English composition & comprehensive
Grammar
Pedagogical
applied/functional grammar
Academic
Understanding
The rules
Words= phrase -clause-sentence
Noun, pronoun, verb, adverb, proposition, conjunction, interjection,
Part of speech
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•
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Tenses
Narration
Proposition
Conditional sentences
Punctuation marks
Q: what are the objective of the course “English
composition & comprehensive?
A: the major course objective is:
1. To introduce and enhance the basic grammatical concepts of English language.
2. To improve basic and fundamental writing, reading, speaking skills.
3. To help students to use English language correctly in their field for which English language compliancy
is mandatory.
4. To improve the confidences level of the students.
5. To work on the personality traits of the student.
Morpheme
Word
Phrase
Clause
sentence
Morpheme: morpheme is the smallest meaning full segment of a language which cannot be feather
divided for example eat, cat, tree, root,
Eat s,
Verb plural
cat s,
noun plural
tree s,
noun
plural
Word: it is a single distinct meaning full element of a speech or writing, use to form a sentence.
Phrase: phrase is a combination of two or more than two word which does not give completed idea for
example (one the table, in the room, at the door etc.
1. The book is on the table.
2. The boy is reading book in the room.
3. Don’t look at the door side.
Clause: A clause is a group of words containing a subject a predicate and functioning as a member of a
complex sentence
1.
2.
3.
4.
When it rain, they went inside.
Pakistan win the toss, and decided to bat first.
Jon is not feeling well but he will come tomorrow.
If he works hard, he will pass the exam.
Sentence: A sentence is a group of words that express a complete idea. Example they are playing
football.
A sentence minimum has a subject and have a predicate
Subject: The subject is the person or thing about which something is being stated “Jon is playing football,
He loves video games, Pakistan is the greatest country”
Predicate: predicate is a part of sentence that tell something about the subject. The predicate always
includes a verb for example: Jon is a good boy. Tom walks slowly. We meet our teachers.
Declarative:
sentence which make simple assertions or statements are called declarative or assertive
Example: I like reading, the child is going to school, it is raining, I get up early in the morning.
Assertive or declarative sentence may be positive(affirmative) or negative.
Example: honesty is best policy.
Sentences which give a negative meaning or called negative
For example: he will not come today. he is not working hard. They are not listening to me.
Interrogative sentence:
Sentence of their kind ask question for example (what is your name? can you solve this problem?
Are you willing to go?)
Imperative: sentence which express order, command, requests, advice or suggestions or called imperative
sentence.
Example: (leave this place at once) order (get lost) order (please help me) request (work hard) advice (let’s go for a
walk.) suggestion
Optative sentence: sentences which express some wish, prayer, curse, etc. are called optative sentence.
Example: May you live long! May God help you!
May go to hell!
Exclamatory: sentence of this kind expresses some story feeling or emotions. Such as happy news,
sorrow, regret, surprise etc.
Example:
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•
•
•
•
•
we have won the match. (surprise)
What a marvelous sight.
How beautiful the flower is!
Hurrah! We have won.
Alas! He is no more
Assertive & imperative are followed by a (.)
interjection
Hurrah!
Alas!
Oh!
Interrogative sentences are followed by the sign of interrogation or question mark. (?)
Explanatory & operative sentences are followed by the sign of exclamation (!).
Positive sentence also
called affirmative
You are tall. = positive
(Declarative sentence)
Declarative also called
assertive
You are not tall. =negative
Are you tall? =question
(interrogative sentence)
Be tall. =order/request
(imperative sentence)
I wish I were taller. =wish
(optative sentence)
We have won the math! =Declarative
(Exclamatory sentence)
Parts of speech:
In English language is composed of in its parts of speech: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb,
preposition, conjunction interjection.
English language is composed of 8 parts speeches: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition,
conjunction and interjection(article).
Noun
Pronoun
common noun
Type of referent
Concrete
Grammatical form
abstract
countable
non-countable
Noun: name of person, place, thing, and concept.
Example: ali, Karachi, Lahore, pen, pencil, night mare. Truth, admiration, democracy, bravery, joy.
Freedom, failure.
Proper noun: it is a name of specific person place or thing e.g. apple, zain xla, Google etc.
Characteristics: proper noun always start with the capital latter it is usually consider as a singular noun. It
is followed by a singular verb.
Quaid-e- Azam Muhammad ali jinnah (singular noun) was (singular verb) a great leader.
