Sensory input is the starting point for memory and knowledge.
Memory may be implicit or explicit.
Consumer memory- is the persistence of learning over time, via the storage or retrieval of information,
either consciously or unconsciously.
Retrieval- is the process of remembering or accessing what was previously stored in memory.
Sensory memory- input form the five senses stored temporarily in memory.
 Echoic Memory- is the sensory memory of the things we hear.
 Iconic Memory- is sensory memory of the things we see.
 Olfactory Memory- smell
Working Memory- The portion of memory where incoming information is encoded or interpreted in the
context of existing knowledge, and kept available for more processing. Most of the conscious processing
information takes place.
Discursive Processing- Information presented a swords
Imagery Processing- Representing the visual, olfactory, auditory and tactile
Long-term Memory- the part of memory where information is permanently stored for later use.
 Episodic or Autobiographical Memory- Knowledge that we have about ourselves, and our
personal past experiences.
 Operant Conditioning- one vivid event can produce a long lasting memory and a changed
behavior.
 Semantic Memory- Facts and general knowledge about an, detached from specific episodes.
Explicit Memory- when the consumers are consciously aware that they remember something
Implicit Memory- is when consumers are not consciously aware that they remember something. Implicit
memory is evidenced when a process that requires memory is executed faster or more accurately.
Recognition- The process of identifying whether we have previously encountered a stimulus when we
are reexposed to the stimulus.
Recall- the ability to retrieve the information about a stimulus from memory without being reexposed to
the stimulus again.
 Chunk- is a group of items that are processed as a unit. Ex is Phone number that is started with
an area code
 Rehearsal- means that we actively and consciously interact with the material that we are trying,
perhaps by repeating or actively thinking about the information and its meaning.
 Recirculation- if information goes through your working memory repeatedly. Information is
repeated at different times.
Elaboration- transferring of information into long-term memory by processing it at the deeper levels of
meaning.
Knowledge Content- reflects the information that we have already learned and stored in memory about
brands, companies, stores, people, how to shop, how to use public transportation or bake a cake, and so
on.
Knowledge Structure- describes how we organize knowledge both episodic and semantic in memory
Both knowledge content and knowledge structure are flexible.
Knowledge content can take in the form of schemas and scripts.
Schema- a set of associations linked to a concept in a memory. It is also the knowledge about what
objects and people are, and what they mean to a consumer. It contains subjective knowledge about
“what” something is.
 Product category Schema
 Self-schema
Spreading of activation- the process by which retrieving a concept or association spreads to the retrieval
of a related concept or association.
Scripts- are form of procedural knowledge. Knowledge about how to do things with the objects and
people and are related to episodic memory.
Three dimensions of association in schemas that are crucial to building and maintaining strong brands:
1. Favorability- associations can vary in favorability in may lead to a favorable situation.
2. Uniqueness- the extent to which they are related to other concepts.
3. Salience- How easily they come to the mind
Brands aim to be linked in favorable, unique and salient associations.
Brand Image- Specific type of schema that captures what does a brand stands for and how favorably it is
viewed.
Brand Personality- The set of associations included in a schema that reflects a brand’s personification.
Cocreation- consumers collaborating with the companies to shape brand personality and develop new
products.
Scripts- are special type of schema that represents knowledge of the sequence of actions involved in
performing an activity.
Brands that have favorable, unique and salient associations that are meaningful to consumers have high
brand equity and are valuable to the company.
Marketers need to identify what are the favorable, salient and unique associations that consumers link
to a particular brand
Brand Extension- using the brand name of a product with a well- developed image on a product in a
different category.
Taxonomic Categories- how consumer classify a group of objects in memory in an orderly, often
hierarchical way, based on their similarity to one another.
Prototype- the best example of a cognitive mental memory
Prototypicality- the extent to which an object is a representative of its category
Hierarchical Structure- other ways of structuring taxonomic categories.
 Superodinate level- broadest level of categorization
 Basic Level- Finer discriminations among object
 Subordinate level- Finest level
People who ignore environmental cues tend to integrate information and form general brand beliefs,
whereas those who pay attention to environmental cues store information in a more context-specific
way and do not form general beliefs about product categories.
Correlated- attributes of associative network that are linked in the consumer’s mind
Goal-derived category- things viewed as belonging in the same category because they serve the same
goals
Construal level theory- theory describing the different levels of abstractness in the associations that a
consumer has about things (products, people and activities) and how the consumer’s psychological
distance influences the abstractness of the associations and his/ her behavior.
Goals and their timing influence the content and structure of knowledge within the minds of consumers.
The consumer’s culture and level of expertise influence the structure and content of knowledge
between consumers.
Prior experience plays a role in the content and structure of consumers knowledge and the flexibility of
using this knowledge.
Consumers vary their ability to process information based on the prior experience they have.
Nonalignable Attributes- attributes that are not shared by all brands in the category
Marketers want to avoid retrieval failures and retrieval errors for their brand when consumers make a
choice.
Three elements that contribute to retrieval failure:
 Decay- occurs when memory strength deteriorates over time, for instance, because it has not been
used.
 Interference- happens when the strength of memory deteriorates over time because of competing
memories.
*Competitive advertising affects interference
 Primary and recency effect- the tendency to show greater memory for information that comes first
or last in a sequence
Memory is not always accurate or complete and may be subject to selection, confusion and distortion.
Source Confusion- you remember a story but confuse who the source of the story was.
Memory can be distorted as when you remember experiences or events that actually did not happen
Retrieval Cue- A stimulus that facilitates the activation of memory and it can be generated internally or
externally. Brand name can also serve as a retrieval cue.
Key Characteristics of Stimulus:
 Salience- Salient objects tend to attract attention and induce greater elaboration, thereby creating
stronger memories
 Prototypicality- recognize and recall prototypical or pioneer brands because these have been
frequently rehearsed and recirculated and are link to many other concepts in memory, and pioneers
were the first to occupy the links.
 Redundant cues- enhancing memory when the information items seemed to go together naturally.
 Medium- the medium in which the stimulus is processed because there are certain media that is
more effective than others at enhancing consumer memory.
Consumers’ mood and expertise can affect retrieval
Consumers in a positive mood are more likely to readily learn brand names and engage in brand
rehearsals.
The prototypicality of iPod affected the brand tremendously in a way that Apple became widely known.
Today, almost everyone knows Apple and its quality products. To add, prototypicality increased the
chance that the brand Apple will likely to be thought of by the consumers. Consumers think of iPhone
when thinking of smartphones. Because of this, Apple was able to build and maintain a strong brand
through salience.