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Organization Structures
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Learning Goal:
1. Describe organizing as a management function.
2. Understand, describe, and sketch the traditional organizational structures.
3. Understand the newer types of organization structures.
4. Describe organizational designs changing the workplace.
5. Explain the alternative approaches to job design.
Organizing As a Management Function
Management scholar and consultant Henry Mintzberg points out that, as organizations
change rapidly in today’s world, people within them are struggling to find their places. One
of his points is that people need to understand how their organizations work if they are to
work well within them. Mintzberg notes some common questions:
 “What parts connect to one another?”
 “How should processes and people come together?”
 “Whose ideas have to flow where?”
These and related questions raise critical issues about organizational structures and how
well they meet an organization’s performance needs.
Organizing as a Management Function
Organizing is the process of arranging people and other resources (input) to work
together to accomplish a goal. As one of the basic functions of management, it involves
creating a division of labour and then coordinating results to achieve a common purpose.
Figure 7.1 shows the central role that organizing plays in the management process. Once
plans are created, the manager’s task is to see that they are carried out.
Given a clear mission, core values, objectives, and strategy, organizing begins the process of
implementation by clarifying jobs and working relationships. It identifies who is to do what,
who is in charge of whom, and how different people and parts of the organization relate to
and work with one another.
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All of this, of course, can be done in different ways. The strategic leadership challenge is to
choose the best organizational form to fit the strategy and other situational demands.
The way in which the various parts of an organization are formally arranged is usually
referred to as the organization structure. It is the system of tasks, workflows, reporting
relationships, and communication channels that link together the work of diverse
individuals and groups. Any structure should both allocate tasks through a division of
labour and provide for the coordination of performance results. Unfortunately, it is easier
to talk about good structures than it is to actually create them.
You may know the concept of structure best in the form of an Organization Chart. This
is a diagram that shows reporting relationships and the formal arrangement of work (Job)
positions within an organization. A typical organization chart identifies (specify) various
positions and job titles, as well as the lines of authority and communication between them.
It shows the Formal Structure or the structure of the organization in its official state; this
is, how the organization is intended to function.
By reading an organization chart, you can learn the basics of an organization’s formal
structure, including:
• Division of work: Positions and titles show work responsibilities.
• Supervisory relationships: Lines show who reports to whom.
• Communication channels: Lines show formal communication flows.
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• Major subunits: Positions reporting to a common manager are shown.
• Levels of management: Vertical layers of management are shown.
Behind every formal structure typically lies an Informal Structure. This is a “shadow”
organization made up of the unofficial, but often critical, working relationships between
organizational members. If the informal structure could be drawn, it would show who talks
to and interacts regularly with whom, regardless of their formal titles and relationshipspeople meeting for coffee, in exercise groups, and friendship cliques.
No organization can be fully understood without gaining insight into the informal
structure as well as the formal one
A tool known as Social Network Analysis is one way of identifying informal structures
and their embedded social relationships. Such an analysis typically asks people to identify
others whom they turn to for help most often, and with whom they communicate regularly,
and who energize and de-energize them.
Advantage of Informal Structure: Informal structures and social networks are in many
ways essential to organizational success. This is especially true during times of change,
when out-of-date formal structures may fail to provide the support people need to deal
with new or unusual situations. Because it takes time to change or modify formal
structures, the informal structure helps fill the void.
The disadvantage of Informal Structure: Of course, informal structures have potential
disadvantages. Because they exist outside the formal authority system, informal structures
can be susceptible to rumour, carry inaccurate information, breed resistance to change, and
even divert work efforts from important objectives.
Summary:

Organizing: The process of arranging people and other resources to work together
to accomplish a goal

Organization structure: The system of tasks, workflows, reporting relationships,
and communication channels that link together diverse individuals and groups

