Introduction to Social Psychology Outline 1 OVERVIEW Scope of field Definition of Social Psychology Scientific common sense collect data "most" individuals Five basic factors actions and characteristics of others cognitive processes Norman Triplet: 1st experiment in social psychology using bicycles and the ecological variables competitive bike races. People tend to go faster in those situations than in cultural context regular timed trials. He cannot have people race, so he decides to use fishing line and have people biological aspects race each other to do it vs do it themselves. Social Facilitation Effect: Our performance tends to improve when others are involved Historical and conceptual overview McDougall: influenced by Darwin Ross: adopts and biological kinds of influence Birth sociological approach and instinct. Dives right into (macro-view) how can experimentation. Wants to know 1898 Triplett experiment social structures be how individuals perceive and write 1st two texts on moved by individuals behave in response to social social psychology but 1908 Ross & McDougall structures. from two different takes 1924 Allport social behaviors have multiple different influences that drive them Childhood how are people able to treat others so poorly to rise to power stereotyping, mob mentality, discrimination become big studies 1930 era Lewin Koffka Kohler Wertheimer (Gestalt) World War II stimulation and response of behavioralism 1940 era says its not all about the person but the situation as well how does the situation influence peoples patterns of thinking 1950 era - Lewin cognition becomes important, perception how do we make errors Adolescence bring influence to social psychology by examining the present action research: leads us to interventions to allow us to make the world better 1960 era late 1960, early 1970 "identity crisis" Recent trends individuals roles within society individual and society together and separate Social Psychology and... Sociology looking more at the individual The individual and society neuroscience is structure while social is more about the nontangible "Personality" or "Individual Difference" psychology Clinical practice Neuroscience levels of analysis: broad vs specific specific doesnt always match the broad question Introduction to Social Psychology Outline 2 METHODS Ideas from the real world Correlational research direction positive negative magnitude causality random sample Experimental research causality and manipulation random assignment operational definitions replication generalizability Introduction to Social Psychology Outline 3 THE SOCIAL SELF History What is the self? How social? William James' description ┌──────────────────────── The Self ─────────────────────┐ │ │ The I The ME (knower, thinker, continuity (self as object of the "little voice") perception) │ ┌───────────────────────────┘ │ Parts of ME │ │ │ ┌────────────────────────┘ │ └─────────────────────┐ │ │ │ Material Self Spiritual Self Social Self(selves) (possessions, (Inner Experience, (Interactions with physical being) - not specifically others - esp. powerreligious ful - The "ME" known happy/tired/aroused by my: parents, Traits, beliefs, friends, boss, prof. what you take as Different for each concrete about relationship) yourself) Development of the self Mirrors, chimps, and children Importance of others Cooley and Meade - "looking glass" Tice - "magnifying glass" Differences from others Why do we care about the self? What are its effects? Self schemata Remembering Thinking Perceiving The Totalitarian Ego Self-verification Self-esteem William James' formula Introduction to Social Psychology Outline 4 Self-affirmation Self-verification as contrasted with self-esteem (affirmation) Self-awareness Role of society Uses for this information Introduction to Social Psychology Outline 5 CONFORMITY Good or bad? Sherif Asch Distinctions compliance acceptance normative influence informational influence Milgram Status in group Minority influence Contagion GROUP INFLUENCE What is a group? Impact of people Social facilitation Social loafing and social facilitation Social Impact theory Deindividuation Leadership Trait approach Situational approach Fielder's contingency approach Group consensus ratings Introduction to Social Psychology Outline 6 AGGRESSION The case of Charles Whitman Definition of aggression Hostile Instrumental Why? Biological basis Frustration aggression Always true? Displacements Having a reason Cues Lifted restraints Social Learning theory Simple reinforcement Modeling (vicarious reinforcement) Violence & the media Sex & aggression Catharsis Decreasing aggression Introduction to Social Psychology Outline 7 CONFLICT Social traps Games we play Zero-sum Non-zero-sum Prisoner's dilemma Tit for tat The "Tragedy of the Commons" dilemma How belief influences reality ALTRUISM Kin selection (sociobiology) Society's response True altruism? How to increase the odds that you get help when you need it Introduction to Social Psychology Outline 8 PERSUASION, ATTITUDES, & BEHAVIOR What's an attitude? Attitude change Hoveland and the Yale Communication Paradigm Who says What to