TRANSPORT IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS 1
By Martin Otundo Richard
email:martinotundo@gmail.com
phone +254721246744
T R A N S PO RT I S T H E
M OV E M E N T O F S U B STA N C E S
W I T H I N A N O RGA N I S M .
E XC E R ATO RY P RO D U C TS N E E D
TO B E T R A N S PO RT E D TO
E X P U L S I O N S I T E S B EC AU S E
T H E I R R E T E N T I O N M AY
PO I S O N T H E C E L L S .
TRANSPORT IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS 1
ALSO, LIVING CELLS REQUIRE
NUTRIENTS TO SURVIVE
HENCE MUST HAVE AN
ELABORATE TRANSPORT
SYSTEM.
TRANSPORT IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS 2
AMOEBA IS A UNICELLULAR
ORGANISM WHICH HAS A
LARGE SURFACE AREA TO
VOLUME RATIO.
THEIR BODIES ARE IN
CONTACT WITH
ENVIRONMENT.
TRANSPORT IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS 2
DUE TO THIS, DIFFUSION
HERE PLAYS AN
IMPORTANT ROLE IN
REMOVING WASTE FROM
THEIR BODIES.
TRANSPORT IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS 3
LARGE MULTICELLU LA R
O RGANIS M S HAVE COMPLEX
STRUCTUR ES WHER E CELLS ARE
FAR F RO M EACH OTHER.
DIFFUSIO N HERE ALONE
CANNOT FUNCTIO N TO REMOVE
ALL TOXINS PRODUCED BY THE
BODY.
TRANSPORT IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS 3
THEREFO R E, HIGHER
O RGANIS M S HAVE AN
ELABO R AT E TRANSPO RT
SYSTEM .
SIMPLE PLANTS LIKE MOSSES
AND LIVERWO RTS LACK A
SPECIALIS ED TRANSPO RT
SYSTEM
TRANSPORT IN PLANTS 1
HIGHER PLANTS HOWEVER
HAVE A SPECIALLISED
TRANSPORT SYSTEM KNOWN
AS THE VASCULAR BUNDLE.
XYLEM
PHLOEM
TRANSPORT IN PLANTS 2
TRANSPO RT O CCURES IN 3
LEVELS;
1 . UPTAKE OF WATER AND
MINERA L IONS CELLS FOR
PHOTOSYNT HES IS AND
RESPIR AT ION
2 . SHO RT DISTANCE TRANSPO RT
– CELL TO CELL AT LEVEL OF
TRANSPORT IN PLANTS 2
3 LONG DISTANCE TRANSPO RT –
THIS IS TRANSPO RT O F SAP BY
VASCULAR BUNDLES AT PLANT
LEVEL
TRANSPORT IN PLANTS 3
THE TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN
PLANTS CONSIST OF THE
VASCULAR TISSUE
XYLEM
PHLOEM
VASCULAR TISSUE ARE
LOCATED IN THE FOLLOWING
ORGANS
TRANSPORT IN PLANTS 3
ROOTS – ABSORB WATER
AND MINERALS
STEM – CONDUCTS WATER
TO THE LEAVES
LEAVES – USES THE WATER
FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS
TRANSPORT IN PLANTS 4
P H YS I O LO G I C A L P RO C E S S L I K E
OSMOSIS
D I F F U S I O N A N D AC T I V E
T R A N S PO RT
ENHANCE
T R A N S PO RT O F M AT E R I A L S
W I T H I N T H E P L A N T.
PLANT ORGANS 1
THE ROOT
I T H AS T H E FO L LOW I N G
FUNCTION;
1 . A B S O R B S WAT E R A N D M I N E R A L S
F RO M S O I L
2 . A N C H O R T H E P L A N T TO T H E
PLANT ORGANS 1
3 ACT AS STORAG E ORGAN IN
SOME PLANTS EXAMPLE
CASSAVA AND THE CARROTS
4 SO ME ASSIST IN BREATHNG
PLANT ORGANS 2
THE RO OTS ARE SUBDIVIDED
INTO TWO MAIN TYPES;
MONOCOT ROOTS
DICOT ROOTS
PLANT ORGANS 3
DIFFERENCE
MONOCOT
DICOT
PERICYCLE PRODUCE
LATERAL ROOTS
XYLEM OVAL AND
ROUND
PERICYCLE GIVE RISE TO
LATERAL ROOTS, CORK
AND VASCULAR
CAMBIUM
XYLEM STAR SHAPED OR
POLYGONL
PITH PRESENT
PITH ABSENT
XYLEM AND PHLOEM
ARE NUMEROUS
XYLEM AND PHLOEM
LIMITED
ROOT HAIR;
IT HAS EXTENSIONS ARISIN G
FRO M THE PILIFERO U S LAYER
IT ABSORBS WATER AND
M INERA L IONS FROM THE SOIL.
THEY ARE ONE CELL THICK AND
VERY MANY
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF ROOT 1
THE PILIFERO US LAYER - THIN
WALLED LAYER OF EPIDERM AL
CELL
GIVES RISE TO ROOT HAIR .
CORTEX – HAS LOOSELY PACKED
AND THIN WALLED
PARENCH YM A CELLS
STORE FOOD FOR PLANT.
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF ROOT 1
ENDO DERM IS – HAS CORKY
ENDOTHELIA L CELLS WITH
DEPOSITS ON CROSS WALLS.
REGULAT ES WATER AND
MINERA L SALTS ENTERING
XYLEM BY ACTIVE TRANSPO RT.
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF ROOT 2
THE PERICYCLE – ITS FOUND
BENEATH THE EPIDERMIS
GIVES RISE TO LATERAL
ROOTS.
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF ROOT 2
VASCULAR TISSUE –
CONSISTS XYLEM AND
PHLOEM.
XYLEM CONDUCTS WATER
PHLOEM CONDUCTS FOOD
MATERIALS
ADAPTATIONS OF ROOT HAIR TO FUNCTIONS
HAVE NUMEROUS
MITO CHO NDR IA TO PROVIDE
ENERGY FO R ACTIVE
TRANSPO RT AND DIFFUSION
ELO NGAT ED TO INCERAS E THE
SURFACE AREA OVER WHICH
ABSO RPTIO N TAKES PLACE
ADAPTATIONS OF ROOT HAIR TO FUNCTIONS
PRESENCE OF LARGE SAP
VACUO LE EXERTS HIGH
O SMOTIC PRESSURE FO R
ABSO RPTIO N
THIN WALLED FO R FASTER
DIFFUSIO N OF MATERIA LS
VASCULAR TISSUE 1
CO NSISTS O F;
XYLEM
TRANSPO RTS WATER AND
M INERA L SALT THROUGHOU T
THE PLANT
THE XYLEM TISSUE IS MADE UP
O F VESSELS AND TRACHEIDS
VASCULAR TISSUE 2
DIFFERENCE;
VESSLES
TRACHEIDS
MANY CELLS PILING UP
INDIVIDUAL CELLS
SHORTER INDIVIDUAL CELL
LONGER INDIVIDUAL CELLS
ADVANCED THAN TRACHEIDS
PRIMITIVE THAN VESSLES
10CM AVERAGE LENGTH
1MM AVERAGE LENGTH
BROADER CELLS
NARROW CELLS
CELL LUMEN IS LARGE
CELL LUMEN IS SMALL
CIRCULAR CELLS IN CROSS SECTION
POLYGONAL CELLS IN CROSS SECTION
PERFORATED END WALLS
NO PERFORATION ON END WALLS
MORE EFFICIENT
LESS EFFIENT
CONNECTED END TO END
CONNECTED LATERALLY
VASCULAR TISSUE 3
SIMILARITIES;
 BOTH ARIZE FROM XYLEM
 B O T H A R E D E A D C E L L S AT
M AT U R I T Y
 B O T H T R A N S P O RT WAT E R
 B O T H H AV E S E C O N DA RY L I G N I F I E D
C E L L WA L L
 B O T H P R E S E N T I N P R I M A RY A N D
S E C O N DA RY X Y L E M
ADAPTATION OF XYLEM
 T H I C K L I G N I F I E D WA L L S –
W H I C H P R E V E N TS T H E M
CO L L A P S I N G
 D O N OT H AV E C RO S S WA L L S FO R
CO N T I N U O U S F LOW O F WAT E R
 H AV E A NA R ROW LU M E N TO
FAC I L L I TAT E C A P I L L A R I T Y
 T H E Y H AV E B ROA D E R P I TS TO
A L LOW L AT E R A L M OV E M E N T O F
WAT E R
THEY ARE MADE OF NON LIVING
VASCULAR TISSUE 4
CO NSISTS O F;
PHLO EM
A VASCULAR TISSUE MADE OF
SIEVE PLATES AND SIEVE TUBE
ELEMENTS.