UNITED NATION ORGANIZATION (singular noun) is working in different economical centers in Pakistan.
Common noun:
Common noun refers to general names things odds items like car, book, phone, shoes etc.
Type of referent
Concrete noun:
Concrete noun is perceived to our sense, touch, smell, hair, sight,
Example: table, chair, phone.
Abstract noun:
Abstract noun has no material existence these are perceived to mind abstract noun usually refers to feeling,
state, quality concept or event e.g. courage, anger, happiness, truth, democracy.
Grammatical form
Countable noun: countable noun referred to think that is view as count able. English grammar
e.g. countable noun individual people, places, things or ideas which can be counted. These nouns have two
forms singular and polar form.
Non-countable noun:
Anything that is non-countable is called uncountable noun. Even though common noun are not
individually objects. They are always singular, and one must use singular verb with uncountable noun.
There are mostly solids and liquids for example milk, water, butter.
Bottle
Clay
Teeth
Breath
Concrete
Concrete
Concrete
Concrete
Count
Count
Count
Non-count
Adventure
Abstract
count
Pronoun: it is a word which is use instead of a noun.
➢ To stop repetition.
➢ First use non-pronoun.
➢ Antecedent.
e.g. ali(antecedent)is working hard.
He will surely pass.
Subjective case: I, HE, SHE, THEY,
Objective case: ME, HIM, HER, THEM.
Number distinguish:
Singular:
Plural
I
WE
HE
THEY
Kinds of pronoun:
➢ The personal pronoun.
➢ The reflective pronoun.
Kinds:
1st person: I, We, My, Us.
2nd person: You, Yours.
3RD Person: He, She, It, They.
The reflective pronouns:
Self, selves.
Himself themselves
The demonstrative (to point out) pronoun:
This, that, these, those, such.
e.g. 1. This book is better than that book.
2. This book is better than that.
3. This is better than that.
4. These cars are good in race.
5. These boys do better thing then other.
The relative pronoun
SHE
US
IT
OUR
YOU
YOU
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•
•
•
I met the doctor. The doctor is my friend. (simple)
I met the doctor and he is my friend. (and is conjunction)
I met the doctor who is my friend. (who is pronoun/conjunction)
These are the thing which are responsible.
Interrogative pronoun:
Who, whom, whose, who, which.
e.g. > which is your book?
> when did they come?
> how are your friends?
The possessive pronoun
Who are you.
Hers, ours, mine, your,
Interrogative pronoun
Who, whom, whose,
which
e.g. > This book is hers.
> I parked my car directly behind yours.
The indefinite pronoun.
Nobody (indefinite pronoun) attended the class.
Many (indefinite pronoun) die in the field of battle.
Anybody
Anyone
Any of
Some (indefinite pronoun) are born brave.
They know that everyone is in worried.
indefinite
pronoun
Anyone know the answer.
It was the serious accident, but all are save.
Adjective
He is a brave(adjective) man(noun)
He is brave(adjective).
1. Quality
Honest, foolish, big, small, powerful, etc.
2. Number
One, two, three, first, second, Few, many, several.
e.g. I have two (numerical adjective) books(noun) .
3. Quantity
Much, little, enough, some,
Uncountable noun
e.g.
* Enough water for seven days.
* There is much noise in class.
4. Demonstrative Adjective
This, that, these, those, such,
e.g. This(pronoun) is your book(noun)
They are use with countable noun.
This(adjective) back is yours.
Those(pronoun) are(verb) my friend.
Those(adjective) people are uneducated.
I (Personal pronoun) told her (personal pronoun) that(conjunction) these books are mine.
This(adjective) plan(verb) will surely work.
Such(pronoun) friend are blessing.
5. Interrogative adjective
Which, whose, what, when,
e.g. Whose book(noun) are these?
What profit(noun) it will give?
Which student(noun) are absent today?
What (integrative pronoun) are you doing?
Proposition
A proposition is a word that connect a noun, a noun phase or a pronoun, to another word in a sentence
(specially to a verb another noun or an adjective)
OR
Proposition are used before noun and pronoun to connect them to the proceeding material.
For example
In, on, about, with, off, etc. moreover they are also used before a noun and pronoun to show place,
position and time.
Example
We jumped in the lack.
I heard the sound off land music.
He reached the office in time.
He reached the office on time.
The book is in the cupboard.
The book is on the table.
The book is under the table.
The book is beside the table.
