Learning and HRD
Chapter 2
Werner & DeSimone (2006)
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Learning Objectives
After learning this chapter, you should be able to:
Define learning and list at least three learning principles.
Describe the three broad categories of issues that should
be considered to maximize learning.
Identify and discuss the training design issues that can be
used to maximize learning.
Identify and discuss the factors that affect the transfer of
training and how these can be used to maximize learning.
Discuss how various individual differences affect the
learning process.
Discuss the value of adult learning theory to HRD
interventions.
Describe the role that learning styles, learning strategies,
and perceptual preferences play in learning.
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Learning
Learning defined as “a relatively
permanent change in behavior, cognition,
or affect that occurs as a result of one’s
interaction with the environment”
Several aspects of this definition are important
Focus is upon change
Change must be long-lasting
The focus of learning can be cognitive, behavioral, or
affective, or any combination of the three
Results from the individual’s interaction with the
learning environment
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Learning Outcomes
Outcomes can be:
Cognitive (Knowledge)
(e.g., procedures for applying for a research grant)
Psychomotor (Skill- or behavior-based)
(e.g., climbing a utility pole)
Affective (Attitude)
(e.g., becoming more safety conscious)
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Basic Learning Principles
Contiguity – things taught together
become associated with each other
Law of Effect – a behavior followed by
pleasurable experience is likely to be
repeated
Practice – repetition increases association
and knowledge
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Limitations of Learning Principles in
Improving Training Design
Unfortunately, when it comes to improving training
design, these general principles are not as helpful as
one might expect. Because:
1- Much of the research that demonstrates these
principles was conducted in tightly controlled
laboratory settings using artificial tasks, the findings
often do not apply directly to many real-world
settings
2- Practice doesn’t always leads to improvement in
people performance (repetition  Routine  boredom)
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Improved Training Design
According to Robert Gagné training could be improved
by using these three principles:
1. Task Analysis—Any task can be analyzed into a set
of distinct component tasks.
2. Component Task Achievement—Each component
task must be fully achieved before the entire task
may be performed correctly.
3. Task Sequencing—The learning situation should be
arranged so that each of the component tasks is
learned in the appropriate order before the total task
is attempted..
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Task Analysis
Break each task down into a series of
distinct component smaller tasks
Keep breaking tasks down to the
simplest level possible
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Component Task Achievement
Each component task must be
completed fully before the entire task
may be performed correctly
You have to specify what is to be done,
under what conditions, and how it is to
be evaluated
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Task Sequencing
Each component task should be
arranged in the proper sequence
Some are serial tasks
Some can be done in parallel/similar
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The Impact of Instructional and Cognitive
Psychology on Learning Research
Whereas traditional learning theorists focused on
describing what happens in learning situations instructional
theorists focus on what must be done before learning can
take place. Instructional psychology is focusing on the
acquisition of human competence through the following:
- Describe the learning goal to be achieved
- Analyze the initial state of the learner (what the learner knows or
can perform prior to learning).
- Identify the conditions (instructional techniques, procedures,
materials) allowing the learner to gain competence
- Assess and monitor the learning process
to determine progress
and whether alternatives techniques should be used
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The Impact of Instructional and Cognitive
Psychology on Learning Research
Cognitive psychology theorists focused on
adopting the language, methods, and models
that portray humans as information processors.
A major goal of cognitive psychology is to develop models and
theories that explain how people function. These methodologies
and theories can help create an “integrated understanding of
how cognitive processes produce intelligent behavior,” such as
learning.
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Maximizing Learning (Training)
Three primary areas are emphasized as
ways to maximize learning
Trainee Characteristics
Training Design
Transfer of Training
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1. Trainee Characteristics
Trainability focuses on the trainee’s
readiness to learn and combines the
trainee’s level of ability and motivation
with his or her perceptions of the work
environment.
A simple formula to convey this is:
Trainability = f (Motivation X Ability X
Perceptions of the Work Environment)
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How to Assess Trainee
Differences - 1
Ten dimensions can help us assess the
differences in trainees readiness to learn
/trainability
1- Instrumentality

Does trainee think training is applicable?
2- Skepticism

Degree trainee questions and demands facts.
3- Resistance to Change

How well is change accepted?
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How to Assess Trainee
Differences -2
4- Attention Span

How long can trainee focus on the lesson?
5- Expectation Level

What does trainee expect from the
trainer/training?
6- Dominant Needs

What drives/motivates the trainee?
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How to Assess Trainee
Differences -3
7- Absorption Level