SIEVE PLATES SEPARAT E TWO
SIEVE TUBE ELEMENTS
VASCULAR TISSUE 5
DIFFERENCE;
SIEVE CELLS
SIEVE TUBES
PRESENT IN PHLOEM OF LOWER PLANTS
I.E PTERIDOPHYTE AND GYMNOSPERMS
PRESENT IN PHLOEM OF ANGIOSPERMS
SINGLE CELLS
AGGREGATION OF CELLS
LESS SPECIALLIZED
MORE SPECIALLISED
LONG AND NARROW CELLS WITH
TAPPERING END WALLS
SHORT AND WIDE CELLS WITH
TRANSVERSE OR OBLIQUE END WALLS
NO SIEVE PLATES IN SIEVE AREA
SIEVE PLATES PRESENT IN SIEVE AREA
SCATTERED SIEVE PORES AT END WALL
SIEVE PORES LOCATED ON SIEVE PLATES
COMPANION CELLS ABSENT
COMPANION CELLS PRESENT
PERFORATED END WALLS
NO PERFORATION ON END WALLS
VASCULAR TISSUE 3
SIMILARITIES;
BOTH ARE COMPONENTS OF
PHLOEM
ABSENT NUCLEUS IN BOTH
BOTH ARE SIEVE ELEMENTS
BOTH ARE LIVING CELLS
VASCULAR TISSUE 3
BOTH INVOLVED IN
TRANSLOCATION
BOTH HAVE THIN PRIMARY
CELL WALL
BOTH HAVE DENSE
GRANULAR PROTOPLASM
BOTH PRESENT IN PRIMARY
AND SECONDARY PHLOEM
ADAPTATIONS OF PHLOEM
HOLLOW SIEVE TUBES FOR
FOO D TO MOVE FRO M POINT TO
POINT.
DENSILY PACKED COMPANION
CELLS WITH MITO CHO NDRIA TO
PRODUCE ENERGY FOR ACTIVE
TRANSPO RT
THE STEM 1
THIS IS THE PART O F THE
PLANT CO NNECTING THE ROOTS
TO THE LEAFY REGIO NS OF THE
PLANT.
IT EXPO SES THE LEAF TO
SUNLIGHT.
THE STEM 1
AND ALSO IN SOME PLANTS IT
ACTS AS A STORGE ORGAN E.G
IRISH POTATO AND
SUGARCAN E
IT CAN BE USED FOR
PRO PAGAT ION IN SOME
PLANTS EXAMPLE CASSAVA
THE STEM 2
THE STEM S ARE SUBDIVIDED
INTO TWO MAIN TYPES;
MONOCOT STEM
DICOT STEM
THE STEM 3
DIFFERENCE;
MONOCOT STEM
DICOT STEM
EPIDERMAL HAIRS ABSENT
EPIDERMAL HAIRS PRESENT
SILICA DEPOSITS OVER THE EPIDERMIS
NO SILICA DEPOSITS OVER EPIDERMIS
PERICYCLE ABSENT
PERICYCLE PRESENT
PITH ABSENT
PITH PRESENT
ENDODERMIS ABSENT
ENDODERMIS PRESENT
NUMEROUS VASCULAR BUNDLES
NUMEROUS VASCULAR BUNDLES
VASCULAR BUNDLE ARE COJOINED AND
CLOSED
VASCULAR BUNDLES ARE COJOINED AND
OPEN
CIRCULAR XYLEM ELEMENTS
POLYGONAL XYLEM ELEMENTS
PROTOXYLUM LACUNA PRESENT
PROTOXYLEM LACUNA ABSENT
SIMILARITIES;
BOTH HAVE SINGLE LAYER OF
EPIDERM IS
BOTH HAVE THICK LAYER OF
CUTICLE
THE HYPODERM IS IS PRESENT
IN BOTH
MAJO R PORTION OF GROUND
TISSUE IS PARENC HY M A
SIMILARITIES;
HAVE WELL ORGANIS ED
VASCULAR TISSUES
THEY HAVE A COJOINED
VASCULAR BUNDLES
BOTH HAVE DENSE GRANULA R
PROTO PLASM
TRANSPORT OF WATER IN PLANTS 1
TRANSPO RT O F WATER MAINLY
INVOLVES ;
UPTAKE OF WATER AND
MINERA L SALTS FROM
GRO UND
MOVEMEN T OF WATER
THROUGH XYLEM TO THE
TRANSPORT OF WATER IN PLANTS 2
1 . U P TA K E O F M I N E R A L SA LTS A N D
MINERAL IONS
 T H E Y A R E TA K E N U P BY AC T I V E
T R A N S P O RT
 T H I S P RO C E S S R EQ U I R E S E N E RGY
A N D P ROT E I N C A R R I E R S FO R
AC T I V E T R A N S P O RT TO
TRANSPORT OF WATER IN PLANTS 2
2.
ABSO RPT IO N O F WATER BY
THE RO OTS
WATER IS ABSORBED IN THE
PLANT BY THE ROOT HAIR
CELL.
THE ROOT HAIR CELL
CONTAINS A SAP WHICH IS A
CONCENTRAT ED SOLUTION OF
TRANSPORT OF WATER IN PLANTS 2
THE SAP AND THE SOIL
SOLUTION ARE SEPARATED
BY SEMI PERMIABLE
MEMRANE ON ROOT HAIR
CELL. WATER ENTER BY
OSMOSIS
WHEN WATER ENTERS THE
ROOT HAIR CELL , THE SAP
GETS DILLUTED CAUSING THE
CELL TO HAVE HIGHER
TRANSPORT OF WATER IN PLANTS 4
WATER WOULD THEN PASS BY
OSMOSIS FROM THE ROOT
HAIR CELL INTO THE INNER
CELL O F THE CORTEX.
THIS PROCESS CONTINUES
UNTIL WATER REACHES THE
XYLEM VESSLES.
TRANSPORT OF WATER UP THE STEM 1
AS WATER REACHES THE XYLEM
VESSLE , IT ACCUMULAT ES AND
PUSHED UP THE STEM
CREATIN G THE ROOT
PRESSUR E .
 RO OT P R E S S U R E I S T H E
H Y D RO STAT I C FO RC E T H AT I S
D E V E LO P E D BY E N D O D E R M A L
C E L L S T H AT I N T U R N WO U L D
TRANSPORT OF WATER UP THE STEM 2
ONCE THE WATER REACHES THE
XYLEM , WATER MOVES UP
THRO UGH A PRO CESS CALLED
CAPILLA RY ACTION.
CAPILLA R ITY IS THE ABILITY
OF LIQ UID TO FLOW AGAINST
GRAVITY THROUGH A NARROW
SPACE.
TRANSPORT OF WATER UP THE STEM 2
THE CAPILLA R ITY ACTION
ALLOWS WATER TO BE PULLED
THRO UGH THIN TUBES OF DUE
TO CO HESIV E AND ADHESIVE
FORCE.
CO HESIV E FO RCE BINDS
M OLECULES OF THE
SAME
KIND TO GETHER EXAMPLE
TRANSPORT OF WATER UP THE STEM 3
ADHESIV E FORCE IS THE
INTER ACT IO N O F
MOLECULE
O F DIF F ERENT KINDS EXAMPLE,
WATER AND THE WALLS OF
THE XYLEM .
THEY CAUSE WATER TO MOVE
UP THE STEM WITHO U T
TRANSPORT OF WATER UP THE STEM 4
ROOT PRESSURE CAN PUSH
WATER UP THE STEM BUT
NOT STRONG ENOUGH.
HOWEVER, TRANSPIRATION
PULL THEREFORE ASSISTS BY
PULLING WATER UP THE
PLANT TO THE LEAVES.
TRANSPORT OF WATER UP THE STEM 4
TRANSPIRATION BUILDS UP
THE FORCE TO FACILLITATE
TRANSPIRATION PULL.