The cat is on the wall.
They are waiting for you at bus station.
We wake up early in the morning.
He slept late at night.
They were leaving abroad in 1990.
INTERJECTION
Interjection is sometime not regarded as part of speech because it is merely a sound which is included in
the sentence to express or show some strong felling or emotion.
It is grammatically not related another part of the sentence. It is usually followed by a mark of
exclamation. (!)
ADVERB
An adverb as something to the meaning of any part of speech except a noun or a pronoun if may quality
or add the meanings of proposition conjunctions verbs adjective some other adverb or on entire assertive
sentence.
Characteristics:
1.An adverb modifies a verb
e.g. she bravely fought against the difficulties.
2. An adverb modifies proposition and conjunction.
e.g. the brick fell exactly over the men’s head.
I hate him simply because he is very proud.
3. an adverb modified and adjective
e.g. The tower is surprisingly high.
4. an adverb can qualify another verb.
e.g. Thy carried(verb) very(adverb) loudly(adverb).
5. an adverb sometime modifies an entire assertive.
e.g. certainly, I shall help him.
The doctor came late, unfortunately.
6. The same world can be adverb or an adjective at different places.
e.g. It is fast(adjective) train.
He walks(verb) fast(adverb).
7. Am adverb has three digress positive, comparative, superlative,
e.g.
fast, faster, fastest,
loud, louder, loudest.
Much, More, most.
The Conjunction
The conjunction is a world that join two or more worlds, phases or clauses. It is also called gluing word.
e.g. on, but, or, yet, so, if, whenever, wherever, unless, nor etc.
Examples:
day or night. Chick & chips. up & down. Select and save. Yes or no.
phrase:
In the room and on the table.
Clause:
I saw a doctor and he is my friend.
Kinds of conjunction
1. Coordinating conjunction
These are the most common and there are only seven of them
[For, and, nor, but, or, yet,] FANBOYS
some people remember these with acronyms FANBOYS.
They glue together sentence element that are equal.
For example:
Two words: pie or cake.
Two phases: in the car or on the bike.
Two clauses: you must study, or you won’t have learnt grammar.
2. Subordinating:
These conjunctions glue some subordinate clauses to independent clauses. A subordinate clause cannot
stay alone.
Subordinate clause:
I will bring my cat unless you are allergic.
You will pass the exam if you work hard.
3. Corelative conjunction
They are always use in pair
Either----------or
Neither-------nor
Both-----------and
e.g.
• both Alix and I are allergic to cats.
• Either mom nor dad will pick you up.
Neither me nor allies will into go.
THE VERB
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•
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a verb is a word use for saying something about the person or thing. It is the most important word in the
sentence. Because we can’t make a sentence without it, it may consist of one or more word; as
write; is writing; has been written according to OXFORD Advanced learner’s dictionary: “A verb is
word or phrase infecting an action or event or state.”
A sentence can consist of a verb on its own.
For example: stop, leave, come,
The boy goes to school daily in the morning.
She is going to school.
Pakistan has won the math.
The Tran is moving fast.
General characteristics:
1. The first characteristics the verb can be either doing (an action) words or linking words. e.g.
1)The
dog chased (doing verb) the old man. 2)The postman is (linking verb) a middle-aged man. 3) ali is (helping. Verb)
running fast. 4) ali is (linking. Verb) a proud man.
2. verbs are transitive and intransitive. Transitive mean that action passes across the subject of the
sentence to an object: 1) she reads (verb. transitive) the books. Intransitive mean that there is action passing
across. e.g. The child weeps (intransitive. verb) loudly.
3. Verbs have active or passive form. E.g. 1) ali(S) beats(V) Hussain(O). 2)Hussain(S) is beaten(V) by ali(O) .
4. verbs have tenses: the express time the main three tenses are past, present and future. e.g. yesterday I
spoke to my mother. (past).
today I
speak to my friend. (present).
tomorrow I
will speak to you (future).
5. verb indicate whether the action is completed or in progress i.e. aspect for example:
he is cooking. (progressive)
he has coked. (perfective aspect)
Verb is usually sub divided into two kinds;
1. Lexical verbs
2. Auxiliary
Lexical verbs: these are verbs which carry the message and are related with lexicon of language. (I.e. of
vocabulary or dictionary) the term lexical verbs some time used for main verbs as contrasted with
auxiliary verb.
