mei, F. S. Y., Ramli, S. B., & Al Hertani, N. A. (2015). Application of Gagne’s nine
approaches to teach Arabic language for non-native speakers: Experimental study at
7