THEREFORE, TRANSPIRATION
PULL IS A CONTINUOUS
COLUMN OF WATER AND
MINERALS SALTS UP THE
TRANSLOCATION 1
THIS IS A PROCESS BY WHICH
PRODUCTS OF
PHOTOSYNTHESIS ARE
TRANSPORTED FROM THE
LEAVES TO OTHER PARTS OF
THE PLANT THROUGH THE
PHLOEM.
TRANSLOCATION 1
HERE THEY DIFFUSE
ACCO RDING TO THEIR
CO NCENTRAT IO N
GRADIEN TS TO THE
ADJUSCENT SIEVE TUBES
THRO UGH SIEVE
PLATE.
PRO CESS IS HOWEV ER VERY
TRANSLOCATION MECHANISMS 1
CYTOPLASMIC STREAMING;
DEALS
WITH
TRANSLOCATION OF
ORGANIC SOLUTES OR
FOOD
MATERIALS
FROM ONE END TO
ANOTHER END OF A SIEVE
TUBE.
TRANSLOCATION MECHANISMS 2
MASS FLOW; THIS IS
M OVEM EN T OF WATER AND
NUTRIEN TS THROUG H THE
PHLOEM TO OTHER AREAS OF
THE PLANT BY DIFFUSION
AND ACTIVE TRANSPO RT.
TRANSLOCATION MECHANISMS 3
ACTIVE TRANSPO RT; THIS IS
MOVEMEN T OF MATERIALS
WITHIN THE PLANT
AGAINST CONCENTRAT IO N
GRADIEN T.
TRANSPIRATION
THIS IS THE PRO CESS BY WHICH
PLANTS LO SE WATER TO THE
ATMO SPH ER E INFO RM OF
VAPOUR.
OTHER WAYS IN WHICH PLANTS
LOSE WATER APART FROM
TRANSPIR AT ION ARE;
TRANSPIRATION
…BLEEDING FROM WOUNDS
…GUTTATION
…SECREATION FROM GLANDS
AND NECTARIES
FORMS OF TRANSPIRATION
STO M ATA L T R A N S P I R AT I O N ; T H I S
ACCO U N TS FO R 8 0 – 9 0 % O F
TOTA L T R A N S P I R AT I O N.
I T O CC U R E S T H RO U G H T H E L E A F
STO M ATA .
L E N T I C U L A R T R A N S P I R AT I O N ;
T R A N S P I R AT I O N T H AT O CC U R E S
T H RO U G H T H E L E N T I C E L O R
ST E M S I N P L A N TS T H AT U N D E RG O
S ECO N DA RY T H I C K E N I N G .
FORMS OF TRANSPIRATION
CUTICULAR TRANSPIRATION ;
OCCURES THROUGH THE
LEAF CUTICLES.
FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSPIRATION 1
THE FACTORS ARE DIVIDED
INTO TWO;
INTERNAL OR STRUCTURAL
AND EXTERNAL OR
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
FACTORS AFFECTING TRANSPIRATION 1
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ;
LIGHT INTENSITY; STOMATA
CLOSE AT LOW LIGHT
INTENSITY REDUCING
TRANSPIRATION.
IT HOWEVER OPENS AT
HIGH LIGHT
INTENSITIES.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 2
TEMPERATURE; HIGH
TEMPERAT U RE INCREAS ES
CAPACITY OF ATMOSPHERE
TO
HO LD WATER AND THUS
INCREAS IN G WATER
EVERPO RAT ION FROM THE
MESO PHYLL CELLS OF THE
LEAF HENCE
HIGH
TRANSPIR AT ION
RATE.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 2
LOW TEMPERATURE
REDUCES AIR CAPACITY
TO HOLD MORE WATER
THUS
LOW
TRANSPIRATION.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 3
AIR CURRENT; C A R R I E S AWAY
WAT E R
VA P O U R A S FA ST A S I T
DIFFUSES OUT
O F L E AV E S .
T H I S P R E V E N TS SAT U R AT I O N
O F WAT E R VA P O U R O N T H E
S U R FAC E O F T H E L E A F.
AS T H I S H A P P E N S , T H E R AT E
O F T R A N S P I R AT I O N B ECO M E S
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 4
HUMIDITY; THE HIGHER THE
HUMIDITY O F
AIR
ARO UND THE
LEAF, THE
LOWER THE TRANSPIRAT ION.
THE HUMIDITY DIFFERENCE
BETWEEN
INSIDE AND
THE O UTSIDE OF LEAF IS
CALLED SATURAT IO N
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 4
IN DRY ATMOSPHERE,
THE SATURATION
DEFICIT IS HIGH
LEADING TO HIGH
TRANSPIRATION.
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 6
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE;
HIGH
P R E S S U R E R E D U C E S R AT E
O F T R A N S P I R AT I O N L E AV E S
W H I L E LOW
P R E S S U R E I N C E AS E S
T R A N S P I R AT I O N R AT E S .
THIS EXPLAINS WHY THERE ARE FEW
PLANTS
I N H I G H A LT I T U D E A R E A S .
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 6
WAT E R AVA I L A B I L I T Y;
T R A N S P I R AT I O N R AT E
I N C R E AS E S W I T H WAT E R
AVA I L A B I L I T Y
REDUCES WITH
AND
WAT E R
U NAVA I L A B I L I T Y.
N U M B E R O F STO M ATA ; T H E
STRUCTURAL FACTORS 1
SIZE OF THE LEAF; LARGE
LEAVES HAVE LARGE
SURFACE AREA
OVER
WHICH TRANSPIRATION
OCCURES
WHILE
SMALLER
LEAVES HAVE
SMALL SURFACE AREA
OVER
WHICH
TRANSPIRATION
STRUCTURAL FACTORS 3
POSITION OF THE
STOMATA; PLANTS
HAVING
M ORE STO MATA ON THE UPPER
SIDE
(HYPERSTOM AT IC )
THAN THE
LOWER
SIDE
HAVE A HIGHER RATE OF
STRUCTURAL FACTORS 3
PLANTS HAVING FEW
STOMATA
ON THE UPPER
SIDE (HYPOSTOMATIC)
AND MORE
ON THE
LOWER SIDE HAVE LOW
RATE OF
STRUCTURAL FACTORS 2
SIZE OF THE STOMATA;
THE
LARGER THE
STOMATA THE HIGHER
THE RATE OF
TRANSPIRATION.
STURUCTURAL ADAPTATIONS TO REDUCE TRANSP
1. SUNKEN STOMATA – WATER
ACCUMULAT ES
IN THE
STOM TAL
DEPRESSIO N
THEREBY
LOWERIN G
VAPOUR CONCENTRAIO N
GRADIEN T, HENCE
STURUCTURAL ADAPTATIONS TO REDUCE TRANSP
2. SMALL LEAF SIZE –
REDUCES NUMBER OF
STOMATA AND
EVERPO RAT ION AREA ,
THEREBY
REDUCING
TRANSPIR AT IO N.
STURUCTURAL ADAPTATIONS TO REDUCE TRANSP
3. THICK WAXY CUTICLE –
THIS REDUCES
WATER BY
EVERPORATION.
4. HYPOSTOMATIC NATURE –
LOWER STOMATA ON THE
LEAF SURFACE.
STURUCTURAL ADAPTATIONS TO REDUCE TRANSP
5. EPIDERMAL HAIRS - TO
TRAP AND CONDENSE
WATER VAPOUR THEREBY
REDUCING
TRANSPIRATION.
STURUCTURAL ADAPTATIONS TO REDUCE TRANSP
6. REDUCED LEAF
7. SOME PLATS STORE WATER
IN STEMS
8. SOME PLANTS COAT
LEAVES
WITH WAX
PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS TO REDUCE TRANS
1.REVERSED STOMATAL
RHYTHM
2.LEAF ROLL
3.LEAF FALL
IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPIRATION 1
1 . IT REMOVES EXCESS WATER
FRO M THE PLANT
2 . PROVIDES COOLING EFFECT
OF THE PLANT
3 . MAINTA INS TUGOR PRESSURE
OF THE PLANT CELLS.
IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPIRATION 1
4 CREATES TRANSPIR AT ION
PULL THAT ASSISTS IN
ABSORPTION
AND
TRANSPO RT O F WATER AND
DISSO LVED MINERA LS.
IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPIRATION 2
5. IT CREATES A NEGATIVE
PRESSUR E
GRADIEN T THAT
HELPS DRAW
WATER AND
MINERA LS UP
THROUGH THE
PLANT FRO M
ITS
ROOTS.
IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPIRATION 2
6. IT SUPPORTS
PHOTO SYNT HES IS
AND
ENCO URAG ES THE
EXCHANG E OF GASES ,
HELPIN G MAINTA IN LEVELS
IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPIRATION 3
7. IT PLAYS A MAJO R ROLE IN
THE
WATER
CYCLE
8. IT CREATES WATER VAPOUR
THAT FORMS
FOG.
CLOUDS AND
TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS
TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS
IT MAINLY O CCURES THOUGH
SPECIAL M EDIUM KNOWN AS
BLOOD WHICH IS THE
TRANSPO RT IN G FLUID.
TRANSPO RT IN ANIMALS
M AINLY ENCOMPAS ES THE
CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS
THE HEART O N THE OTHER
HAND PUM PS THE BLOOD TO
ALL PARTS OF THE BODY, VIA
THE BLO O D VESSLES.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS
THERE ARE TWO DIFFERENT
TYPES O F CIRCULATO RY
SYSTEM S;
 OPEN CIRCULATO RY
 CLOSED CIRCULATO RY
CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS
IN THE O PEN CIRCULATORY
SYSTEM , BLOOD FLOWS IN THE
BODY CAVITY.
THE BLO O D IS CALLED
HAEMO LY MP H WHILE THE PART
O CCUPIED BY THE
CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS
IN THE CLOSED CIRCULATO RY
SYSTEM BLOOD IS PUMPED
INSIDE THE BLOOD VESSLES BY
A MUSCULAR HEART.
THE BLO O D HAS DIFFERENT
DIFFERENCE IN CIRCULATORY SYSTEMS
OPEN CIRCULATORY CLOSED CIRCULATO
BLOOD FLOWS IN
OPEN SURFACE
CALLED SINUSES
LOW BLOOD
VELOCITY
BLOOD CAVITY
FILLED WITH
HAEMOCOEL
BLOOD FLOWS IN
BLOOD VESSLES.
RAPID BLOOD
VELOCITY
HAEMOCOEL
ABSENT
INTERNAL ORGANS
BATED BY BLOOD
INTERNAL OORGANS
NOT IN DIRECT
CONTACT WITH
BLOOD
BLOOD TAKES
LONG TIME TO
CIRCULATE
BLOOD TAKES
SHORT TIME TO
CIRCULATE
SLOW SUPPLY AND RAPID SUPPLY
ELIMINATION OF AND ELIMINATION
MATERIALS
OF MATERIALS
EXCHANGE OF
MATERIALS TAKE
PLACE BETWEEN
BLOOD AND SINUSES
EXCHANGE OF
MATERIALS TAKE
PLACE THROUGH
THE CAPILLARIES
BLOOD FLOW IS
NOT REGULATED
BLOOD FLOW IS
REGULATED
HAS A WEAK
HEART
COMPARED TO
CLOSED SYSTEMS
HAS A STRONG
HEART
COMPARED TO
OPEN SYSTEMS
WHEREBY THE BLO O D PASSES
THE HEART ONCE THEN TO THE
REST O F THE BODY, THIS TYPE
OF CIRCULATIO N IS CALLED
SINGLE CIRCULAT IO N.
EXAM PL E THE FISH.
WHEREBY THE BLOOD PASSES
THE HEART TWICE THEN TO
THE REST OF THE BODY, THIS
TYPE OF CIRCULATION IS
CALLED DO UBLE CIRCULAT IO N.
EXAMPL E ; MAMMALS , BIRDS
AMPHIBIA NS AND REPTILES
DOUBLE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
IT INVO LVES BLOOD PASSING
THRO UGH THE HEART TWICE IN
A COM PLET E CIRCUIT.
IT CO MPRISES O F PUMLONARY
AND SYSTEMIC CIRCULAT IO N
PULMONARY CIRCULATION
INVO LVES BLO O D FLOW
THRO UGH THE LUNGS VIA THE
PULM O NARY ARTERY AND BACK
TO THE HEART VIA THE
PULM O NARY VEIN.
BLOOD IS AT LOW PRESSURE TO
PREVEN T RAPTUR E O F THE
CAPILLA R IES
ALSO BLO O D IS AT LOW
PRESSUR E SO AS TO CREATE
ENOUGH TIME FOR IT TO BE
SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION
INVO LVES BLOOD FLOW FROM
THE HEART TO THE REST OF
THE BO DY.
BLOOD IS AT HIGH PRESSURE
FOR EFFICIENT O RGAN
FUNCTIO NIN G AND TISSUE
THIS MAINTAINS ACTIVE
CHEMICAL PROCESSES AT
HIGH TEMPERATURES .
OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
HERE, THE TRANSPO RT IN G
FLUID F LOWS THROUGH THE
BODY CAVITY OR HAEM OCO EL
AND NOT IN VESSLES.
THIS SYSTEM IS MAINLY FOUND
IN MO LLUSES AND
ADV OF OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
1. TRANSPO RT IN G FLUID IS IN
DIRECT CO NTACT WITH THE
CELLS.
2. ALLOWS MIXING OF FLUID IN
AN O RGANIS M.
3. IT REQ UIRES LESS ENERGY
ADV OF OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
4. BLOOD PRESSURE IS
RELATIVELY LOW.
5. THE OXYGEN
REQUIREMENT IS LOW.
DIS ADV OF OPEN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
1 . WASTE REMOVA L IS SLOW
2 . ANIMALS ARE LESS ACTIVE
3 . NUTRIEN TS ARE
DISTRIBUT ED SLOWLY
4 . BLOOD FLOW CANNOT BE
REGULAT ED.
ADV OF CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
1. RAPID NUTRIENT
DISTRIBUTION
2. THERE IS HIGH PRESSURE
IN BLOOD FLOW
3. ORGANISMS ARE MORE
ACTIVE
ADV OF CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
5. BLOOD NOT IN CONTACT
WITH THE CELLS HENCE NO
INTERFERENCE WITH
CELLULAR ACTIVITIES.
DIS ADV OF CLOSED CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
1 . REQUIRES MORE ENERGY
2 . REQUIRES A STRONGER
HEART
3 . PRESSURE MAY RUPTURE
BLOOD VESSLES
4 . HEART MAY BE PRONE TO
THE MAMMALIAN CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
 MAMMALS HAVE A CLOSED
CIRCULATO RY SYSTEM WHERE
A POWERFU L HEART PUMPS
BLOOD INTO ARTERIES .
 THE ARTERIES DIVIDE INTO
SMALLER VESSELS CALLED
ARTERIO LES .
 EACH ARTERIOLE DIVIDES
TO FORM A NETWORK OF
CAPILLARIES INSIDE THE
TISSUES.
 THE CAPILLARIES
EVENTUALLY RE -UNITE TO
FORM VENULES , WHICH
 THE VEINS TAKE THE
BLOOD BACK TO THE
HEART.
 BLOOD FROM THE HEART
GOES THROUGH THE
PULMONARY ARTERY TO
 THIS CIRCULATION IS
CALLED PULMONARY
CIRCULATION.
 OXYGENATED BLOOD
LEAVES THE HEART
THROUGH THE AORTA AND
 FROM THE TISSUES,
DEOXYGENATED BLOOD
FLOWS BACK TO THE
HEART THROUGH THE
VENA CAVA.
 THIS CIRCULATION IS
 IN EACH COMPLETE
CIRCULATION, THE BLOOD
FLOWS INTO THE HEART
TWICE.
THIS IS CALLED DOUBLE
CIRCULATION.
COMPONENTS OF MAMMALIAN CIRCULATORY
BLO O D CIRCULATO RY SYSTEM
O F MAM M ALS CONSIST OF
ARTER IES, VEINS, CAPILLA RIES
AND THE HEART.
THE ARTER IES VEINS AND
CAPILLA R IES ARE KNOWN AS
ARTERIES
THEY TRANSPORT BLOOD
FROM THE HEART.