How fast is new information accepted?
8- Topical Interest

How interested is trainee in topic?
9- Self-Confidence

Degree of independence and self-regard
10- Locus of Control

Can trainee implement training on job?
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2. Training Design Issues
Training design involves adapting the
learning environment to maximize
learning.
Training design issues include:
2.1. Conditions of practice
2.2. Retention of what is learned
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2.1. Conditions of Practice
At least six issues have been studied that relate to
practice and learning
Active practice
(repeatedly perform the task )
Spaced versus massed practice –
whether training is made 1
session or divide it into multiple sessions
Whole versus part learning -
whether training is made in one
whole part or in separate parts
Overlearning-
whether the trainee required to continue practice the
material/task even after he/she get competent after receiving the training
Knowledge of results (feedback)
Task sequencing-knowledge can learn more effective if divide into
subtask
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2.2.Retention of What is Learned
The goal of training goes beyond ensuring that the trainee
initially learns the task or material being presented. It is
equally important that newly learned material is retained.
Three additional issues that influence retention are:
Meaningfulness/Relevance of the material
Degree of original learning: The more effectively
information is initially learned, the more likely it will be retained
Interference


Knowledge before training
Changes after training
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3. Transfer of Training
Does training reflected on the job?
Transfer can take different forms.
Positive transfer –

Job performance improves after training
Zero transfer –

No measurable changes
Negative transfer –

Performance becomes worse after training
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3.1 How to Maximize Training Transfer
Three issues must be checked to ensure
transfer maximization:
Identical elements
Physical fidelity
Psychological fidelity
This issues will be explained in the
coming slides
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Identical Elements
The closer the training is to the job, the
easier it is to achieve transfer
Direct relationship to the job
Example: Customer service and angry
customers
Role playing, case study, business
games, etc.
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Physical Fidelity
Physical fidelity is the extent to which the
conditions of the training program, such as
equipment, tasks, and surroundings, mirror
those in the performance situation (in the
job setting)
Same physically
Same procedurally
Example: Flight and submarine simulators
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Psychological Fidelity
is the extent to which trainees attach
similar meanings to both the training and
performance situations (in the job
setting).
Trainee experiences same stresses and
conditions as he/she is being trained for
Example: MS Flight Simulator
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3.2 Support in Work Environment
The extent to which trainees perceive support
for using newly learned behavior or knowledge
on the job affects transfer of training
Support at the organizational level include:
Establish a supportive transfer of training climate at the
workplace
Establish a continuous learning work environment
Supervisors support and help develop training
Training leads to promotion/better pay
Trainee has opportunity to perform
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Cognitive Resource Allocation Theory
(How Brain is Used)
How well you pay attention determines how
much you learn & how well you perform.
The greater your intelligence, the more you
pay attention.
If you’re motivated, you pay attention.
Intelligence
Motivation
How to
Pay
Attention
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 How much
you Learn
 How well
you Perform
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Andragogy (M. Knowles)
Knowles proposes an adult-oriented approach to
learning that he called andragogy
Pedagogy vs. Andragogy
Assumption of adult-oriented approach to
learning (Andragogy)
Adults
Adults
Adults
Adults
Adults
-
are self-directed
already have knowledge and experience
are ready to learn relevant tasks
are motivated to learn
expect to apply learning immediately
Andragogy is more relevant to HRD
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Learning Styles
Another perspective on the learning process and
how to maximize learning examines what people
do when they learn
learning styles and strategies can be important
in determining learning outcomes.
Lots of research in this area
Many different tests are available to measure:


Learning ability
Individual learning preferences
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Kolb’s Learning Style Inventory
Among most popular tests used
Kolb proposes four modes of learning:
A mode of learning is the individual’s orientation toward
gathering and processing information during learning.
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Kolb’s Learning Styles
learning styles are developed as a result of life
experiences as well as hereditary influences
Convergent

Thinking and Doing
Divergent

Feeling and Watching
Assimilation

Thinking and Watching
Accommodative

Feeling and Doing
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Kolb argues that an individual’s learning
style often combines two modes of
learning
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Five Learning Strategies
1. Rehearsal strategies (e.g., repeating items in a
list; underlining text in an article; copying notes)
2. Elaboration strategies (e.g., forming a mental
image; taking notes, paraphrasing, or summarizing new
material)
3. Organizational strategies (e.g., grouping or
ordering information to be learned; outlining an article;
creating a hierarchy of material)
4. Comprehension monitoring strategies (e.g., selfquestioning)
5. Affective strategies (e.g., increasing alertness;
relaxation; finding ways to reduce test anxiety)
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Summary
Without learning, there would be no field
of human resource development
To increase learning, we must consider:

Trainee characteristics/individual differences
and preferences

Training design issues – the environment

Retention and transfer of training issues
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