For example: 1) do you understand(lexical verb). 2) I am (lexical Verb) not satisfied with the progress. 3) what is
(main verb) the matter.4) I will(Helping+main verb).
Auxiliary verb: <(pour verb)
There are two kinds of auxiliary verb.
1)primary auxiliary
(Is am are was were being)
(do does did)
(have has have had)
2) Model auxiliary
Model auxiliary are verbs that are express, possibility, permission, intension, willingness necessity,
benediction, made diction ( for example may, might, will, would, shell, should, used to, ought to, can,
could, etc.
Always past
I
ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑝
𝑐𝑎𝑛=𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑=𝑓𝑢𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒/𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑡
𝑚𝑎𝑦
you. (willingness)
Will
Shall
May
Can
𝑚𝑎𝑦
come (main. Verb) in to the room. (sense permission)
𝑎𝑢𝑥.𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏
𝑐𝑎𝑛
Our team 𝑎𝑢𝑥.𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏 easily beat (M.V) your team. (sense ability)
𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙
We
celebrate (M.V) his birthday. (sense intention)
𝑎𝑢𝑥.𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏
𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙
I
come to the party. (sense willingness)
𝑎𝑢𝑥.𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏
𝑤𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑
They 𝑎𝑢𝑥.𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏 help the needy. (sense willingness)
𝑀𝑎𝑦
God grant you happiness. (sense benediction)
𝑎𝑢𝑥.𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏
𝑚𝑎𝑦
you go (M.V) to hell. (sense malediction)
𝑎𝑢𝑥.𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏
𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡
They 𝑎𝑢𝑥.𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏 help (M.V) the needy. (sense obligation)
𝑚𝑎𝑦
He 𝑎𝑢𝑥.𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏 come (M.V) tomorrow. (sense possibility)
𝑐𝑎𝑛
You 𝑎𝑢𝑥.𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑏 come(M.V) in the room.(sense permission)
1. You
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
The Pronoun
A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun or a noun-equivalent. It saves the repetition of nouns
but it cannot be used unless the noun, for which it used, has once been mentioned. At the same
time, it must be of same number, person and gender as the noun for which it stands.
Characteristics:
1. They often have an objective case:
Subject; I, he, she, we, they
Object; me, him, her, us, them
2. They have number distinction:
Singular; I, he, she, you, it
Plural; we, you, they, them
Kinds of Pronouns
1. The Personal Pronoun:
A personal pronoun is so called because it stands for a person;
as, I, we, you, they etc.
It can stand for three persons;
• The person speaking: I, we, my, us
• The person spoken to: you, your
past/future
would
should
might
could
• The person spoken of: he, she, her, his, them
2. The Reflexive Pronoun:
A reflexive pronoun is formed by adding ‘self’ to my, your, him,
her and it and ‘selves’ to our, your and them.
3. The Demonstrative Pronoun:
This pronoun is used to point out the object to which it
refers; as, this, these, that, those.
• Both pens are good but this is better than that.
• These are my friends.
4. The Relative Pronoun:
A relative pronoun is a word that does the work of a conjunction
as well as a pronoun. E.g. who, whom, which, whose.
• I met the doctor. The doctor is my neighbor.
• I met the doctor and he is my neighbor.
• I met the doctor who is my neighbor.
5. The Interrogative Pronoun:
An interrogative pronoun is used in asking questions; as,
• Who is he?
• Whose is that camera?
6. The Indefinite Pronoun:
This pronoun refers to a person or thing in general way and not
to any person or thing in particular, e.g. all, somebody, anybody, anyone etc.
• Some are born great.
• Many died in the battle field
• Nobody attended the meeting.
7. The possessive Pronoun:
Possessive pronoun indicates possession or ownership, e.g.
mine, yours, ours etc.
• This book is hers.
• I parked my car directly behind yours.
Punctuation marks
Punctuation marks are symbols that indicate the structure and organization of written language,
as well as intonation and pauses to be observed when reading aloud.
The Full Stop(.)
It marks the largest pause.
Usage
1. To mark the end of a statement, a mild command or an indirect question.
e.g.;
I wrote a letter.
Please, sent me the report.
The driver asked where we wanted to go.
2. In abbreviations.
E.g.;
Ph.D,e.g, a.m. Jan.
3. It is used to denote an outline or list items:
E.g.;
A. Literature & Society
B. Writing & Speaking
Lists of items:
1.
tea
2.
sugar
3.
milk
4. In internet and e-mail addresses.
E.g.;
www.bbc.com
5. As a decimal separator.
It is used between rupees, paisa’s, dollars etc.