THEY ALL CARRY
OXYGINATED BLOOD EXCEPT
THE PULMONARY ARTERY
THEY ARE ALL MUSCULAR
AND INELASTIC WITH A
SMALL LUMEN.
BLOOD FLOWS IN THEM AT
VERY HIGH PRESSURE .
THEY ARE LESS MUSCULAR AND
ELASTIC WITH A LARGER
LUMEN THUS BLOOD FLOWS AT
LOW PRESSURE .
A TINY VEIN IS KNOWN AS A
VENULE WHICH ARISES FROM
AN ORGAN AND THEN UNITE TO
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ARTERY AND VEIN
ARTERY
VEIN
THICK MUSCULAR THIN AND LESS
WALLS
MUSCULAR
NARROW LUMEN WIDE LUMEN
NO VALVES
HAVE VALVES
TRANSPORT
BLOOD AWAY
FROM HEART
TRANSPORT
BLOOD TO THE
HEART
ARTERY
VEIN
TRANSPORT
OXYGINATED
BLOOD EXCEPT
PULMONARY
ARTERY
TRANSPORT DEOXYGINATED
BLOOD EXCEPT
PULMONARY VEIN
BLOOD FLOWS IN
HIGH PRESSURE
BLOOD FLOWS IN
PULSES
BLOOD FLOWS IN
LOW PRESSURE
BLOOD FLOWS
SMOOTHLY
CAPILLARIES
THEY ARE SMALL ONE CELL
THICK VESSLES LYING
BETWEEN THE CELL OF
EVERY ORGAN.
THEY JOIN AN ARTERIOLE
WITH A VENULE.
ADAPTATIONS OF CAPILLARIES
 HAVE DIRECT CONTACT WITH
TISSUES FOR EFFICIENT
EXCHANG E OF MATERIA LS
 THEY ARE NUMEROUS TO
INCREAS E SURFACE AREA
OVER WHICH EXCHAN G E OF
ADAPTATIONS OF CAPILLARIES
 ONE CELL THICK FOR EASIER
DIF F USION OF MATERIA LS .
 THIN LUMEN TO INCREAS E
PRESSUR E HENCE ALLOW
MATERIALS TO DIFFUSE OUT
FASTER.
CAPILLARIES MECHANISM OF EXCHANGE
THEY RUN CLOSE TO THE CELLS
SINCE THEY HAVE A SMALL
LUMEN,
PART O F THIS BLOOD IS
FILTER ED INTO THE CELLS.
THE PART FILTERED FORMS
CAPILLARIES MECHANISM OF EXCHANGE
BLO O D LEFT IN CAPILLA RIES
HAVE MO RE SOLUTES HENCE
HIGHLY CO NCENTRAT ED.
WASTES IN THE IN THE
CELLULA R SPACES DIFFUSE OUT
INTO THE CAPILLA RIES
CAPILLARIES MECHANISM OF EXCHANGE
THE FO O D AND NUTRIEN TS AS
WELL WO ULD DIFFUSE IN THE
CELLS.
THE HEART
AN O RGAN THAT PUMPS AND
RECIEV ES BLOOD FROM ALL
THE BO DY PARTS.
#DIAGRAM#
ADAPTATIONS OF THE HEART
 IT IS ENCLOSED BY A
PERICA RD IU M MEMBRAN E
SECREAT IN G A FLUID THAT
LUBRICAT ES IT. THE FLUID
REDUCES FRICTION ON THE
WALLS AS IT PUMPS.
 HAS VALVES WHICH PREVENT
BACK F LOW OF BLOOD
 IT IS MADE O F CARDIAC
MUSCLES THAT CONTRACT
AND RELAX WITHOU T
FATIGUE OR REQUIRIN G
NERVO US STIMULAT ION.
 DIVIDED INTO 4 CHAMBERS
WHEREBY THE RIGHT IS
CONCERNED WITH
PULM O NARY CIRCULATION AS
THE LEF T SYSTEMIC
 CO NNECTED TO THE BLOOD
VESSLES WHICH DELIVER AND
BRING BACK BLO O D TO THE
HEART
 IT HAS A MUSCULAR SEPTUM
WHICH SEPAR AT ES
OXIGINAT ED TO
DEOXYGINAT ED BLOOD.
 THE LEF T VENTRIC L E HAS
THICKER WALLS TO EXCERT
PRESSUR E AND PUMP BLOOD
IN SYSTEMIC CIRCULAT ION.
 THE HEART HAS PACE
MAKERS THAT REGULAT E THE
PUM PING MECHANISM .
MECHANISM OF PUMPING OF HEART
THE M AM M ALIAN HERAT
UDERGO ES SYSTOLE AND
DIASTO LE PROCESSES.
SYSTO LE PHASE IS WHEN THE
VENTRIC LES CO NTRACT TO
FORCE BLO OD INTO THE
ARTER IES
DURING DIASTOLE , THE
M USCLES O F THE VENTRIC LES
RELAX THEREBY INCREAS ING
THE VO LUME OF EACH
VENTRIC ULA R CHAMBER AND
PRESSUR E DECREASES .
THE CUSPID VALVE OPENS
ALLOWIN G OXYGINAT ED BLOOD
TO FLOW INTO THE LEFT
VENTRIC L E FROM THE LEFT
DURING SYSTOLE , THE
VENTRIC ULA R MUSCLES
CONTRACT, THE CUSPID VALVE
CLO SES PREVENT IN G BACK
FLOW O F BLOOD.
VOLUM E O F VENTRIC LES
DECREASES AND PRESSURE
INCREAS ES TO FORCE BLOOD
BOTH SYSTOLE AND DIASTOLE
M AKE UP THE HEARTBEAT.
DISEASE OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
1 . THRO MBOS IS – FORMATIO N
O F BLOOD CLOT
(THRO MBUS ) IN THE
ARTERY.
MAINLY WHEN CORONARY
ARTERY IS BLOCKED, IT MAY
RESULT TO HEART ATTACK.
IT MAY ALSO BE BROUGHT BY
EXCESS CHO LESTRO L IN THE
BLOOD. THIS MAY LEAD TO
CLO GGING O F THE CO RONARY
ARTERY, LEADING TO HEART
ATTACK.
2. ARTE R IOSC LEROS IS – MAINLY
BROUGHT BY
CALCIF ICAT ION OF THE
ARTER IES MAKING THEM LOSE
THEIR ELASTIC IT Y.
IT IS CHARACT ERIS ED BY
GROWT H O F FIBRO US
CONNECTIV E TISSUES IN
IT CAN BE TREAT ED MAINLY BY;
 TAKING FOOD LESS IN
CHO LESTROL
 REGULA R EXCERCIS ES TO
KEEP HEART MUSCLES ACTIVE
AND STRONG
 AVO IDING OBESITY NATURE.
VARICO S VEINS – THIS IS THE
SWELLIN G OF THE LEG
M USCLES THUS BECOMING
FLUBBY DUE TO FAILLURE OF
SOME VALVES TO
PROPERLY.
FUNCTION
VARICO S VEINS – THIS IS THE
SWELLIN G OF THE LEG
M USCLES THUS BECOMING
FLUBBY DUE TO FAILLURE O F
SOME VALVES TO
PROPERLY.
FUNCTION
HYPERT ENS IO N O R HBP – IT
M AINLY
RESULTS WHEN THE
HEARTB EAT IS
ABOVE 140/ 9 0
READINGS. THE NORMAL
HEART BEAT HOWEV ER
SHO ULD RANGE AT 120/ 8 0
HYPERT E NS IO N OR HBP – IT
MAINLY
RESULTS WHEN THE
HEARTB EAT IS
ABOVE (140/ 9 0
M MHG) READINGS . THE
NUMERATO R IS THE
DIASTO LIC PRESSURE WHILE
THE
DENOMINATO R IS THE
THE NO RMAL BLO O D PRESSURE
SHO ULD BE (120 / 8 0 MMHG)
THIS DISORDER IS COMMON
WITH INDIVIDUALS ABOVE 40
YEARS O F
AGE.
THE REASO N IS ATTRIBU T ED TO
LARGE AMO UNT OF SALT
INTAKE THUS INCREASIN G
BLOOD VISCOSITY.
ALSO, CHO LESTRO L COATS THE
ARTER IES MAKING THEM
HBP CAUSES DESTRUCTION OF
THE O RGANS SUCH AS BRAIN
WHICH M AY LEAD TO STROKE.
