Chapter#8
‘Leadership involves interpersonal skills
and an ability to motivate others’
Or
‘Leadership is an interpersonal influence
directed towards the achievement of a
goal or goals.’
Interpersonal- Between People
Influence- the Power to affect others
Goal – something that we need / want to
achieve.
Effective leadership within an organisation involves:
Guiding and directing others to achieve the goals of the
organisation
Making the best use of the knowledge, skills and talent of others in
the organisation
Developing the knowledge, skills and talent of others in the
organisation.
Effective Leadership and Leadership Style
Since leadership is an aspect of management, it is necessary to
establish whether there are any particular skills that a manager should
have to be an effective leader.
What makes a person a good leader?
Are people born to be leaders?
Can leadership skills be taught and learned?
Types of Theories of Leadership
Personal characteristics (‘Traits’ or
‘Qualities’).
There is a view that a leader must
possess certain personal qualities of
leadership. The best leaders are
‘charismatic’. These characteristics
are natural, and some individuals
are born with them. They cannot be
taught. after all, charisma is defined
as a "divine gift of grace
Autumn-11 Q.5 (a) What are the
key characteristics of Charismatic
Leaders?
(03
marks)
Leadership according to Circumstances and
Situation
Leadership styles range from
domineering (autocratic or
authoritarian) to democratic or
even ‘laissez-faire’. The most
suitable leadership style depends
on circumstances.
Some writers have argued that
there is a ‘best’ leadership style.
appropriate leadership style
depends on circumstances
(‘contingency theory’ of
leadership). The
Trait Theories Leadership
A trait theory of leadership is that there is a set of personal qualities
and characteristics that make a good leader. Individuals either have
these qualities or they do not. Some people are therefore ‘born
leaders’.
Physical vitality and energy
Intelligence and good judgment
Eagerness to accept responsibility
Enthusiasm and self-confidence
Competence in the tasks
Understanding their followers and their needs
Skill in dealing with people (interpersonal skills or ‘soft skills’)
Having a powerful need for achievement
A capacity to motivate others
Blake and Mouton
Robert Blake & Mouton carried out research into managerial behavior and
observed two basic dimensions of leadership: Concern for Production and
High
9
(1,9)
(9,9)
Concern for People.
8
*1.1
Management
Impoverished:- This manager only
makes minimum effort in either area
and will make the smallest possible
effort required to get the job done.
*1.9
‘Country Club’
Management:- This manager is
thoughtful and attentive to the needs
of the people, which leads to a
comfortable friendly organization
atmosphere but very little work is
actually.
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Low
0
(1,1)
0
Low
(9,1)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
High
*9.1
Task Management:This manager only concerned with production
and arranges work in such a way that people interference is minimized.
*9.9
Team Management:- This manager integrates the two areas to foster
working together and high production to produce true team leadership.
Benefits or Practical Applications:-
Q.9 (a) Blake and Mouton’s theory of Leadership/Managerial Grid
classifies the different leadership styles in the following combinations:
(i) 1,1 (ii) 1,9 (iii) 9,1 (iv) 5,5 (v) 9,9
Identify and describe briefly the different leadership styles depicted by
each of the above combinations. [A16_05]
Ashridge:
The research unit at Ashridge Management College distinguished four
different management styles.
Tells (autocratic) – the manager makes all decisions and issues instruction which must
be obeyed without question.
Strengths:
1. Quick decisions can be made when required
2. The most effective type of leadership for highly- programmed work.
Weaknesses:
1. Communication are one-way, neglecting feedback potential for upward
communication or team member input
2. Does not encourage initiative or commitment from subordinate, merely
compliance.
Sells (persuasive) - the manager makes all decisions but believe that team members
must be motivated to accept them in order to carry them out properly.
Strengths:
1. Team members understand the reason for decisions
2. Team members may be more committed
3. Team members may be able to function slightly better in the absence of
instruction.