Organization chart: A diagram describing reporting relationships and
the formal(official) arrangement of work positions within an organization
An organization chart identifies:
 The division of work
 Supervisory relationships
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Communication channels
Major subunits
Levels of management
Behind every formal structure typically lies an informal structure: Set of unofficial

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working relationships between organization members

Advantages of informal structures

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Help people accomplish their work
Gain access to interpersonal networks
Informal learning
Connect with people who can assist in task performance
Disadvantages of informal structures
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May work against best interests of the organization as a whole
Susceptibility to rumor
May carry inaccurate information
Breed resistance to change
Divert work efforts from important objectives
Feeling of alienation by “outsiders”
Traditional Organizational Structures
A basic principle of organizing is that performance should improve when people are
allowed to specialize and become experts in specific jobs or tasks. Given this division of
labour, however, decisions must be made regarding Departmentalization; that is, how to
group work positions* into formal teams or departments that are linked together in a
coordinated way. *A job position is a function you serve includes specific duties and
responsibilities: CSRs
These decisions have traditionally resulted in three major types of organizational
structures: Functional, Divisional, and Matrix structures.
In Functional Structures, people with similar skills and performing similar tasks are
grouped together into formal work units. Members of functional departments share
technical expertise, interests, and responsibilities.
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Advantages of Functional Structures
Functional structures are not limited to businesses. Figure 7.3 also shows how they are
used in other types of organizations, such as banks and hospitals. Most typically, functional
structures work well for smaller organizations dealing with only one or a few products or
services.
They also tend to work best in relatively stable environments where problems are
predictable and the demands for change and innovation are limited
. The major advantages of functional structures include the following:
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• Economies of scale with efficient use of resources.
• Task assignments are consistent with expertise and training.
• High-quality technical problem-solving.
• In-depth training and skill development within functions.
• Clear career paths within the function
Disadvantages of Functional Structures
Potential disadvantages of functional structures: Common problems include difficulties
in pinpointing (determining) responsibilities for things like cost containment, product or
service quality, and innovation. A significant concern is with the functional chimneys
problem—a lack of communication, coordination, and problem-solving across functions.
Divisional Structures
A second organizational alternative is the Divisional Structure. As illustrated in Figure
7.4, it groups together people who work on the same product or process, serve similar
customers, or are located in the same area or geographical region.
Divisional structures are common in complex organizations with diverse operations that
extend across many products, territories, customers, and work processes.
Product Structures group together jobs and activities focused on a single product or
service. They clearly identify costs, profits, problems, and successes in a market area with a
central point of accountability. This prompts managers to be responsive to changing market
demands and customer tastes. Common in large organizations, product structures may
even extend into global operations.
Geographical Structures, sometimes called area structures, group together jobs and
activities being performed in the same location. They are typically used when there is a
need to differentiate products or services in various locations, such as in different parts of a
country. They are also quite common in international operations, where they help to focus
attention on the unique cultures and requirements of particular regions.
Customer Structures group together jobs and activities that are serving the same
customers or clients. The goal is to best serve the special needs of the different customer
groups. This is a common structure in the consumer products industry. Banks, for example,
use them to give separate attention to personal and commercial customers for loans.
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A Work Process is a group of related tasks that collectively create something of value to
a customer. An example is order fulfillment by a catalogue retailer, a process that takes an
order from point of initiation by the customer to point of fulfillment by a delivered product.
A Process Structure groups together jobs and activities that are part of the same
processes. Figure 7.4 shows how this might take the form of product-purchasing teams and
order-fulfillment teams for a mail-order catalogue business.
Advantages of Divisional Structures: Organizations use divisional structures for a
variety of reasons, including the desire to avoid the functional chimneys problem and other
disadvantages of functional structures. The potential advantages of divisional structures
include:
• More flexibility in responding to environmental changes.
• Improved coordination across functional departments.
• Clear points of responsibility for product or service delivery.
• Expertise focused on specific customers, products, and regions.
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• Greater ease in changing size by adding or closing down divisions.
Disadvantages to divisional structures:
• They can reduce economies of scale and increase costs through the duplication of
resources and efforts across divisions.
• They can also create unhealthy rivalries as divisions compete for resources and topmanagement attention, and emphasize division needs to the detriment of the goals of the
organization as a whole.
Matrix Structure
The matrix structure, often called the matrix organization, combines the functional and
divisional structures. In effect, it is an attempt to gain the advantages and minimize the
disadvantages of each. This is accomplished in the matrix by using permanent teams that
cut across (transcend) functions to support specific products, projects, or programs. As
shown in Figure 7.5, workers in a matrix structure belong to at least two formal groups at
the same time—a functional group and a product, program, or project team. They also
report to two bosses—one within the function and the other within the team.
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Advantages of Matrix Structures: The main benefits of matrix structures rest with the
teams whose members work closely together to share expertise and information in a
timely manner to solve problems. The potential advantages of matrix structures include:
• Better co-operation across functions
. • Improved decision-making; problem-solving takes place at the team level where the best
information is available.
• Increased flexibility in adding, removing, or changing g operations to meet changing
demands
• Better customer service; there is always a program, product, or project manager informed
and available to answer questions.
• Better performance accountability through the program, product, or project managers
• Improved strategic management; top managers are freed from lower-level problemsolving to focus more time on strategic issues.
Disadvantages of matrix structures: The two-boss system is susceptible to power
struggles, as functional supervisors and team leaders vie with one another to exercise
authority. The two-boss system can also be frustrating if it creates task confusion and
conflicting work priorities.
Team meetings in the matrix can take lots of time, and the teams may develop “groupitis”—
strong team loyalties that cause a loss of focus on larger organizational goals. The
requirement of adding the team leaders to a matrix structure can also result in higher costs.
Summary
Departmentalization: The process of grouping together people and jobs into work
units