M AINLY CO NTROLED BY;
 AVOIDING TOO MUCH
CHO LESTROL
 REGULA R EXCERCIS E
HBP CAUSES DESTRUCTION OF
THE O RGANS SUCH AS BRAIN
WHICH M AY LEAD TO STROKE.
M AINLY CO NTROLED BY;
 AVOIDING TOO MUCH
CHO LESTROL
 REGULA R EXCERCIS E
THE BLOOD
BLOOD TISSUE CONSIST OF
PLASMA AND BLOOD CELLS .
BLOOD CELLS
ARE OF THREE
TYPES;
 WHITE CELLS
 RED CELLS
 PLATELETS
PLASMA
THIS IS THE LIQUID
COMPO NENT OF THE BLOOD.
IT HAS THE FOLLOWING
FUNCTIO NS;
 TRANSPO RT IN G RESPIRATO RY
GAS
 REGULAT ES THE BODY
TEMPER AT U RE THRO UGH
HEAT DISTRIBUT ION FROM
THE LIVER AND SKELETAL
MUSCLES
 TRANSPO RTS SMALL
AMO UNTS OF OXYGEN AND
CARBON (IV) OXID
 CONTAINS ANTIBODIES THAT
INACTIVAT E ENZYMES.
 MEDIUM TO TRANSPO RT
SOLUBLE FOOD SUBSTANCES
IN THE BODY
 CONTAINS MINERA L SALTS
AND SUGARS CONTROLING
THE BO DY OSMOTIC
PRESSURE
RED BLOOD CELLS (ERYTHROCYTES)
THEY MAINLY TRANSPO RT
RESPIR ATO RY GASES FROM
THE
LUNGS TO THE BODY
TISSUES AND
VICE VERSER.
ADAPTATIONS OF RED BLOOD CELLS
 BICONCAVE TO INCREASE SA
FOR RAPID DIFFUSION OF
RESPIRATO RY GASES.
 HAS HAEMOGLOB ON HAVING
AFF INITY FOR OXYGEN
 LACK NUCLEUS TO CREATE
MORE SPACE FOR OXYGEN
 THIN PLASMA MEMBRAN E
FOR EASIER DIFFUSION OF
RESPIR ATO RY GASES
 THIN CELL MEMBRAN E FOR
EASIER DIFFUSION OF
RESPIR ATO RY GASES
 PRESENCE OF CARBONIC
ANHYDRAS E ENZYME WHICH
FACILLITAT ES IN THE
TRANSPO RTAT IO N OF
CARBO N (IV)
WHITE CELLLS (LEUCOCYTES)
THEY ARE MAINLY
RESPO NSIBLE FOR FIGHT
HARM F UL MICRO ORGANIS MS IN
THE BO DY.
THEY ARE FURTHER DIVIDED
INTO GRANULOCY T ES AND
 GRANULOCY T ES HAVE
GRANULES , LO BED NUCLEUS
AND M OVE LIKE THE
AMO EBA.
 THEY MAY MOVE OUT OF THE
CAPILLA RIES TO ENGULF
BACTERIA IN TISSUES .
THE GRANULOCY T ES MAINLY
CO MPRISE O F BASO PHILS ,
EOSINO PH ILS AND
NEUTRO PH ILS
THE AGRANU LOCY T ES
COMPRISE OF MONOCYTES AND
THE LYMPHOCYT ES ARE MADE
IN THE BO NE MARROW AND
ALSO FO UND IN THE LYMPH
TISSUES .
THEY ARE MAINLY O F TWO
TYPES;
B AND T LYMPHOCYTES.
THE MO NO CYTES ARE MADE IN
THE BONE MARROW AND
FORM S THE LARGEST PART O F
THE WHITE BLOOD CELLS.
THEY CAN DESTROY THE MICRO
O RGANIS M BY ENGULFING AND
DIGESTIN G IT INTO PIECES.
PLATELETS (THROMBOCYTES)
THEY ARE NON NUCLEATED AND
INACTIV E CELLS RESPONSIB LE
FOR CLOTTIN G, WHEN A BLOOD
VESSLE O R A TISSUE IS
INJURED.
MECHANISMS OF BLOOD CLOTTING
WHEN THE TISSUES ARE
EXPOSED TO FREE FLOWING
AIR, THE PLATELETS RELEAS E
THRO MBO K INAS
ENZYME
WHICH ACTIVAT ES
PROTHRO M B IN TO THROMBIN
THRO M BIN FINALLY CONVERTS
FIBRINOG EN TO FIBRIN
WHICH IS A CLOT, IN THE
PRESENCE OF VITAMIN
K,
TRAPPIN G BLO O D CELLS FROM
COMING O UT OF THE TISSUE.
THIS THEN FORMS A SCUB
ALSO IT SHOULD BE NOTED
THAT BLOOD PLASMA HAS AN
ANTI COAGULANT FACTOR
KNOWN AS HEPARIN.
THIS ENZYME PREVENTS
CLOTTING FROM TAKING PLACE.
IMPORTANCE OF BLOOD CLOT
 PREVEN T IO N OF EXCESS
BLO O D LOSS
 PREVEN T IO N OF MICRO
ORGANIS M ENTRY TO THE
TISSUES
TRANSPORT OF CARBON (IV) ODIDE
 CO2 DIFFUSES OUT OF THE
CELLS INTO THE TISSUE
FLUID.
 FRO M HERE IT DIFFUSES
INTO THE BLOOD STREAM
 ABO UT 85% IS TRANSPO RT ED
 ABO UT 10% IS TRANSPO RT ED
AS CARBAMINO HAEMO G LOB IN WHEREBY
THIS IS HAEMOGLOB IN
COMBINED WITH CO2.
 ABO UT 5% IS TRANSPO RT ED
BY THE PLASMA INFORM OF
TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN
 OXYGEN DIFFUSES INTO THE
ALVEO L A R CAPILLA RIES
DOWN THE CONCENTRAT ION
GRADIEN T ACROSS THE
CAPILLA RY ENDOTHELIUM OR
THE PLASMA
FUNCTIONS OF THE BLOOD
1 . TRANSPO RT OF MATERIALS
2 . DEFENCE AGAINST HARMFUL
MICRO O RHANIS MS
3 . PRO DUCTION O F
ANTIBODIES
4 . REDUCE EXCESS BLEEDING
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
• THE NETWO R K O F VESSELS
THRO UGH WHICH LYMPH
DRAINS FROM THE TISSUES
INTO THE BLO O D.
• THEY HAVE SWELLIN GS
CALLED LYMPH NODES WHICH
PRO DUCE ANTIBODIES I.E
TISSUE FLUID
THIS IS THE PART OF THE
BLOOD
WHICH FILTERS OUT
OF THE
NARROW BLOOD
CAPILLA R IES
INTERCE L LU LA R
INTO THE
SPACES.
IT HAS DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS
 IT BATHES THE CELLS
WHEREBY O2 AND CO2
WOULD DIFFUSE OUT OF THE
CELLS
 CELLS OBTAIN NUTRIENTS
FRO M IT.
 CELLS RELEAS E WASTES
LYMPH
 THIS IS AN EXCESS TISSUE
FLUID THAT HAS DRAINED
OUT OF THE INTERCELLULAR
SPACE INTO THE LYMPH
VESSLE.
 IT IS USUALLY LOW IN O2 AND
FORMATION OF LYMPH
THE HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE AT
THE ARTER IAL END O F THE
CAPILLA RY FORCES WATER AND
SMALL SO LUTES OUT OF THE
CAPILLA RY, THEREBY FORMING
THE EXCESS TISSUE FLUID DOES
NOT GET BACK INTO THE
CAPILLA R IES FRO M THE LYMPH.
 THE LYM PH IS DRAINED
HOWEV E R IN THE LYMPHAT IC
VESSLES .
 THE FATS ARE ADDED AND
THEN ITS RETURN ED BACK
ROLES OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
 TRAPS AND DESTROY
HARMFUL BACTERIA FROM
BODY
 ABSORBS DIGESTED LIPIDS,
GLYCERO L AND FATTY ACIDS
 TRANSPO RT OF HORMONES
FRO M THE ENDOCRINE
 SUPPLYING MATERIALS FOR
REPAIR TO THE INJURED
TISSUES.