Weaknesses: 1. Communications are still largely one-way.
2. Team mem bers are not necessarily motivated to accept the decision.
Consults (Participative) – the managers confers with the team and takes their views
into account, although still retains the final say. (According to research it is the most
faviourate and liked method of workers of their leader)
Strengths:
1. Involves team members in decisions, encouraging motivation through greater
interest and involvement
2. Encourages upward communication
Weaknesses:
1. May take longer to reach decisions
2. Team members input may not enhance the quality of the decisions.
3. Consultation can be a façade for a basic ‘sells’ style.
Joint (democratic) – the leaders and the team members make the decision together
on the basis of consensus.
Strengths:
1. Can provide high motivation and commitment from team members.
2. Empowers a Team member to take the initiative
Weaknesses:
1. May undermine the authority of the manager.
2. May further lengthen the decision – making process.
3. May reduce the quality of the decisions because of the politics of decision making.
Likert’s Leadership Styles
Exploitive
Authoritative
Benevolent
Authoritative
Consultative
Participative
The leader has
a low concern for
people.
He uses threats
and other fearbased.
Communicatio
n is downward
Leader just
show concern for
people.
Benevolent
Dictator
He listen but
what he like to
hear.
Decisions are
taken by the
leader.
There is not
much teamwork
among the
subordinates
The leader
listen to
subordinates.
He trust in his
subordinates,
Yet not allow
them to make
decision
Two-way
vertical
communication
Little horizontal
communications
–less teamwork.
The leader
engages
subordinates in
the decisionmaking process.
He has
complete
confidence.
People are
psychologically
close-team.
Economic
reward against
achievement of
goals
Tannenbaum and Schmidt Leadership Continuum
Tannenbaum and Schmidt (1958) develop a leadership continuum. They
suggested that leaders might start with one style (an authoritarian or
autocratic style), and then change their style (towards more delegation
of authority to subordinates) as the group members gain experience
and become more mature.
A task of the leader is to develop the individual members of the team
and the team as a unit. He should therefore delegate authority and ask
the team to make decisions according to the level of their abilities and
maturity. Over time, however, a leader’s style should move from the
left of the continuum towards the right hand side
Tells
Tells and
Sells
Tells and
talks
Consults
Involves
Delegates
Abdicates
Q.2 Identify and describe any six leadership styles enunciated by
Tannenbaum and Schmidt. Identify the style of leadership that is best
suited for an organization which requires quick decision making and
consists of highly competent staff at all levels.
Give reasons for your choice. (08) [A14]
Lippitt and White’s Leadership Styles
In 1938/1939 Lippitt and White carried out an investigation into
leadership styles, using groups of schoolchildren working on arts and
crafts projects, such as making masks. Three different types of leaders
were assigned to the groups.
Authoritarian or autocratic leadership style. The leader continually gave
orders and instructions without offering any consultation.
Democratic style. The leader offered guidance and encouragement to
the children, and participated actively with the group.
Laissez-faire style. The leader gave the children the knowledge they
needed to do the work, but did not become involved and did not
participate in the activities of the group.
Aspect
Democratic
Autocratic
Laissez-faire
Moral High
Good
relationship
Support each
other and can
work
independently
Aggressive with
each other
conflicts
Blame Culture
Member are
demanding and
have least interest
in group
Member cannot work
independently, Not
corporate with one
another
Quality
Very High
Very low
Very low
Quantity
Very Low
Very High
Very low
Weakest performance
Fiedler’s Contingency Model
Fred Fiedler’s contingency theory of leadership was developed from
research he conducted in the 1960s into two leadership styles, and
which style was the more effective. He began by identifying two
leadership styles:
Task-orientated leadership, Psychologically Distant Leader and
Relationship-orientated leadership. Psychologically Close Leader
These styles could be related to Blake’s grid and ‘concern for the task’
and ‘concern for people’.