Whom? Source, Message, & Target Source credibility: Sleeper effect (Hoveland & Weiss, 1951) Disassociation hypothesis Effect of target's prior attitude: Contrast & assimilation Type of processing Central Peripheral Forewarning (Freedman & Sears, 1965) Attitude formation Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Mere exposure (Zajonc) Self-perception (Bem) Implications of attitude formation Not necessarily logical or rational Attitudes may not be consistent Knowing how attitudes are formed can help understand how to change Attitudes and behavior Do attitudes cause behavior? LaPiere (1934) Problem of levels Minimize other factors Increase salience or power of the attitude Do behaviors cause attitudes? Festinger's theory of Cognitive Dissonance When Prophecy Fails (1956) Cognitions are beliefs Dissonance is psychological, not logical, inconsistency Magnitude of dissonance Attitudes and dissonance: Festinger & Carlsmith (1959) Insufficient justification Application of DT: Effort justification Axsom & Cooper (1983) Qualification of DT Self-perception as reaction to DT (Bem, 1965) Overjustification (Lepper, Green, & Nisbett, 1973) Pre-existing attitude Role of arousal (Zanna & Cooper, 1974) Introduction to Social Psychology Outline 9 Integration of DT and SPT (Fazio, Zanna, & Cooper, 1977) Introduction to Social Psychology Outline 10 PERSUASION, ATTITUDES, & BEHAVIOR (cont'd) Original attitude Forced or Choice Outcome toward nuking whales highly pro speech attitude Mechanism Comment Abby neutral choice + SP no original attitude, so no clash Bill neutral forced neutral SP perceive speech is due to force clash, easier to change attitude Claire — choice + CD Demi — forced — CD or SP force provides "out" for both Gregor — choice, then sedated — CD lowered arousal, change not needed Fanny — choice, then placebo — CD attributes arousal to drug Gigi + choice, no pay + + SP within latitude of acceptance Hector + choice, pay neutral SP overjustification Irene — choice, low pay + CD or SP insufficient justification Julie — choice, high pay — CD or SP pay provides "out" for both Introduction to Social Psychology Outline 11 EXPECTANCIES Person perception Brunswick lens model of perception Errors in perception Why study the "errors" of perception? Who says these are really wrong? Reasons for biases Cognitive Motivational Types of biases Self-serving More than one's fair share Memory construction Reliance on small, biased samples Heuristics Availability Representativeness Value Framing Impression formation Primacy effect Asch's Gestalt Model (1946) Schemata What are schemata? Abstracted information about world Where do they come from? What do they do? Reduce flow of incoming information Go beyond the information given What are their influences on perception? To what do you pay attention? What do you remember? What do you do? Self-fulfilling prophecy Types of schemata Person Self Role Event Introduction to Social Psychology Outline 12 ATTRIBUTION THEORIES What is the central concern of an attribution? Fritz Heider Why make attributions? Types of attributions Internal External Principle of sufficiency "Behavior engulfs the field" When do we conduct an attributional search? Surprising or unusual behavior Negative events Major Theories Kelley Covariation Discounting Augmentation Jones & Davis: Correspondent Inference Work backwards from effects of behavior Non-common effects Jones, Davis, & Gergen, 1961 Kelley contrasted with Jones & Davis Attributions and you Self-handicapping Jones & Berglas (1978) Stigmatized others (Snyder et al., 1979) Final comments on attribution Cultural limitation of attribution theory Introduction to Social Psychology Outline 13 STEREOTYPES & PREJUDICE Definitions Stereotype Prejudice Discrimination Learning approach Group influence Conformity Normative influence / compliance Informational influence / acceptance Cognitive Explanations Categorization Out-group homogeneity bias Illusory correlations Both are distinctive Relation is expected Subcategorization Cues Expectancy confirmation Perceptual Behavioral influence Suspicion Minimal group (Tajfel, 1963) Motivational approach Scapegoating Just world Disidentification Decreasing stereotyping and prejudice Intentionality Attitudes can be influenced by behavior Contact Prevent disidentification Openness Introduction to Social Psychology Outline 14 ATTRACTION & RELATIONSHIPS Cross-cultural note What is studied How these topics might be different Degree of choice Continuity Individualism & Collectivism Attitude formation Reward theory Equity Attractiveness and status as commodities Communal relationships Comparison level Balance theory Strain is toward homeostasis Prediction Regaining balance Belief changes Importance shifts Attitudes leading to liking Love Liking & Loving Passionate & Companionate (Walster & Walster, 1978) Tripartite theory (Sternberg) Emotional intimacy Passion Commitment Non-love Liking Infatuation Romance Companionate Consummate Intimacy — + — + + + Passion — — + + — + Commitment — — — — + + Attachment theory (Bowlby...Ainsworth) Social animal Introduction to Social Psychology Outline 15 Functions Ending relationships