Three major types of organizational structures:
1. Functional structures: People with similar skills and performing similar tasks are
grouped together into work units

Members of each function work within their areas of expertise

Work well for small organizations producing few products or services in relatively
stable environments
 Advantages of functional structures:
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Economies of scale

Task assignments consistent with expertise and training
High-quality technical problem solving
In-depth training and skill development
Clear career paths within functions
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 Disadvantages of functional structures:
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Difficulties in pinpointing responsibilities

Functional chimneys problem: lack of communication and coordination
across functions
Sense of cooperation and common purpose break down
Narrow view of performance objectives
Excessive upward referral of decisions
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2. Divisional structures: Group together people who work on the same product or
process, serve similar customers, and/or are located in the same area or geographical
region.

This structure is common in complex organizations that avoid Problem associated
with functional structures
 Major types of divisional structures include:

Product structure groups together people and jobs working on a single product or
service

Geographical structure groups together people and jobs performed in the same
location or geographical region

Customer structure groups together people and jobs that serve the same customer

Process structure groups jobs and activities that are part of the same processes
 Advantages of divisional structures:
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More flexibility in responding to environmental changes
Improved coordination
Clear points of responsibility
Expertise focused on specific customers, products, and regions
Greater ease in restructuring
 Disadvantages of divisional structures:
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Duplication of resources and efforts across divisions
Competition and poor coordination across divisions
Emphasis on divisional goals at expense of organizational goals
3.Matrix structure: Combines functional and divisional structures to gain advantages and
minimize disadvantages of each.