E.g. 41.25 Rs.
The comma ( , )
It indicates the shortest pause.
Usage:
1.To separate two clauses:
If you pull the cat’s tail, it will scratch you.
2. To separate words in a list:
China, Iran, Pakistan and Saudi Arabia are friends
They own a cat, a dog, two rabbits and six mice.
3. Before a speech in a direct narration:
He said, “I will help you”.
4. After complimentary clause:
Yours sincerely,
Yours obediently,
5. To separate a tag question from the rest of the sentence:
He wrote, did he?
He cannot write, can he?
The question mark (?)
Usage
1. After a direct question:
Where are going?
2. To show doubtfulness or used in place of missing or unknown data:
He was born in 1978(?) and died in 1999.
The colon (:)
Usage
1. Introduces a description—in particular, makes explicit the elements of a set or to introduce the list
of items or enumerate some details:
I have three sisters: Catherine, Sarah, and Mary.
The following will be needed: a pen, a pencil and a rubber.
Shakespeare’s great tragedies are: Hamlet, King Lear, Othello and Macbeth.
2. It is commonly used to introduce speech in a dialogue (such as a script):
Patient: Doctor, I feel like a pair of curtains.
Doctor: Pull yourself together!
3. To introduce a quotation:
Bacon says, “Men in great place are thrice servants: servants of the sovereign or state;servants of
fame; and servants of business”.
4. To separate the name of an author from the name of his book:
Shakespeare: Hamlet
5. In American English, the separation of hours, minutes and seconds when reporting the time of day
( British English uses a full stop (.) instead).
The concert finished at 23:45
This file was last modified today at 11:15:05
The semicolon (;)
Usage
1. Between sentences grammatically independent but closely related in sense:
To err is human; To forgive Divine.
2. Between items in a series or listing containing internal punctuation,
"She saw three men: Jamie, who came from New Zealand; John, the milkman's son; and
George, a gaunt kind of man."
"Several fast food restaurants can be found within the cities: London, England; Paris,
France; Dublin, Ireland; and Madrid, Spain."
The hyphen (-)
Usage
1. To form compound words:
hand-written
brother-in-law
2. To divide words into syllables and between one line and the next:
un-cer-tain
pa-ra-graph
syl-la-bi-fi-ca-tion
The Apostrophe( ’ also ' )
Usage
1. To indicate the omission of some letter or letters from a word:
I’ve
Don’t
Can’t
2. When writing compound numbers:
During 1990’s
3. to show genitive case of the noun:
Ali’s book
Horse’s tail
The Exclamation Mark(!)
Usage
At the end of the sentence expressing: surprise, joy, anger, shock or another strong
Feeling.
What an idea!
Oh God! Help us.
The Dash(—)
To indicate a break or interruption in the sentence:
“I think you should have— told me”, he replied.
The Slash or Olique(/)
1. To separate alternative words or phrases:
single/married/divorced
2. In internet and e-mail addresses:
http://www.bbc.com
The Dots or Ellipsis(....)
To indicate that words have been omitted, especially from a quotation or at the end
of a conversation.
Its difficult to say about this family………..
The Brackets or Parenthesis()
1. To separate extra information or a comment from the rest of a sentence:
Mount Robson (12972feet) is the highest mountain in the Canadian Rockies.
2. To enclose cross references:
(see chapter no.8)
3. Around numbers or letters in text:
Our objectives are(1) to increase output(2) to improve quality.
The Quotation Marks or Inverted Commas(“ ”)(‘ ’)
1. To indicate the exact words of the speaker:
He said, “may god bless you”.
2. If quotation occurs within quotation, it is marked by single inverted commas:
He said, “we must remember ‘ Honesty is the best policy’”.
3. Around the titles of the articles, books, poems, plays etc.
Keat’s ‘ode to Autumn’
The Capitalization
Capital letters are used:
The first word of the sentence.
All proper nouns and adjectives derived from them, e.g.
Pakistani, American etc.
Nouns and pronouns related to Deity, e.g.
Allah, God
The pronoun I and the interjection O.
THE Article
The acritical is sometime regarded as a distinct part of speech but properly speaking it is
merely an adjective
The demonstrative adjective “a”, “an” and “the” are usually called article.
“A” and “an” are called indefinite article. Because they do not particularize
A noun but generalize it; as,
A doctor
1.
leads a busy life.
