Chapter 7 Homework – Skeletal System (Chapter 6) I. Name 5 functions of the skeletal system II. Describe the following: 1. Diaphysis 6. Osteocytes 2. Epiphysis 7. Epiphyseal plate 3. Articular cartilage 8. Epiphyseal line 4. Osteoblasts 5. Osteoclasts III. Name the 3 groups of bones included in the axial skeleton IV. Name the 4 groups of bones included in the appendicular skeleton V. Describe the 3 types of joints according to the degree of movement they allow Homework – Muscular System (Chapter 8) List 3 functions of the skeletal muscles II. Define the following: 1. sarcomere 2. z lines 3. prime mover 11. endurance training 4. antagonist 5. synergist 6. isotonic contraction 7. isometric contraction 8. origin 9. insertion 10. strength training I. Musculoskeletal System Terminology Combining Form Ankyl/o Meaning stiff Medical Term ankylosis Meaning Stiffening of a joint The following combining forms “pertain to” the anatomical part listed: Arthr/o joint arthralgia Joint pain Burs/o sac of fluid bursitis Inflammation of near joints a bursa Calc/o calcium hypocalcemia Low calcium levels in blood Carp/o wrist bones carpal Referring to wrist bones Cervic/o neck, cervix cervical Pertaining to the of the uterus neck Chondr/o cartilage chondrocytes Cartilage cells Joint – where 2 bones come together Elbow joint Cartilage – flexible, fibrous connective tissue Bursa Clavicul/o Coccyg/o Cost/o Crani/o Femor/o Fibul/o Humer/o Ili/o Ischi/o clavicle, collar bone coccyx, tail bone rib skull clavicular femur, thigh bone fibula, calf bone humerus, arm bone Ilium, high portion of hip bone Ischium, a pelvic bone femoral coccygeal intercostal craniotomy fibular humeral ilial ischial Referring to the clavicle Referring to the coccyx Between the ribs An incision into the skull Referring to the femur Referring to the fibula Referring to the humerus Referring to the ilium Referring to the ischium Lumb/o Metacarp/o Metatars/o Muscul/o or My/o lower back, loin metacarpals, hand bones metatarsals, foot bones muscle lumbar metacarpal metatarsal muscular myoma Myel/o bone marrow myeloma Oste/o bone endosteum Referring to the lumbar area Referring to the hand bones Referring to the foot bones Referring to muscles A tumor involving the muscles of the uterus Cancerous growth of plasma cells from bone marrow Membrane forming the inner lining of the bone marrow Patell/o Pelv/i Phalang/o Pub/o or Pubic Sacr/o Scapul/o Spondyl/o Stern/o patella, knee cap hip bone patellar phalanges, fingers and toes pubis, anterior part of hip bone sacrum phalangeal scapula, shoulder blade vertebra,back bone sternum, breast bone scapular pelvic pubic sacral spondylitis sternal Referring to the knee cap Referring to the hip bone Referring to the toes and fingers Referring to the pubis Referring to the sacrum Referring to the scapula Inflammation of the vertebra Referring to the breast bone Tars/o Ten/o or Tend/o Thorac/o Tibi/o Uln/o Vertebr/o Radi/o tarsus, ankle bone tendon tarsal thorax, chest tibia, shin bone ulna, forearm bone aligned with the little finger vertebra, back bone radius, forearm bone aligned with the thumb thoracic tibial Referring to the ankle bone Inflammation of the tendon Referring to the thorax Referring to the tibia ulnar Referring to the ulna vertebral Referring to the back bone Pertaining to the radius tendonitis radial FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM 1. Support The bones form the body’s supporting framework. 2. Protects vital organs such as the brain, the heart and lungs. 3. Movement As muscles contract, they pull on bones and therefore, move them. 4. Hemopoiesis/Hematopoiesis – blood cell formation in the red bone marrow Functions of the Skeletal System 5. Storage of calcium and phosphorus Calcitonin, secreted by the thyroid gland, enhances incorporation of calcium into bone. Parathyroid hormone, secreted by the parathyroid gland, regulates the release of calcium from bone. Types of Bones according to Shape 1. Long Bones - longer than wide Examples: femur, humerus 2. Short Bones – roughly with equal dimensions of length and width Example: carpal bones 3. Flat Bones - thin and broad Example: skull bones Types of Bones according to Shape 1. Long Bones 2. Short Bones carpal bones Femur 4. Irregular