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 In this structure:
Workers belong to at least two formal groups at the same time – a functional group,
and a product, program, or project team
They also report to two bosses – one within the function and one within the team.
 This structure is used in:

Manufacturing and Service industries
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Professional fields
Non-profit sector
Multi-national corporations
Organizations pursuing growth strategies in dynamic environments
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 Advantages of matrix structures
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Better inter-functional cooperation
Increased flexibility in restructuring
Better customer service
Better performance accountability
Improved decision making and strategic management
 Disadvantages of matrix structures:
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The two-boss system is susceptible to power struggles
Can create task confusion and conflict in work priorities
Team meetings are time-consuming
Team loyalties may cause a loss of focus on larger organizational goals
The increased cost of adding team leaders
Horizontal Organizational Structures
The matrix structure is a step toward better cross-functional integration in an
organization. But it is just one part of a broader movement toward more horizontal
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structures that try to improve communication and flexibility by decreasing hierarchy,
increasing empowerment, and better mobilizing human talents.
Team Structures
As traditional vertical structures give way to more horizontal ones, teams serve as the
basic building blocks. Organizations with Team Structures extensively use both
permanent and temporary teams to solve problems, complete special projects, and
accomplish day-to-day tasks. As illustrated in Figure 7.6, these are often Cross-Functional
Teams composed of members from different areas of work responsibility. As with the
matrix structure, the intention is to break down functional chimneys and create more
effective lateral relations.
There are also many Project Teams that are convened (congregated) for a particular
task or “project” and that disband once it is completed. The intention here is to quickly
convene (gather) people with the needed talents and focus their efforts intensely to solve a
problem or take advantage of a special opportunity.
 Advantages of team structures:

Eliminates barriers between operating departments: people from different parts of an
organization get to know one another.
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Improved morale due to cross-functional interaction: people working in teams often
experience a greater sense of involvement and identification, increasing their
enthusiasm for the job
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Improved quality and speed of decision making: teams focus shared knowledge and
expertise on specific problems
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Increased enthusiasm for work
 Disadvantages of team structures
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Conflicting loyalties for persons with both team and functional assignments.

Excessive time spent in meetings: How well team members spend their time together
often depends on the quality of interpersonal relations, group dynamics, and team
management.
Summary
Traditional vertical structures are giving way to more horizontal ones,
with teams serving as the basic building blocks
Team structures use permanent and temporary cross-functional teams to solve
problems, complete special projects, and accomplish day-to-day tasks

Cross-functional teams bring together members from different functional
departments

Project teams are often assembled for a particular task or project and are disbanded
once it is completed
Network Structures
Organizations using a Network Structure operate with a central core that is linked
through networks of relationships with outside contractors and suppliers of essential
services.
The old model was for organizations to own everything. The new model is to own only the
most essential, or “core,” components of the business, and then use strategic alliances and
outsourcing to provide the rest.
China is an Export-Driven Economy
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 Advantages of network structures:
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Firms can operate with fewer full-time employees and less complex internal systems
Reduced overhead costs and increased operating efficiency
Permits operations across great distances
 Disadvantages of network structures
The potential disadvantages of network structures largely lie with the demands of new
management responsibilities. The more complex the business or mission of the
organization, the more complicated it is to control and coordinate the network of contracts
and alliances. If one part of the network breaks down or fails to deliver, the entire system
suffers.
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Control and coordination problems may arise from network complexity
Potential loss of control over outsourced activities
Potential lack of loyalty among infrequently used contractors
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Summary
Operate with a central core that is linked through “networks” of relationships with
contractors and outside suppliers of essential services

This structure Uses communications and information technology to support shifting
strategic alliances and outsourcing where the business function is contracted to an
outside supplier
Boundaryless Organizations
It is popular today to speak about creating a Boundaryless Organization that
eliminates many of the internal boundaries among subsystems and external boundaries
with the external environment. The boundaryless structure can be viewed as a
combination of the team and net-work structures just described, with the addition of
“temporariness.”
Internal to the boundaryless organization, teamwork, and communication—either
spontaneous, as needed or intense—replace formal lines of authority. Meetings and
spontaneous sharing happen continuously.
In the external context, organizational needs are met by a shifting mix of outsourcing
contracts and operating alliances that form and disband with changing circumstances.
Figure 7.8 shows how the absence of internal and external barriers helps people work in
ways that bring speed and flexibility to the boundaryless firm.
Key requirements of boundaryless structures are the absence of hierarchy, empowerment
of team members, technology utilization, and acceptance of impermanence. Knowledge
sharing is both a goal and an essential component. One way to think of this is in the context
of a very small organization, perhaps a start-up. In the small firm, everyone pitches in to
help out as needed and when appropriate to get things done. There are no formal
assignments, and no job titles or job descriptions are standing in the way.
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The Virtual Organization takes the boundaryless concept to the extreme. It operates as a
shifting network of alliances that are engaged as needed, using IT and the Internet. The
boundaries that traditionally separate a firm from its suppliers, customers, and even
competitors are largely eliminated. The virtual organization calls an alliance into action to
meet specific operating needs and objectives.
Summary
 are organizations in which teamwork and intense communication replace formal
lines of authority
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Combination of the team and network structures