𝑎 𝑑𝑜𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟=𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑑𝑜𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
“The” is called definite article. Because it points out some. Particular person are thing; as,
1.
I saw the doctor. (the doctor=any particular doctor).
The uses of definite article
The definite article “the is an abbreviated from of this that these or those. It is use:
1. When we speak of a particular person or thing.
e.g. The book you are reading is very useful.
2. “The” is placed before a singular noun when it represent it complete class.
e.g. 1) everyone like the mongo.
2) The hours runs fast.
But the nouns “man” and “woman”, when use to denote the whole class never
have either article.
e.g. 1) Man is mortal.
2)woman is wise as man.
3. With the name of river oceans, mountain ranges. Group or islands, before the
name of books and papers;
e.g. 1) I read the holy Quran in the morning.
2) The Himalayas lie to the north of India.
3) “The dawn” is publish form Islamabad.
4. Before an adjective of Quality like poor, rich, noble, kind etc. To give the
meaning of plural noun.
e.g.
The poor (people) were happy in former times.
We should respect the noble the kind the true.
5. Before superlative.
e.g. it is the darkest room of the building.
She is the best girl in the class.
6. Before the name of direction.
e.g. The sunrises in the East and set in the West.
7. If the adjective before a proper noun is used.
The noble setter Edhi.
The popular Kadir khan.
8. When a proper noun is use as a common noun.
e.g. 1) He is the nelson of his time.
2) He is the Iqbal of our class.
The use of indefinite article
The indefinite article “a” or “an” is a numeral adjective for it originally mean one. But the chose
between “a” and “an” is determent by the sound of the noun for which these are being use.
The indefinite article is used
1. In the sense of one:
e.g. I read a book every week.
I gave him a dollar for the work.
2. With the name of occupations:
e.g. His father is a doctor.
She wants to become a nurse.
He is an engineer.
3. Before single countable noun:
parcel
E.g. 1) A 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑁arrived for you this morning.
2)I have a pen.
4. With the meaning each.
E.g. 1) I used to write ten drafts a day.
2) His salary has been raised by 500 rupees a year .
The indefinite article is not used “when noun is uncountable”
E.g. 1) He gave up a drinking coffee.
2) I like tea.
(Uncountable)
3) He is cooking rise.
Indefinite article is not use when the noun is plural.
e.g. we are scholars.
Conditional Sentences
The Zero Conditional (Type 0)
The zero conditional is a structure used for talking about general truths, or scientific facts, things which
always happen under certain conditions.
A zero conditional sentence consists of two clauses, an "if" clause and a main clause (note that most
zero conditional sentences will mean the same thing if "when" is used instead of "if"). For example:
If the "if" clause comes first, a comma is usually used. If the "if" clause comes second, there is no need
for a comma.
The simple present tense is the tense use in both clauses. Examples:
If you cross an international date line, the time changes.
Phosphorus burns if you expose it to air.
First Conditional (Type I)
The first conditional (also called conditional type 1) is a structure used for talking about possibilities in
the present or in the future. Type 1: if + present + future.
Example:
If I have the money, I will buy this car.
If it's sunny, we'll go to the park.
Peter will be sad if Susan leaves.
If you cook dinner, I'll wash the dishes.
Among other variations the structure if + present + present is also possible. It is used when the results
are habitual or automatic. Example: If a commodity is in short, supply prices tend to rise.
Second Conditional (Type II)
The second conditional (also called conditional type 2) is a structure used for talking about unreal
situations in the present or in the future. Type 2: if + past + conditional Example:
If I had the money, I would buy this car. (Since I do not have the money I cannot buy any new car). The
action in type 2 is characterized by unreality.
If I were you, I would drive more carefully in the rain.
If dogs had wings, they would be able to fly.
Paula would be sad if Jan left.
Third Conditional (Type III)
The third conditional (also called conditional type 3) is a structure used for talking about unreal situations
in the past. In other words, it is used to talk about things which DID NOT HAPPEN in the past. Type 3:
if + past perfect + perfect conditional
Full form : If I had studied harder, I probably would have passed the exam.
Contracted form :If I'd studied harder, I probably would've passed the exam.
Example:
If I had had the money, I would have bought this Audi. (But I did not have it, and so did not buy).
If you had driven more carefully, you would not have had an accident. (You had an accident because you
didn't drive carefully enough.)