Bones - with complex shape Example: vertebral bones 5. Sesamoid Bone – small, round bone embedded within a tendon Example: patella 3. Flat Bones 4. Irregular Bone 5. Sesamoid or round Bone patella STRUCTURE OF A LONG BONE 1. Diaphysis shaft of long bone hollow tube made of hard, compact bone but light in weight to permit easy movement 2. Medullary Cavity hollow area inside the diaphysis containing yellow fat bone marrow 3.Epiphysis – expanded ends of long bones composed of spongy bone with red bone marrow STRUCTURE OR A LONG BONE 4. Articular Cartilage – thin layer of cartilage covering the epiphyses acts as a cushion between bones in a joint 5. Periosteum- strong fibrous membrane covering the shaft of long bones 6. Endosteum – membrane that lines the medullary cavity STRUCTURE OR A LONG BONE MICROSCOPIC STRUCTURE OF BONE AND CARTILAGE (page 111) The two major types of connective tissues in bone: 1. BONE 1.1 Compact Bone - the hard and dense outer layer of bone 1.2 Spongy Bone – the porous or cancellous bone at the ends of long bones Trabeculae (Latin “trabeculae” – small beam) – needle-like threads of spongy bone STRUCTURE OR A LONG BONE Osteon Osteon or Haversian system– the smallest functional and structural unit of compact bone Each circular, tube-like osteon has a central canal that contains a blood vessel. Layers of calcified circular matrix around the central canal are called concentric lamellae (Latin “lamella”- layer) Osteon Osteon Osteocytes or bone cells lie in between lamellae inside little spaces called lacunae (Latin “lacuna” – hole, pit) Canaliculi or tiny passageways from the central canal - supply food and oxygen to the osteocytes; connect the osteocytes Osteon 2. CARTILAGE– connective tissue with collagenous fibers imbedded in firm gel matrix Chondrocytes – cartilage cells that are located in lacunae Lack of blood vessels in cartilage makes post injury healing rather slow. Bone Formation and Growth Endochondral Ossification – formation of bone from cartilage Begins before birth of an infant wherein calcium is laid on cartilage by bone-forming cells called osteoblasts Blood vessels invade the diaphysis and ossification centers appear in epiphyses Simultaneous action of the osteoclasts, bone-reabsorbing cells, help sculpture bone into its adult size and shape Bone development in the newborn Epiphyseal Plate (growth plate) – contains cartilage from where bone continues to develop and grow Epiphyseal Line results when the epiphyseal plate has ossified with the resultant cessation of bone growth Epiphyseal Plate seen on x-ray of tibia and fibula of a 12-year old child As long as any cartilage, called an epiphyseal plate (or growth plate) remains, growth continues. Longitudinal growth ceases when all epiphyseal cartilage is transformed into bone. You Tube: Osteoblasts and Osteoclasts http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=78RBpWSOl08 Bone Repair After a fracture, bones heal as long as the circulatory supply and cellular components of the periosteum and endosteum survive. Stages of Healing of a Simple Bone Fracture: 1. Hematoma Formation Blood vessels are broken causing bleeding, pooling and clotting of blood into the fractured bone – a fracture hematoma is formed. 2. Fibrocartilagenous callus-formation. Cells from the periosteum and endosteum migrate into the fracture zone. These cells (fibroblasts) convert into osteoblasts which, together with the osteoclasts, begin reconstruction of bone. The cells form a thickening (callus) around the fracture and some transform into cartilage-producing cells. Capillaries grow in the fracture site. 3. Bony callus-formation. Continued migration and proliferation of osteoblasts and osteocytes result in turning the fibrocartilagenous callus into bony callus. 