Eliminates internal and external barriers

Internal boundaries are eliminated as people work together as needed; external
boundaries vary as alliances change with shifting needs/circumstances

Key requirements are the absence of hierarchy, empowerment of team members, and
acceptance of impermanence

Sometimes take the form of a virtual organization that uses IT and the Internet to
engage a shifting network of strategic alliances
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Organizational Design
Organizational Design is the process of choosing and implementing structures to
accomplish the organization’s mission and objectives. Because every organization faces its
own set of unique problems and opportunities, the best design at any moment is the one
that achieves a good match between structure and situational/ contingencies—including
task, technology, environment, and people. The process of organizational design is thus a
problem-solving activity; no one design applies in all circumstances. 我们无法控制的情况
the goal is to achieve the best fit among structures and the unique situation faced by each
organization. The choices among design alternatives are broadly framed in the distinction
between mechanistic or bureaucratic designs at one extreme, and organic or adaptive
designs at the other.
A Bureaucracy is a form of organization based on logic, order, and the legitimate use of
formal authority. It is a classic vertical structure, and its distinguishing features include a
clear-cut division of labour, a strict hierarchy of authority, formal rules and procedures,
and promotion based on competency.
Organizations with more Mechanistic Designs are highly bureaucratic. As shown in Figure
7.9, they are vertical structures that typically operate with centralized authority, many rules
and procedures, a precise division of labour, narrow spans of control, and formal means of
coordination. They can be described as “tight” structures of the traditional pyramid form.
Mechanistic designs work best for organizations doing routine tasks in stable environments.
The ability to respond quickly to shifting environmental challenges is characteristic of
organizations with more Organic Designs. As portrayed in Figure 7.9, they use horizontal
structures with decentralized authority, fewer rules and procedures, less precise division of
labour, wider spans of control, and more personal means of coordination. These features
create adaptive organizations with horizontal structures and cultures that encourage
worker empowerment and teamwork. Within these relatively “loose” systems, a lot of work
gets done through informal structures and networking
Organic designs work well for organizations facing dynamic environments that demand
flexibility in dealing with changing conditions. They are built upon a foundation of trust that
people will do the right things on their own initiative. This means letting workers:
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take over production scheduling and problem-solving.

set up their own control systems.