Fiedler’s Contingency Model
The work situation depends on three factors:
The relationship between the leader and the subordinates: If the
leader is liked and respected, he is more likely to have the support of
his subordinates
The structure of the task. If the task is clearly defined, with clear
goals, methods of working and standards of performance, it is more
likely that the leader will be able to exert influence.
The position power of the leader. If the organisation gives power to
the leader, for the purpose of getting the job done, this is likely to
increase the influence of the leader. For
Fiedler’s Contingency Model
Fiedler’s contingency theory
• Fiedler studied the relationship between style of leadership and
effectiveness of the work group. Two styles of leader were
identified.
• Psychologically distant managers (PDMs) Task-orientated
leadership,
– Maintain distance from their subordinate by formalizing roles and
relationships within the tram (who have to accept your instruction).
– Are withdrawn and reserved in their interpersonal relationships.
– Prefer formal communication and consultation methods rather than seek
informal opinion.
– Judge subordinate on the basis of performance and are primarily taskoriented.
– Fiedler found that leaders of the most effective work groups actually tend
to be PDMs.
• Psychologically close managers (PCMs); Relationship-orientated
leadership.
–
Do not seek to formalize roles and relationships
– Prefer informal contacts t regular forma staff meetings
– They are more concerned to maintain good human relationships at work to
ensure that tasks are carried out efficiently.
Fiedler’s Contingency Model
Fiedler’s Contingency Model
(Continued)
Charles Handy
Charles Handy described his contingency approach to leadership styles
as a best fit approach. There are four factors that influence the
effectiveness of a leader:
the leader himself – his personality and character, and leadership style
the subordinates – the personalities of the individuals in the group,
,their preferences for a particular leadership style
the task – Objectives of the group’s tasks, and methods of working
the environment –organisation structure, the culture and norms of the
organisation, the technology of the organisation’s operations and the
variety of tasks performed by subordinates in the group.
Charles Handy
Tight
Flexible
The Leader Prefers an autocratic style
Low opinion of
subordinates Dislikes
uncertainty
Prefers a democratic style
High regard for subordinates
Accepts a reasonable
amount of uncertainty
Subordinate Low opinion of their own
High opinion of their own
abilities
Like challenging work
Prefer democratic leaders .
abilities
Like certainty. Like to be
told what to do
Prefer autocratic leaders
See their work as
unimportant
Task
Job requires no initiative,
is routine and repetitive,
or has a certain outcome,
short time scale for
completion
Important tasks with a
longer time scale; problem
solving or decision-making
involved, complex work
Hersey and Blanchard: Situational Leadership Theory
Paul Hersey and Kenneth Blanchard (1968) developed another
contingency theory of leadership, which they called situational
leadership theory.
A leader should adjust his or her leadership style to meet the
requirements of the work situation. Leaders must be able to use any
leadership style, and should switch from one style to another as
circumstances require Blanchard identified subordinates’ maturity in
terms of:
Able to Work: competence in their job and their ability to undertake
successfully the tasks they are given – job maturity and confidence in
their ability to deal with the challenges of the task
Follower Readiness: Willingness To Work: commitment to the
organization's goals and commitment to undertake the task –
psychological maturity.
Contingency Leadership
The action-centered approach:
Adair suggests that any leader has to strive to achieve three major
goals while at the same time maintaining a position as an effective
leader.
Adair’s action – centered leadership model look at leadership in
relation to the needs of the task, individuals and group.
Adair’s 50:50 rule Adair suggested a 50:50 rule that applies to his
thinking about leadership. Leadership is influential, but effective
leadership on its own is not sufficient.
Individual: 50% of motivation comes from within the individual. The
other 50% of motivation comes from influences outside the individual,
including the influence of the leader.
Team: 50% of building a successful team comes from the team
members and 50% comes from the leader of the team.
