appetitive aspect works as a desiring faculty of man; an impulse that naturally runs counter to reason, but can be subjected to reason. Aristotle a person's action manifests a good that they aspire for. Aristotle Happiness, on the other hand, no one chooses for the sake of these, not, in general, for anything other than itself. Aristotle knowing the good that needs to be done is different from doing the good that one needs to accomplish. Aristotle moral virtue is attained by means of habit. Aristotle older individuals would agree that the highest purpose and the ultimate good of man is happiness, or for the Greeks, eudaimonia. Aristotle one can arrive at the ultimate good by doing one's function well. Aristotle the good is considered to be the telos or purpose for which all acts seek to achieve. Aristotle The particular act of goodness that one does in the world is more important than any conception of the good that is outside and beyond the realm of experience. Aristotle the real is found within our everyday encounter with objects in the world. What makes nature intelligible is its character of having both form and matter. Aristotle the true measure of well-being is not by means of richness or fame but by the condition of having attained a happy life. Aristotle the truth and the good cannot exist apart from the object and are not independent of our experience. Character the identification mark of the person. Eudaimonia happiness, ultimate good of man Excellence is an activity of the human soul. Habits are products of the constant application of reason in the person's actions. Happiness for Aristotle, this is the only self-sufficient aim that one can aspire for. Intellectual concerns the act of knowing. Knowledge this is not inherent to a person. One needs to develop this by exercising the faculty of practical reason in their daily life. Mesotes A morally virtuous person targets the ___. Middle is non-existent because there is no good (mesotes) in something that is already considered a bad act. middle, intermediate, or mesotes these are aimed at by a morally virtuous person. Moral concerns the act of doing Moral virtue According to Aristotle, a state of character concerned with choice, lying in a mean, that is, the mean relative to us, this being determined by a rational principle, and by that principle by which the man of practical wisdom would determine it, this is known as the ___. Moral Virtue the action done that normally manifests feelings and passions is chosen because it is the middle. Moral Virtue the condition arrived at by a person who has a character identified out of their habitual exercise of particular actions. Nicomachean Ethics Aristotle's book; the first comprehensive & programmatic study of virtue ethics. philosophic and practical Two ways by which one can attain intellectual excellence. Philosophic wisdom deals with attaining knowledge about the fundamental principles and truths that govern the universe (e.g. general theory on the origins of things.) Plato The good ¬are in the sphere of forms or ideas transcending daily human condition. Plato the real is outside the realm of any human sensory experience but can somehow be grasped by one's intellect. Plato & Aristotle they differ in their appreciation of reality and nature, which, in turn, results in their contrasting stand on what the ethical principle should be. Plato and Aristotle both affirm rationality as the highest faculty of a person and having such characteristic enables a person to realize the very purpose of their existence. Practical wisdom is an excellence in knowing the right conduct in carrying out a particular act. Practical wisdom the rational faculty that serves as a guide for the proper identification of the middle is __. selfsufficient the ultimate telos of a person must be ___. Socrates moral goodness is already within the realm of intellectual excellence. Telos Every act that a person does is directed toward a particular purpose, aim, or what the Greeks called ___. the ultimate good of a human being According to Aristotle, the highest purpose is ____. vegetative and appetitive aspects The irrational element of man consists of the ___. vegetative aspect is not in the realm where virtue is exercised; it cannot be dictated by reason. Virtue Ethics Focuses on the formation of one's character brought about by determining and doing virtuous acts. Virtue Ethics The ethical framework that is concerned with understanding the good as a matter of developing the virtuous character of a person. Virtue or arete excellent way of doing things is called ___. Aesthetics Entertainment, cuisines, clothes, housing, etc Aesthetics refers to the judgments of personal approval or disapproval that we make about what we see, hear, smell, or taste; personal preferences Choice and Freedom - to not choose is still a choice CultureMultiplicity of Cultures, and incompatibilities between them Death the inevitability and universality of death Descriptive Ethics Study of ethics that reports how people, particularly groups, make moral valuation without making any judgment either for or against these valuations Descriptive Ethics Usually done by historians, sociologists, and anthropologists Ethics Acceptable and unacceptable ways of behaving in a given field Ethics As the discipline of studying and understanding ideal human behavior Ethics Closer to the Ancient philosophers Etiquette actions which are trivial in nature, referred to as manners Etiquette right or wrong actions, but not quite grave enough to belong to ethical discussions Etiquette Sometimes confused