use their ideas to improve customer service. and
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workers are given the freedom to do what they can do best—get the job done.
This helps create what has been described in earlier chapters as a “learning organization,”
one designed for continuous adaptation through problem-solving, innovation, and learning.
Trends In Organizational Design
The complexity, uncertainty, and change characteristic of today’s environment has
prompted more and more organizations to shift toward horizontal structures and organic
designs. As they do so, a number of trends in organizational design are evident.
Fewer Levels of Management
A typical organization chart shows the Chain of Command or the line of authority that
vertically links each position with successively higher levels of management. When
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organizations grow in size, they tend to get “taller” as more and more levels of management
are added to the chain of command.
One of the influences on management levels is the Span of Control—the number of
persons directly reporting to a manager. Tall structures have narrow spans of control and
many levels of management. Because tall organizations have more managers, they are
more costly than flatter ones. They also tend to be less efficient, less flexible, and less
customer-sensitive.
Flat structures have wider spans of control and fewer levels of management, and this
reduces overhead costs. The wider spans of control also allow workers more
empowerment and independence.
Trend: Organizations are cutting unnecessary levels of management and shifting to wider
spans of control. Managers are taking responsibility for larger numbers of subordinates who
operate with less direct supervision.
Delegation
All managers must decide what work they should do themselves and what should be left
for others. At issue here is Delegation(委托责任)—the process of entrusting work to
others by giving them the right to make decisions and take action.
Three Steps in Delegation
1. Assign responsibility—explain tasks and expectations.
2. Grant authority—allow others to make decisions and act.
3. Create accountability—require others to report back on results.
A classic principle of organization warns managers not to delegate without giving the
other person sufficient authority to perform. Without authority, it is very hard for someone
to live up to another’s performance expectations.
The Authority-And-Responsibility Principle states that authority should equal
responsibility when work is delegated from a supervisor to a subordinate. Unwillingness to
delegate is a common management failure. Whether this comes from a lack of trust in
others or a manager’s personal inflexibility, it can be damaging. Too little delegation
overloads the manager with work that could be done by others. It also denies others many
opportunities to fully utilize their talents on the job.
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When well done, delegation leads to Empowerment, defined as letting others make
decisions and exercise discretion in their work. Empowerment results when delegation
moves decisions to people who are most capable of doing the work. It builds performance
potential by allowing people the freedom to use their talents, contribute ideas, and do their
jobs in the best possible ways. As empowerment creates a sense of ownership, it also
increases commitment to decisions and work goals.
Trend: Managers are delegating more. They are finding ways to empower people at all levels
to make more decisions that affect themselves and their work.
Decentralization with Centralization: Should most decisions be made at the top levels of
an organization, or should they be dispersed by extensive delegation throughout all levels
of management? The former approach is referred to as Centralization; the latter is called
Decentralization. But the management issue here doesn’t have to be framed as an
either/or choice. Today’s organizations use information technology to operate with greater
decentralization without giving up centralized control.
Because managers have information on results readily available, they can allow more
decentralization in decision-making. If something goes wrong, presumably the information
systems will sound an alarm and allow corrective action to be taken quickly.
Trend: Delegation, empowerment, and horizontal structures are contributing to more
decentralization in organizations. At the same time, advances in information technology are
allowing for adequate centralized control
When it comes to coordination and control in organizations, the issue of line–staff
relationships are important Persons appointed in Staff Positions perform a technical
service or provide special problem-solving expertise for other parts of the organization.
This could be a single person, such as a corporate safety director, or a complete unit, such
as a corporate safety department.
Trend: Organizations are reducing the size of staff. They are lowering costs and increasing
efficiency by employing fewer staff personnel and using smaller staff units.
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Job Design
One area of practice in which the various motivation theories come into play is Job Design,
“the process of arranging work tasks for individuals and groups”. Building jobs so that
satisfaction and performance go hand in hand is in many ways an exercise in “fit” between
the task requirements and an individual’s needs, capabilities, and interests.
Figure 7.11 shows the job design alternatives of job simplification, job rotation and
enlargement, and job enrichment.
Scientific Management
Job Simplification involves standardizing work procedures and employing people in welldefined and highly specialized tasks. This is an extension of the scientific management
approach discussed in Chapter 2. Simplified jobs are Narrow in Job Scope.
Job Scope is the number and variety of different tasks a person performs. Many employees
around the world earn their livings working at highly simplified tasks, often on assembly
lines. The most extreme form of job simplification is Automation or the total
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mechanization of a job. Mechanization is the process of changing from working largely or
exclusively by hand or with animals to doing that work with machinery. The logic of job
simplification is straightforward.

Because the jobs do not require complex skills, workers should be easier and quicker
to train, less difficult to supervise, and easy to replace if they leave.