If we had played a little better, we could have won the game.(We didn't play well, so we lost the game.)
The action in type 3 is characterized by impossibility.
While type 1 and type 2 focus on the present or future, the time in type 3 is the past and signifies a
completed action in the past. The condition, therefore, cannot be fulfilled because the action in the ifclause did not happen.
Summary
IF-CLAUSE
RESULT CLAUSE
Explanation
simple present verb
simple present verb
if-clause uses simple present
result clause uses simple present
If it rains,
If it gets cold enough,
If I don't do my
homework,
my car window leaks.
water becomes ice.
I learn nothing.
If Marie doesn't eat
dinner,
If I exercise,
she gets hungry at
midnight.
I look great!
<-expresses a habitual situation or a habitual activity.
If someone calls,
take a message please.
<-gives a command
simple present verb
modal + simple present
verb
if-clause uses simple present
result clause uses modal + verb
If it rains,
my window might leak.
<-expresses a fact
If the phone rings,
I will answer it.
<-expresses a future situation
If the weather is
sunny,
we can go to the beach
Sunday.
<-expresses a future activity
<-expresses an established or predictable fact, or it
expresses a general truth
Nonverbal communication
Nonverbal communication, in simple words, is the process of communicating by sending and
receiving non-verbal messages by means of gestures, body language or facial expressions.
Scientific research on this type of communication, and its effects, has identified various
techniques that come into play in this case.
Kinesics
Body Language and Posture
The body language of a person can speak out volumes about the person. Nonverbal body
language can help in conveying feelings and demonstrating attitude. Even postures indicate the
nature of the person. Postures such as arm crossing or leg crossing are often regarded as
defensive postures.
Facial Expressions
Facial expressions also play a crucial role in this type of communication. Just a smile or a frown
can speak thousands of words for us. Facial expressions to depict happiness, sadness fear or
anger are same throughout the world and hence they prove to be very advantageous when it
comes to language barriers. Reading facial expressions can give us insights into the thoughts and
feelings of other people.
Gestures
Gestures are deliberate movements or signals made to convey something to another person. Most
commonly used gestures are waving of hands and pointing fingers to the object we want, etc.
There also exist some gestures which are attributed to a particular culture or a community.
Various sign languages have been developed with the aim of conveying messages through
signals and gestures.
Oculesis
Eye Gaze
Gazing can also be an effective technique of nonverbal communication. Looking, staring or
blinking are regarded as effective ways of sending messages. Usually staring indicates emotions
such as interest or hostility, while studies reveal that, the rate of blinking increases when we
come across things that we like.
Paralinguistic
Paralinguistic is indeed vocal communication, but it's different from normal spoken language.
The tone, pitch and softness / loudness of the voice are the prominent aspects paralinguistic. A
strong tone indicates the confidence level of a person, while a hesitant tone indicates lack of
confidence or lack of interest.
Paragraph are composed of sentences but not random sentences a paragraph is a group of
sentences organized around a central topic in fact the cardinal rule of paragraph writing is to
focus on one idea.
There are four basic elements of a good paragraph:
1) Unity:
Unity in the paragraph begins with the topic sentence. Every paragraph has one single
centrally idea, that is expressed in its typically the first sentence of paragraph.
A paragraph is unified around this mean idea with the sporting sentences providing detail and
discussion.
2) Order:
Order refers to the way you organized to the supporting sentence. Whether you choice
chronological order. Order of importance. Another logical presentation in detail. A solid
paragraph always has a definite organization.
3) Coherence:
Coherence is the quality that make your writing understand able sentences with in a
paragraph need to connect to each other and work together as a whole.
4) Completeness:
Completeness mean a paragraph is well-developed. If all sentences clearly and sufficiently
supported the main idea, then your paragraph is completed. If there are not enough sentences
or enough information to prove your thesis then a paragraph is incomplete. Usually there
supporting sentences in addition to a topic sentence and concluding sentence or needed for a
paragraph to be completed the concluding sentence or the last sentence of the paragraph
should summarize yours main idea by reinforcing your topic sentence.
The Chairman
Department of CS&IT
MUST
Subject: Application for a Medical leave
Dear sir,
With respect to the subject cited above is stated that I am not feeling well from few days. I
visited my Doctor and he advice rest for quick recovery. So, it is requested to your kind office to
Grant me leave for two days.
Thanking you in anticipation!
Your obediently,
IM XLA
FA17-BCS-444
Deptt CS&IT