4. Remodeling. The bony callus will smoothen and be remodeled through the action of the osteoclasts. After repair, the fractured bone will be “good as new” although slightly thicker than normal. You Tube: How the Body Works: Repair of Bone (by dan izzo) Do SG Exercises pages 65-66, numbers 1-30 except numbers 8, 25 and 26 Divisions of the Skeleton 1. Axial Skeleton -bones at the center or the axis of the body; includes the skull, spine, chest and hyoid bone 2. Appendicular Skeleton bones of the upper and lower extremities (appendages) including the pectoral and pelvic girdles Total number of bones =206 Bones of the Axial Skeleton Bones of the Skull 1. Frontal Bone – forehead bone 2. Parietal Bones (Latin “parietalis” –wall of a cavity) form the topsides or roof of the cranium 3. Temporal Bones – form the lower sides of the cranium; contain the middle and inner ears 4. Occipital Bone (Latin “occiput” – posterior and inferior) – bone forming the back of the skull 5. Sphenoid Bone –forms central part of floor of cranium; forms the sella turcica which holds the pituitary gland 6. Ethmoid Bone - uniquely-shaped bone that forms floor of cranium, part of the orbit, sidewalls and roof of the nose and part of its middle partition Sphenoid and Ethmoid Bones Sella Turcica Bones of the Face 1. Zygomatic bones (Greek “zygoma” - yoke) - cheek bones 2. Maxilla (Maxillary bones) – upper jaw 3. Mandible – lower jaw 4. Nasal – bones that form the upper part of bridge of nose 5. Lacrimal – medial wall of eye socket and side wall of nasal cavity 6. Vomer – forms lower, back part of nasal septum Bones of the Face 7. Palatine bones – form the hard palate 8. Inferior nasal conchae – found on the lateral walls of the nasal cavities Zygoma = (Greek “Yoke”) You Tube: Skull Bones (cattosa 3) The Vertebral (Spinal) Column 7 Cervical Bones – Atlas (1st cervical), Axis (2nd cervical) 12 Thoracic - upper back 5 Lumbar - lower back 5 Sacral bones fused into one among adults to form the sacrum 3-5 Coccygeal bones fused into one among adults to form the tailbone Total bones of spinal column = 26 Bones of the Thorax The thoracic cage or chest cage is made up of the 12 pairs of ribs, the sternum and the thoracic vertebrae. The first 7 pairs of ribs are true ribs. They are attached to the sternum by costal cartilages. The lower 5 pairs are false ribs. The 8th, 9th and 10th ribs are attached to the sternum through the costal cartilage of the 7th rib. The 2 last pairs that are not attached to the sternum (11th and 12th) are floating ribs. The sternum is divided into 3 parts: 1. manubrium uppermost part attached to the clavicle 2. body of the sternum 3. xiphoid process The Appendicular Skeleton The bones of upper and lower extremities together with the pectoral and pelvic girdles comprise the appendicular skeleton. The Pectoral Girdle The pectoral girdle attaches the bones of the upper extremities to the axial skeleton. The scapula (shoulder blade) and the clavicle (collar bone) comprise the pectoral girdle. The sternoclavicular joint is the point of attachment between the bones of the pectoral girdle and the axial skeleton. Bones of the Upper Extremities Humerus – arm bone Radius – forearm bone on the side of the thumb Ulna – forearm bone on the side of the little finger Carpal Bones –wrist bones, 8 on each wrist Metacarpals – bones of the palm, 5 on each hand Phalanges – finger bones, 14 on each hand The Pelvic Girdle The pelvic girdle attaches the bones of the lower extremity to the axial skeleton. The ilium, ischium and pubis comprise the pelvic girdle (hip). The pelvic girdle is attached to the axial skeleton through the sacrum. The femur (thigh bone) is attached to the pelvic girdle through the acetabulum, a socket at the hip joint formed by the three hip bones. The iliosacral joint attaches bones of the lower extremities to the axial skeleton. Hip Joint – femoral head + acetabulum Bones of the Lower Extremity Femur – thigh bone; longest, strongest bone of the body Tibia – shinbone Fibula – calf bone Patella – knee cap Tarsal bones – bones of the ankle joint, 7 on each ankle Metatarsal bones – foot bones, 5 on each foot Phalanges – toe bones, 14 on each foot Do SG Exercises pages 66-69 Bone Marking Structures I. Projections – processes that grow out from bone; for muscle attachment and articulation Marking Condyle Crest Epicondyle Facet Head Meaning/Function Large rounded articular process Prominent ridge for muscle attachment Bump superior to condyle for muscle attachment Smooth, flat articular surface Rounded articular projection that forms part of a joint Example condyle of the distal femur crest of the ilial bone lateral epicondyle of the humerus facets of the spinal vertebrae head