Furthermore, because tasks are well defined, workers should become good at them
while performing the same work over and over again.
Job Rotation and Job Enlargement
A step beyond simplification in job design, Job Rotation increases task variety by
periodically shifting workers between jobs involving different task assignments. Job
rotation can be done on a regular schedule; it can also be done as opportunity or need
exists. Such periodic or occasional job rotation is often used as a training approach, helping
people learn about jobs performed by others.
Another alternative is Job Enlargement: increasing task variety by combining two or more
tasks that were previously assigned to separate workers. Often these are tasks that are
done immediately before or after the work performed in the original job. (More
Responsibility)This is sometimes called horizontal loading—pulling pre-work or later
work stages into the job.
Job Enrichment
Job Enrichment is the practice of expanding job content to create more opportunities for
satisfaction. In contrast to job enlargement and rotation, job enrichment increases job
depth—the extent to which task planning and evaluating duties are performed by the
individual worker rather than the supervisor. (More Authority )
Job Characteristics Model (Hackman)
According to his diagnostic approach, job satisfaction and performance are influenced by
three critical psychological states:
(1) experienced meaningfulness of the work
(2) experienced responsibility for the outcomes of the work; and
(3) knowledge of actual results of work activities.
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These, in turn, are influenced by the presence or absence of five core job characteristics. A
job that is high in the following core characteristics is considered enriched. The lower a job
scores on these characteristics, the less enriched it is
1. Skill variety—the degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities to carry
out the work and involves the use of a number of different skills and talents of the
individual.
2. Task identity—the degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and
identifiable piece of work, one that involves doing a job from beginning to end with a
visible outcome.
3. Task significance—the degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or
work of other people elsewhere in the organization or in the external environment.
4. Autonomy—the degree to which the job gives the individual freedom, independence, and
discretion in scheduling work and in choosing procedures for carrying it out.
5. Feedback from the job itself—the degree to which work activities required by the job
result in the individual obtaining direct and clear information on his or her performance
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BOH4M
NOTE
CHAPTER 7
Alternative Work Schedules
Not only is the content - the main functions or key performance areas of the post - of jobs
important, but the context is also too. Among the more significant developments is the
emergence of several alternative ways for people to schedule their work time, and
“flexibility” is often the keyword. Many employers are finding that providing alternative
work schedules can help attract and retain motivated workers by offering flexibility that
helps them deal with the many complications of work-life balance.
The term Flexible Working Hours, also called flextime, describes any work schedule
that gives employees some choice in the pattern of their daily work hours. Flexible
schedules with choices of starting and ending times give employees greater autonomy
while still meeting their work responsibilities.
A Compressed Workweek is any work schedule that allows a full-time job to be
completed in less than the standard five days of 8-hour shifts. Its most common form is the
“4–40”; that is, accomplishing 40 hours of work in four 10-hour days.
Another work scheduling alternative is Job Sharing, where one full-time job is split
between two or more persons. This often involves each person working one-half day, but it
can also be done on weekly or monthly sharing arrangements.
It is increasingly popular for people to work away from a fixed office location.
Telecommuting is a work arrangement that allows at least a portion of scheduled work
hours to be completed outside the office. It is often facilitated by computers and
information technology that allow electronic links with customers and co-workers.
The growing use of temporary workers is a current employment trend. Part-time work
is done on any schedule less than the standard 40-hour workweek that does not qualify the
individual as a full-time employee. Many employers rely on such Contingency Workers
(On-Demand)—part-timers or “permatemps”—to supplement the full-time workforce,
often on a long-term basis.
Because part-time or contingency workers can be easily hired, contracted with, and
terminated in response to changing needs, many employers like the flexibility they offer in
controlling labour costs and dealing with cyclical demand. On the other hand, some worry
that temporary workers lack the commitment of permanent workers and may demonstrate
lower productivity.
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