with morals Law Seen through the eyes of the past, too static. Loneliness We are never truly familiar with another Moral decision Done by the moral agent (person facing moral issue) Moral decision When a person is placed in a situation and confronted by the choice of what act to perform Moral Dilemma Beyond the matter of choosing right over wrong, or good over bad and considering instead the more complicated situation wherein one is torn between choosing one of two goods, or choosing between the lesser of two evils Moral issue Any instance which calls for a moral valuation and not merely a technical, aesthetic, or etiquette (correct + grammar) Moral issue Death Penalty, Wealth Distribution, Gender Inequality vs Inequivalence Moral issue Source of considerable and inconclusive debate. Moral judgment Done by someone other than the moral agent facing the issue Moral judgment When a person is an observer who makes an assessment on the actions or behaviour of someone, they are making a moral judgment Morals A more modern question Morals Specific beliefs or attitudes that people have or to describe acts that people perform Normative Ethics Study of ethics, as is often done in philosophy or moral theology, which engages in the question: What could or should be considered the right way of acting? Principles: Rules: Standards Can be situational or general, or specific to abstract Principles: Rules: Standards The same principle may be concluded by different people, but the reasoning may be different Religion Sometimes taken literally when it should be read figuratively Religion Susceptible to accidental and blatant misinterpretation Senses of the Self Internal sources of authority separate from the previously mentioned Senses of the Self Subjectivism, Psychological Egoism, Ethical Egoism Sources of Authority - law, religion, culture Technical Basketball vs Patintero vs Coloring Books Technical depends on context Technical right or wrong way of doing things considering effectivity or rules Theory : Framework A systematic attempt to establish the validity of maintaining certain moral principles Time Our experience of Time always moves forward Basic Goods Life, reproduction, educate one's offspring, seek God, live in society, avoid offense, shun ignorance Basic Goods the things we're designed to seek Divine command theory addresses many of our biggest questions about right and wrong, which is why it's the ethical theory of choice for much of the world. Divine Command Theory The belief that what's moral, and what's immoral—is commanded by the divine. Euthyphro the holy is what all the gods love, and that the opposite, what all the gods hate, is unholy. Life, reproduction, educate one's spring, seek god, live in society, avoid offense, shun ignorance the Basic Goods Natural Law Uniquely Human Natural Law Theory God wants us to want things, good things Natural Law Theory Thomas Aquinas Thomas Aquinas His take on the Natural Law Theory is the most influential Thomas Aquinas Theorized that God made us pre-equipped with abilities to judge right and wrong Action. Maxim, will, universal law There are four key elements in this formulation of the categorical imperative, namely ____ Agency the ability of a person to act based on her intentions and mental states. Animal choice artibtrium brutum Animal choice Kant calls this set of actions that are caused by sensible impulse Autonomous will If the author was the will itself, imposing the law unto itself, then the will is described as ___. Autonomy is a property of the will only during instances when the action is determined by pure reason Autonomy opposite of heteronomy Autonomy self law (self legislating) Autos self categorical imperative which provides a procedural way or identifying the rightness or wrongness of an action. Deontology From the Greek word deon, which means "being necessary." Deontology Refers to the study of duty and obligation. Deontology The moral theory that evaluates actions that are done because of duty. (something should be done because it must be done) formal moral theory a set of instructions on how to make a list of duties or moral commands. formal moral theory does not supply the rules or commands straightaway. Instead it provides the "form" or "framework." Free choice The choice that can be determined by pure reason is called Heteronomous will If the author of the law is external, the will is subjected to an external authority Heteronomy other law Heteros other Immanuel Kant German Enlightenment philosopher Immanuel Kant Main proponent of deontology Immanuel Kant Wrote one of the most important works on moral philosophy: Groundwork towards a Metaphysics of Morals Kant he describes autonomy as the will that is subject to a principle or law. Maxim (which he defines as a "subjective principle of action") Maxims depict the patterns of our behavior Nomos law rational will the capacity to act according to principles that we determine for ourselves. Rationality consists of the mental faculty to construct ideas and thoughts that are beyond our immediate surroundings. Rationality rational will refers to the faculty to intervene in the world, to act in a manner that is consistent with our reason. Rationality This is the capacity for mental abstraction, which arises from the operations of the faculty of reason. Sentience an organism has the ability to perceive and navigate its external environment. Subjectsub(under) and jacere(to throw) substantive moral theory immediately promulgates the specific actions that comprise that theory. "Utility" usefulness of the consequences of one's action and behavior Bentham identified as the natural moral preferability of pleasure, Mill refers to as a theory of life. Felicific calculus allows the evaluation of all actions and their resultant pleasure. Actions are evaluated on this single scale regardless of preferences and values. Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill Their system of ethics emphasizes the consequences of actions. Intentions are not considered. Justice as a respect for rights directed toward society's pursuit for the greatest happiness of the greatest number. Principle of Utility Our actions are governed by two "sovereign masters"— which he calls pleasure and pain. Principle of Utility refers to pleasure as good if, and only if, they produce more happiness than unhappiness. Rights are a valid claim on society and are justified by utility. Utilitarianism An ethical theory that argues for the goodness of pleasure and the determination of right behavior based on the usefulness of the action's consequences. Utilitarianism is consequentialist. Utilitarianism is interested with everyone's happiness, in fact, the greatest happiness of the greatest number. Utility refers to a way of understanding the results of people's actions. 1st stage of reasoning centers around obedience and the avoidance of punishment. 2nd stage of reasoning learns to act according to what they think will serve their selfinterest. Conventional level This is the age in which older children, adolescents, and young adults learn to conform to the expectations of society. cultural relativism the position that claims there is no such thing as objective truth in the realm of morality. CultureAll levels of society involve some kind of ____, which may be loosely described as the way of life of a particular community of people at a given period of time. Cultureis a broad term; it may include the beliefs and practices a certain group of people consider valuable and can extend to such realms as art, laws, fields of knowledge, and customs of a community. Dilemmas are ethical situations in which there are competing values that seem to have equal worth. Fifth stage the moral agent sees the value of the social contract, namely agreements that rational agents have arrived at whether explicitly or implicitly in order to serve what can be considered the common good are what one ought to honor and follow. human individual The one who is tasked to think about what is "right" and why it is so, and to choose to do so, is a ____. individual is also the product of an interpersonal cross-point of many events and factors outside of one's choosing. James Rachels American philosopher who provided a clear argument against the validity of cultural relativism in the realm of ethics. Kantian deontology puts the premium on rational will, freed from all other considerations, as the only human capacity that can determine one's moral duty. Know thyself "Epimeleia heautou," Lawrence Kohlberg American moral psychologist, theorized that moral development happens in 6 stages, which he divided into 3 levels (pre-conventional, conventional, post-conventional) meaningful moral decision is one that is made in full cognizance of where one is coming from and where one ought to go. Moral agent one who eventually must think about choices and make decisions on what they ought to do Moral development is a prerequisite if the individual is to encounter ethical situations with a clear mind and with their values properly placed with respect to each other. moral individual is always a human being whose intellect remains finite and whose passions remain dynamic, and who is always placed in situations that are unique. moral virtue According to Aristotle, this is a matter of habitually managing one's feelings in the rightful manner. natural law theory this has the advantage of both objectivity and a kind of intuitiveness. physical, interpersonal, social, historical Four cross points Pre-conventional level Corresponds to how infants and young children think Ramon C. Reyes Filipino philosopher, wrote the essay "Man and Historical Action" Reason is the power that identifies the situations in which rules and principles sometimes conflict with one another. reductio ad absurdum It is an argument which first assumes that the claim in question is correct, in order to show the absurdity that will ensue if the claim is accepted as such. Sixth stage choosing to perform actions based on universal ethical principles that one has determined by themself. Societymeans one's immediate community, the large sphere, or the whole global village defined as the interconnections of the different nations of the world. society this pertains to all the elements of the human groups—as opposed to the natural environment—that one is a member of. The fourth stage is achieved when a person realizes that following the dictates of her society is not just good for themselves but more importantly, it is necessary for the existence of society itself. Third stage of reasoning is when one begins to act according to what the larger group they belong to expect of them. The individual assumes that what will benefit them best is when the other members of their group approve of their actions. Utilitarianism puts more value on the notion of 'common good' compared to any of the other ethical frameworks we have covered. who one is is a cross-point, but in an existential level, he argues that the meaning of one's existence is in the intersection between the fact that one's being is a product of many forces outside their choosing and their ideal future for themselves.