of the femur Femoral Condyles (below) and Lateral Humeral epicondyle (right) Facets between spinal vertebrae Head of the Femur Ramus Spine Trochanter Tuberosity Tubercle Curved articular portion like a ram’s horn Sharp slender projection, for muscle attachment Bump-like projection larger than a tuberosity, for muscle attachment Rounded or oblong projection smaller than a trochanter, for muscle attachment A round nodule, smaller than a tuberosity, for muscle attachment superior and inferior pubic rami spinous process of vertebrae greater trochanter of the femur deltoid tuberosity of the humerus rib tubercle Fracture in a pubic ramus Greater Trochanter of the Femur Tubercle of the Rib bone Tuberosities of the humerus II. Depressions – clefts, holes or cavities in bone; some serve as passageway for blood vessels and nerves Marking Fissure Meaning channel-like cleft Fossa a shallow depression mandibular fossa of the temporal bone (TMJ) hole foramen magnum of the occipital bone tube-like channel external auditory meatus within a bone of the temporal bone cavity in a bone maxillary sinus groove or furrow sigmoid sulcus at the mastoid portion of the temporal bone Foramen Meatus Sinus Sulcus Example tympanomastoid fissure Tympanomastoid Fissure Mandibular Fossa of the Temporal Bone - TMJ External Auditory Meatus Paranasal Sinuses III. Palpable Bony Landmarks – bones that can be touched or identified through the skin Serve as reference points in identifying other body structures Frontal Bone Medial malleolus of tibia Zygomatic Bone Lateral malleolus of fibula Mandible Tibia or shinbone Clavicle Calcaneus or heel bone Sternum Metacarpals/Metatarsals Lateral epicondyle of the humerus Anterior superior iliac spine JOINTS (ARTICULATIONS) Connection of a bone to another bone Hold bones together securely while making movements possible Three types of joints according to the degree of movement they allow: 1. Synarthroses – no movement 2. Amphiarthroses – slight movement 3. Diarthroses – free movement 1. Synarthrosis (Greek “syn” - “together”) fibrous connective tissue grows in between the articulating bones; no movement is allowed Example: skull joints (sutures) coronal suture sagittal suture lambdoidal suture squamous suture 2. Amphiarthrosis (Greek “amphi” – “on both sides”) cartilage connects the articulating bones some movement is allowed Examples: symphysis pubis, joint between vertebral bones 3. Diarthrosis (Greek “di” – “apart”) –freely movable joints with the following structural features: 3.1 Joint capsule – toughest fibrous connective tissue that securely joins the bones in a joint 3.2 Joint cavity – space inside the capsule lined with synovial membrane that secretes synovial fluid 3.3 Articular cartilage – covers the ends of the bones acting as rubber cushion to absorb shock and help reduce friction during movement Examples: knee joint, elbow joint 3.4 Ligaments – cords similarly made of strongest fibrous connective tissue growing out of the periosteum, securing the bones together more firmly 3.5 Synovial Membrane – lines the joint space and secretes synovial fluid that acts like a lubricant allowing easier joint movement with less friction 3.6 Bursa – a fluid-filled pouch-like extension of the synovial membrane that acts like a shock-absorbing cushion in the joint 3.7 The meniscus (meniscus – crescent) is a shockabsorbing fibrocartilage pad lying between 2 opposing articular surfaces. Increases the area of contact between bones Distributes pressure better Limits extreme movements Ligaments Bursa Types of Diarthrotic Joints Gliding joint – least movable, allows limited gliding movements Example: joint between the clavicle and the manubrium Hinge Joint – allows movement on only 2 directions – flexion and extension -- like opening and closing of a door Example: knee joint, elbow joint, finger joints Saddle joint. The only saddle joint in the body is between the first metacarpal bone and the trapezium of the carpal joint. - Allows flexion, extension, abduction, adduction and circumduction so that the thumb may be opposed to the fingers Pivot joint . Where a small projection of one bone pivots in an arch of another bone allowing pivotal (rotational) movement of the joint Example: joint between the