 FORM BARRIER PREVENT ING
INFLAMAT ION OR
PRO DUCTION OF ANTIBODIES
BLOOD GROUPS
THR RED BLOOD CELLS HAVE A
PROTEIN CALLED ANTIGENS IN
THEIR SURFACE
THE ANTIGEN DETERM IN E THE
BLOOD TYPE OF A PERSON
BLOOD WITH ANTIGEN A IS
CLASSIFIED AS BLO O D GROUP A
SAME AS B AND AB
 BLO O D AB HAS BOTH
ANTIGE N A AND B
 BLOOD GROUP O HAS NO
ANTIGENS
 THE PLASMA ALSO HAS
PROTEINS CALLED
ANTIBO DIES DESIGNAT ED AS
A AND B.
 THEIR F UNCTION IS TO
DEF END THE BODY FROM
BLOOD
TRANSFUSION
 A PERSON WITH BLOOD
GRO UP A HAS ANTIBODY B
AND A PERSON WITH BLOOD
GROUP B HAS ANTIBODY A
 BLO O D GROUP O HAS BOTH A
AND B ANTIBODIES .
BEFORE WE PROCEED YOU
SHOULD KNOW;
#A DO NO R
#A RECIPIEN T
# # # # # D I AG R A M O F
TRANSFUSION
 B LO O D G RO U P A B H AS N E I T H E R
ANTIBODIES.
 T H E R E FO R E I T I S R E F E R E D TO
AS U N I V E RSA L R EC I P I E N T.
 I T C A N R EC E I V E B LO O D F RO M
A L L B G , S I N C E I T H AS N O
• WHAT IS AGGLUT INAT ION ?
THIS IS THE CLUMPING
TOGETH ER OF THE RED
BLOOD CELLS DUE TO THE
ANTIGE N OF DONOR BINDING
TOGETH ER WITH THE
 BLOOD GROUP O IS REFERED
TO AS UNIVERSAL DONOR
AND CAN DONATE BLOOD TO
ALL OTHER BLOOD GROUPS.
 THIS IS BEAUSE THEY DO NOT
HAVE ANTIGEN A OR B.
PRINCIPLES OF TRANSFUSION
 A DO NO R MUST BE HEALTHY
 BETWEE N 18 TO 65 YEARS
 MUST NOT HAVE DONATED
BLO O D IN THE LAST 6
MONTHS
HOW TRANSFUSION IS DONE
HALF A LITRE OF THE DONOR’S
BLO O D IS TAKEN FROM A VEIN
IN THE ARM AND DRAINED
INTO A CLEAN PLASTIC BAG
CO NTAININ G AN ANTI
 THE DONATED BLOOD IS
KEPT IN A BLOOD BANK AT
TEMPER AT U RES JUST ABOVE
THE FREEZING POINT FOR
LESS THAN A MONTH.
###### ------ 
 IT IS NOT ADVISABLE TO
TRANSF USE BLOOD TO
PATIEN TS AFTER A MONTH
SINCE MOST OF THE
REDBLO OD CELLS WOULD
HAVE ALREADY DIED.
 THE BLOOD SHOULD BE
SCREENED FOR PATHOG ENS
E.G HIV
 ALSO BLO O D TYPING SHOULD
BE DO NE AS WELL FO R ABO
AND THE RHESUS FACTOR
RHESUS FACTOR
THIS IS ANOTHER ANTIGEN IN
THE RED BLO O D CELLS APART
FROM THE NORMAL A AND B
IT IS CALLED THE RHESUS
ANTIGE N O R THE ANTIGEN
I N D I V I D UA LS H AV I N G T H E
R H E S U S FAC TO R A R E SA I D TO B E
R H + AS T H O S E W I T H O U T A R E
SA I D TO B E R H E S U S –V E .
T H E B LO O D P L AS M A H AS N O
A N T I B O D I E S FO R R H E S U S FAC TO R
B U T C A N D E V E LO P T H E M # # # # - - -
IF A RH- WOMAN IS MARRIED
TO A RH+ MAN, ALL OF THEIR
CHILDREN WILL BE RH+…….
##### ----- 
EXAMPLE:
… . . T H E F I RST B O R N H E R E W I L L
H AV E N O P RO B L E M . B U T I F I TS
B LO O D PAS S E S I N TO T H E M OT H E R
C I RC U L AT I O N T H RO U G H T H E
P L AC E N TA , T H E M OT H E R’ S B LO O D
W I L L R E S PO N D BY P RO D U C I N G
IF DURING THE SECOND
PREGNANCY THE FOETUS
BLOOD LEAKS TO THE
MOTHER’ S BLO O D, THE
M OTHER’ S ANTIBODIES WILL
CAUSE DESTRUCT IO N OF THE
THE FO ETUS WILL DEVELOP A
CONDITIO N CALLED
ERYTHRO BLASTOS IS FOETALIS
OR HAEMOLY T IC DISEASE O F
THE NEW BORN.
HOW WILL YO U KNOW THE
BABY IS AF FECTED?
THE AF F ECTED BABIES HAVE A
YELLOW SKIN, A CO NDITION
REFERED TO AS JAUNDICE .
# # # #------ 
JAUNDICE IS AN INDICATION
THAT THE CHILD RED BLOOD
CELLS HAVE BEEN DESTROYED
HENCE M AY BE ANAREM IC.
THIS CO NDITIO N CAN
THEREFO R E BE PREVENT ED BY
ADMINIST R AT ION OF RHESUS
IMMUNO GLO BU LIN TO THE
PREGNAN T MOTHER.
ALSO, IT SHOULD BE
ADMINIST E RED ON THE 28 TH
WEEK OF PREGNANC Y OR
WITHIN 72 HRS AFTER
DELIVERY.
F I NA L LY T H E R H - M OT H E R C A N B E
G I V E N I N J EC T I O N AGA I N ST T H E
R H E S U S A N T I B O DY R EAC T I O N
B E FO R E P R EG NA N C Y. T H I S
P R E V E N TS H E R B LO O D F RO M
D E V E LO P I N G A N T I B O D I E S W H E N
E X PO S E D TO R H A N T I G E N.
IMMUNITY
THIS IS THE ABILITY OF THE
BODY TO RESIST DISEASE OR
INFECTIO NS.
THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF
IM MUNIT Y;
NATURAL AND ARTIFIC IA L/
THE NATURAL IMMUNITY IS
ALSO CALLLED INNATE OR
INHER IT ED AND THE
ARTIFIC IA L IS ALSO CALLED
AQUIRED IMMUNTY SINCE ONE
CAN O BTAIN THIS FROM A
THE NATURAL IMMUNITY
T H I S I S A N I M M U N I T Y T H AT O N E
I S B O R N W I T H . I T I S PAS S E D
F RO M T H E PA R E N T TO T H E
O F F S P R I N G W H E R E BY I T O F F E RS
P ROT EC T I O N F RO M V E RY M A N Y
ANTIGENS.
THE NATURAL IMMUNITY IS
FURTHE R SUBDIVIDED INTO
THE FO LLOWIN G ;
 AQUIRED NATURAL PASSIVE
IMMUNITY
 AQUIRED NATURAL ACTIVE
AQUIRED NATURAL PASSIVE IMMUNI
THIS IS IM MUNITY THAT IS
PASSED FRO M MOTHER TO THE
FOETUS VIA THE PLACENTA L
TRANSFAR OF ALREADY
FORMED ANTIBO DIES . SOME
ARE ALSO TRANSFERR ED
AQUIRED NATURAL ACTIVE IMMUNIT
THIS IS IM MUNITY FORMED
WHEN AN INDIVIDUA L HAS
COME INTO CONTACT WITH AN
ANTIGE N NATURALLY AND HAS
ACTIVELY PRO DUCED
ARTIFICIAL IMMUNITY
THIS INVO LVES THE USE OF
VACCINES TO PROTECT THE
BODY AGAINST SOME CERTA IN
DISEASED.