Setting objectives
Planning tasks
Allocating of
responsibilities
Setting performance
standards
Communication
Team building
Motivating
Discipline
TASK NEEDS
GROUP
NEEDS
INDIVIDUAL
NEEDS
Coaching
Counseling
Developing
Motivating
Transformational leadership (Bennis):
Some of the values used to distinguish between managers and leaders have also been
identified as;
Transactional leaders – see the relationship with their followers in terms of trade:
they give followers the rewards they want in exchange for service, loyalty and
compliance.
Transformational leaders – see their role as inspiring and motivating others to work at
level beyond mere competence.
Bennis is an influent American author on leadership and change. He focuses on the
need to inspire change rather than imposing it. He identifies five ‘avenues of change’:
Dissent and Conflict – top management imposes changes by means of their position
of power, the result being rancor amongst those affected.
Trust and truth – management must gain trust, express their vision clearly, and
persuade other to follow.
Cliques and cabals – cliques have power, money and resources; cabals have ambition,
drive and energy. Unless the cliques can co-opt the cabals, revolution in inevitable.
External events – forces of society can imposes change; e.g. by new government
regulation or through overseas competition.
Culture or paradigm shift – changing the corporate culture is the most important
avenues of change.
Managing change (Kotter)
Kotter set out the following changes
approaches to deal with resistance:
Participation and E.g. this approach aims to
involvement
involve employees, usually by
allowing some input in to
decision making.
Education and
E.g. this approach aims to keep
communication
employees informed, usually
through presentations about the
reasons for the required
change.
Facilitation and
support
E.g. training, counselling
Manipulation and E.g. the information that is
co-optation
disseminated is selective and
distorted to only emphasize the
benefits of the change.
Negotiation and E.g. this approach enables
agreement
several parties with opposing
Employees are more likely to
support changes made and give
positive commitment as they ‘own’
the change.
This approach relies on the
hopeful belief that communication
about the benefits of change to
employees will result in their
acceptance of the need to
exercise the changes necessary.
Employees may need help to
overcome their fears and anxieties
about change.
Involves covert attempts to
sidestep potential resistance.
This bargaining leads to situation
of compromise and agreement.
Leadership to Mobilize (Heifetz)
Heifetz argues that the role of the leader is to help people face
reality and to mobilize them to make change. Heifetz suggests that
the old approach to leadership was that leaders had the answers,
the vision and then needed to persuade people to sign up for the
change. Heifetz believes that that the leaders provide direction but
do not have to offer definite answers and should mobilize people
to tackle the tough challenges for themselves.
Qualities of leadership are dispersed in the people not only
management selected people are good manager
Leaders have two choices when resolving a situation
Technical change – the application of current knowledge, skills and
or tools to resolve a situation
Adaptive change – is required when the problem cannot be solved
with existing skills and knowledge and requires people to make a
shift in their values, expectations, attitudes or habits of behavior.
Q.3 Consider the following situations:
(i) Salman delegates some day-to-day decisions to
subordinates. He also facilitates and participates in discussions
about some of the decisions with subordinates who are
competent in their work, but lack psychological confidence. He
boosts their confidence and motivation from time to time.
(ii) Ahmed defines the roles and tasks of subordinates and
supervises them closely. Decisions are announced by him. Most
of the communication is downwards.
(iii) Hamid is involved in discussions about problem-solving and
decision-making but control mostly vests with the subordinates.
The subordinates can perform their work with little support.
They refer to him only when they consider it necessary.
(iv) Bashir defines the roles and tasks of subordinates. At times
he seeks ideas and suggestions from subordinates. However, he
makes most of the decisions but supports and praises the
subordinates to boost their self-esteem.
In the context of Hersey and Blanchard’s style of situational
leadership, identify the leadership style in each of the above
situations and state when these styles would be most effective.
(06) [A16]
(i)Leadership style:
Participating
(ii) Leadership
style: Telling.
(iii) Leadership
style:Delegating
(iv) Leadership
style: Selling