atlas (first cervical vertebra) and the axis (second cervical vertebra) Saddle Joint Pivot Joint Atlas (C1) and Axis (C2) The configuration and relationship between the atlas and axis allow the head to attain rotational movement. Gliding Joint Hinge Joint Condyloid joint. Where the condyloid (oval projection) of a bone fits into an elliptical socket. Example: joint between radius and carpal bones Ball-and-Socket Joint – the ball-shaped head of one bone fits into a concave socket of another bone - allows the widest range of movement Example: hip joint, shoulder joint Condyloid Joint Ball-and-Socket Do SG Exercises pages 59 and 70 Disorders of Bones 1. Fracture – a break in bone often caused by high impact or stress on bone - may likewise be caused by medical conditions like osteoporosis, cancer or osteogenesis imperfecta 2. Osteoporosis – a bone disease of advancing age characterized by loss of calcified matrix and collagenous fibers from bone - reduction in new bone growth results in bone degeneration and “spontaneous fractures” Osteoporosis 3. Osteomyelitis – inflammation of the bone and bone marrow usually due to a bacterial infection - may occur as a complication of trauma or surgery, or may be blood-borne from another body site 4. Bone Tumors – mass of tissue that is formed when bone cells proliferate uncontrollably Most bone tumors are benign. 4.1 Osteochondroma – most common benign bone tumor that usually develops during childhood and adolescence - caused by overgrowth of bone and cartilage cells near the growth plate Osteomyelitis 4.2 Osteoid Osteoma – benign tumor that arises from the osteoblasts, occurring mostly in long bones - peak age incidence is during the early twenties 4.3 Osteosarcoma ( Osteogenic Sarcoma) – most common malignant tumor of bone caused by proliferation of osteoblasts - teenagers are the most commonly affected age group 4.4 Chondrosarcoma – bone cancer that begins from cartilage cells - often affecting people between 40 and 70 years Osteogenic Sarcoma 5. Abnormalities in Spinal Curvatures Scoliosis - sideways curve of the spine that usually assumes an ‘S’ or a ‘C’ shape Kyphosis –abnormally rounded upper curvature of the spine Lordosis (Swayback)– spine curves inward at the lower back 6. Skeletal Changes in Aging aside from Osteoporosis 6.1 Lipping – a process wherein aging bones develop indistinct, shaggy-appearing margins with spurs - restricts movement because of piling up of bone tissue around the joints Scoliosis Kyphosis 6.2 Osteoarthritis – degenerative joint disease caused by inflammation, breakdown and eventual loss of cartilage in joints Disorders of Joints 1. Dislocation (Luxation) - when bones in a joint become displaced or misaligned usually caused by sudden impact to the joint 2. Sprain – joint injury caused by violent twisting of a ligament 3. Arthritis – joint inflammation Osteoarthritis – degenerative joint disease caused by inflammation, breakdown and eventual loss of cartilage in joints Rheumatoid Arthritis – a chronic autoimmune disease with an unknown cause Dislocation Gouty Arthritis or Gout – joint inflammation due to excessive amounts of uric acid that form crystals in joints 4. Disorders of the Intervertebral Discs Degenerative Disc Disease – a natural part of aging when the disc undergoes structural deterioration, loses ability to cushion the vertebrae - may not cause pain or may cause intractable back pain Gouty Arthritis Disc Herniation – occurs when the disc prolapses out of its anatomical position due to injury or aging - can cause back or neck pain, numbness or tingling in the arms, or searing pain down one or both legs 5. Bursitis – inflammation of a bursa caused by irritation, injury or infection Herniated Disc Bursitis References 1. Thibodeau Ga and Patton KT, Structure and function of the Body, 14th Edition 2012 2. http://www.webmd.com/cancer/bonetumors “Bone Tumors 3. http://www.webmd.com/RheumatoidArthritis/guide “Common Types of Arthritis 4. http://www.webmd.com/backpain/guide “Types of Spine Curvature Disorders” 5. www.humanillness.com “Human Diseases and Conditions: Osteomyelitis” 6. www.medscape.com “Principles of Bone Healing” 7. http://www.ivyrose.co.uk/HumanBody/Skeleton/Bonemarkings “Bone Markings/Features of Bones”