T H E A RT I F I C I A L I M M U N I T Y I S
F U RT H E R S U B D I V I D E D I N TO T H E
FO L LOW I N G ;
 AQ U I R E D A RT I F I C I A L PAS S I V E
IMMUNITY
 AQ U I R E D A RT I F I C I A L AC T I V E
AQUIRED ARTIFICIAL PASSIVE IMMUN
THIS IS A TEMPORA RY
PROTECTIO N FRO M THE ANTI
BODIES O F AN ALREADY
IM MUNISED ORGANISM , THAT
ARE INTRO DUCED INTO
AQUIRED ARTIFICIAL ACTIVE IMMUN
THIS IS THE DELBERAT E
INTRO DUCTIO N OF AN ANTIGEN
INTO AN O RGANISM TO ALLOW
THE O RGANIS M TO FORM ITS
OWN ANTIBO DIES AGAINST THE
AN ANTIGEN IS A CHEMICAL
THAT CAUSES THE PRODUCTION
O F ANTIBO DIES IN THE ANIMAL
BO DY.
THEY M AY ALSO LEAD TO
ALLERG IES OR DISEASES .
EXAMPLES OF ANTIGENS
 VACCINES – SUSPENSION OF
LIVING ATTENUAT ED OR
WEAKEN ED MICROBIAL CELLS
 EXOTOX INS – TOXINS
SECRETED BY BACTERIA
 ENDOTOXINS – WHICH ARE
CELLULA R COMPONENTS OF
BACTERIA.
 ISOANTIG ENS – ANTIGENS
DERIVED FROM ONE
INDIVIDUAL AND PLACED IN
 TOXO IDS – WHICH ARE
DETOXIF IED TOXINS OR
WEAKEN ED POISONS.
IMMUNE RESPONSE
THESE ARE REACTION S
INVOLVIN G PRODUCTION OF
ANTIBO DIES BY LYMPHOCYTES
DUE TO THE PRESENCE OF
ANTIGE N IN THE BODY. AN
ANTIGEN CAN BE PATHOGEN OR
THEIR TOXINS IN THE BODY.
T H E A N T I B O DY C H E M I C A L
CO M PO S I T I O N
IS
CO M P L E M E N TA RY TO T H E
R E S P EC T I V E A N T I G E N.
T H E R E FO R E , S P EC I F I C
ANTIBODIES ARE
R E L E AS E D I N
R E S PO N S E TO S P EC I F I C
NOW, THIS IS HOW THE
LYMPHOCYT ES PROTECT
THE
BO DY AGAINST
INFECTIO NS.
THE BO DY ALSO INCREAS ES THE
PRODUCTION OF PHAGOCY T ES
VACCINATION OR IMMUNISATION
THIS IS THE INTRODUCTION OF
AN ANTIGEN INTO THE BODY
THRO UGH AN INJECTIO N OR
O RALLY BY THE MOUTH.
IT IS DO NE TO INCREASE THE
ORGANIS M IMMUNIT Y.
THE VACCINE STIMULAT ES THE
PRODUCTION OF SPECIFIC
ANTIBO DIES BY THE BODY
SUCH THAT WHEN THE BODY
WILL BE INFECTED NEXT TIME,
THERE WILL BE NO SERIOUS
ROLES OF VACCINE
EXAM PL E O F THE IMMUNISABLE
DISEASES ARE AS FOLLOW;
 BIRTH – BCG (BACILLE
CALMETT E GUERIN ) WHICH IS
CLO SELY RELAT ED TO
MYCOBACTERIU M TB, WHICH
 6 WEEK –
DIPTHER IA CAUSED BY A
BACTERIU M WHICH MAY
LEAD TO DIFFICULTY IN
BREATH IN G ,
PERTUSIS WHICH IS A MEDICAL
I N F LU E N Z A W H I C H M A I N LY C AU S E
THE
D I ST U R BA N C E O F T H E
R E S P I R ATO RY
T R AC T
A F F EC T I N G B R E AT H I N G .
P N E U M O N I A W H E R E BY T H E
LU N G S
B ECO M E I N F L A M AT E D
WITH A
BAC T E R I U M W H I C H
TETANUS WHICH IS THE
INVO LUNTA RY MUSCLE
CO NTRACT ION CAUSED BY
RAPID
REPEAT ED STIMULI
HEPAT IT IS B AND FINALLY
POLIO.
 10 WEEKS
O RAL PO LIO, DIPTHERIA,
WOOPING COUGH, TETANUS
AND HEPAT IT IS B
 9 MONTHS
M EASLES
ALLERGIC REACTIONS
AN ALLERGY IS A
HYPERSEN S IT IV E REACTION TO
AN ANTIGEN BY THE BODY.
THEY RESULT WHEN THERE IS A
REACTIO N BETWEEN AN
ANTIGEN AND AN ANTIBODY
CAUSING CELLS TO RAPTU RE
H I STA M I N E I N C R E AS E S T H E
PERMIABILITY OF THE CELLS
M A K I N G T H E M TA K E U P F LU I D
AND SWELL. THIS
M AY L E A D
TO A CO N D I T I O N C A L L E D
A NA P H Y L A X I A W H E R E BY T H E
B LO O D
VESSLES GET
D I L L AT E D, L E A D I N G TO
HISTAMIN E INDUCES ALSO
INF LAMATO RY RESPONSE
AND
PAIN. TO MINIMIZ E THE
PAIN, ANTI HISTAMIN E DRUGS
ARE
USED. EXAMPLE,
CETRIZ IN E AND PIRITON.
THE SUBSTANCES THAT CAUSE
THE ALLERGY ARE CALLED
ALLERG EN S.
EXAMPLE INCLUDE; DUST,
PO LLENG RA INS , SPOORES ,
MECHANISM OF ALLERGIC REACTIONS
 BEGINS WITH THE ENTRY OF
PATHOG EN
 THE IMMUNE SYSTEM THEN
RECO RGN IS ES THE
INTRUSION
 AFTER THE INTRUSION ,
PHAGO CYT ES MAY MOVE AND
ENGULF THE PATHO G EN AND
DESTROY THEM.
 OR, THE LYMPHOCYTES MAY
PRO DUCE ANTI BODIES.
THE ANTIBODIES PRODUCED
MAY BIND PATHOG ENS
DEGENER AT ING THEM TO
DEATH O R
MAY BIND PATHOG ENS FOR THE
PHAGO CYT ES TO ENGULF THEM
ORGAN TRANSPLANT
THIS IS THE TRANSFAR OF AN
ORGAN
THE
FROM THE DONOR TO
RECIPIEN T.
THE TISSUE OR THE ORGAN
BEING TRANSFERED IS KNOWN
AN ALLO GR AFT, IS AN ORGAN
FROM A DO NOR WHOSE
GENETIC IDENTITY IS NOT
SIMILA R TO THE RECIPIEN T.
ALSO, WE HAVE A XENOGRAF T
IS A
GRAFT FROM AN ANIMAL
DONO R
TO THE HUMAN
RECIPIEN T.
EXAMPLE, USING A
PIG HEART
VALVE TO REPLACE
A HUMAN
DEFECTIVE
THE RECIPIET BODY WILL
RECORGN IS E THE ORGAN AS
FOREIGN AND IMMUNE
REJECT IO N OCCURES .
TO AVO ID THIS, TISSUE TYPING
IS DONE O R DRUGS
WHAT IS TISSUE TYPING?
THIS IS THE DETERMINAT ION
O F THE GENETIC SIMILA RITY
BETWEEN THE DONOR AND
RECIPIE N T. THE MORE CLOSELY
RELAT ED THEY ARE, THE
IT SHOULD BE NOTED THAT
THE
DRUGS
IMMUNE SUPPRESSIV E
ADMINIST ERED
DURING GRAFTIN G MAY
SUPPRESS NORMAL IMMUNE
RESPO NSE AGAINST
THIS MAKES THE RESIPIEN T TO
BE SUSCEPTIBLE TO DISEASES .
PROBLEMES OF ORGAN TRANSPLANT
 GRAF T CAN BE REJECT ED BY
THE IMMUNE SYSTEM OF THE
RECIPIE N T
######## ---------- 
 THE GRAF T CAN FIGHT
LYM PHO ID TISSUES OF THE
RECIPIE N T THEREBY CAUSING
ABNO RMA L GROWT H O F
TISSUE O R EVEN CAUSE
CANCER ON THE RECIPIEN T.
FINALLY……… .
 THE IM M UNE SUPPRESSIV E
DRUGS M AY SUPPRESS
NO RMAL IMMUNE RESPONSE
AGAINST PATHOG ENS