46218
eEducation and Urban Society
s) 2012
EUS46310.1177/0013124512446218Hi
ermissions:
ournalsPermissions.nav
Article
Middle School Black
and White Student
Assignment to Disciplinary
Consequences: A Clear
Lack of Equity
Education and Urban Society
2014, Vol. 46(3) 312­–328
© The Author(s) 2012
Reprints and permissions:
sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/0013124512446218
eus.sagepub.com
Michele Hilberth1 and John R. Slate2
Abstract
Disciplinary consequences assigned to all Texas middle school Black and White
students (n = 172,551 Grade 6 students; 173,671 Grade 7 students; 175,730
Grade 8 students) for the 2008-2009 school year were analyzed to determine
the extent to which statistically significant differences were present between the
proportion of Black students and the proportion of White students assigned
discipline consequences. Black students received in-school suspension at more
than twice the percentage of their representation in the overall student sample
population. Similar results were present for out-of-school suspension, with proportionately more Black students being assigned to out-of-school suspension
than White students. Although the number of students assigned to disciplinary
alternative education program placement was small, Black students were still assigned to this disciplinary consequence at a much higher percentage than were
White students. A lack of equity was clearly demonstrated in the overrepresentation of Black middle school students assigned to disciplinary consequences.
Keywords
disciplinary inequities, Black students, middle school, in-school suspension, outof-school suspension, disciplinary alternative education program placement
1
Spring Branch Independent School District Academy of Choice, Houston, TX, USA
Sam Houston State University, Huntsville, TX, USA
2
Corresponding Author:
John R. Slate, Sam Houston State University, Box 2119, Teacher Education Center, Huntsville,
TX 77340, USA.
Email: jrs051@shsu.edu
Hilberth and Slate
313
Between the ages of 12 and 14, most students begin developing the ability to
comprehend symbolic concepts and conceptual ideas (Pennington, 2009).
This span of time in a child’s life is typically referred to in school as the
middle school years. The time between elementary school, marked by the end
of fifth grade, and the beginning of high school, or ninth grade, is a time
period when most students begin to experience conflicting values, in part
because of their changing role in their family structure and the increasing
influence of their peers (Pennington, 2009). Students at this time are often
times behaviorally challenging. Middle school students are curious and willing to learn but only if the material to be learned seems useful to them. These
students enjoy solving real-life problems but only if the activities presented
are activities in which they can interact with their peers. Students in middle
school often resist adult authority but at the same time need adult support,
assistance, and composed direction. Though not specific to just Black students, peers become very important during this time period, and most students are highly influenced by their peer group and work to conform to the
guidelines established by that group (Irvin et al., 2006).
Sprague et al. (2001) documented that middle school is also the time
period during which students receive the most discipline consequences in
school. Referral patterns in elementary and middle school have been analyzed by researchers, and they reveal that 6% to 9% of the children in the
school are responsible for more than one half of the referrals and virtually all
of the serious behaviors such as fighting and weapons (Sprague et al., 2001).
Skiba, Peterson, and Williams (1997) discovered that behaviors that led to
office referrals in middle school were primarily not behaviors that threatened
school safety but actions that evidenced disobedience and disrespect.
However, researchers (e.g., Fielding, 2004) have documented that school
referral rate leads to time off task for students that may be linked to a decrease
in test scores (in this study, specifically the Texas Assessment of Knowledge
and Skills assessments) and to students being referred for special education
services.
After reviewing recent federal data on schools, Witt (2008) concluded that
Black students were disciplined at a higher rate than any other ethnic group
in school. Finding no evidence that Black students are more likely to misbehave when compared with other students from the same social and economic
environments, Witt concluded that the reason Black students across the nation
are suspended and expelled more frequently than students of other races continues to baffle sociologists and educators.
Researchers (e.g., Gordon, Piana, & Keleher, 2000; Skiba & Peterson, 2000;
Texas Appleseed, 2008) have supported the premise that Black students and
White students receive inequitable consequences for discipline offenses that
314
Education and Urban Society 46(3)
are committed. Texas Appleseed documented that Black students were sent to
a disciplinary alternative education placement (DAEP) for noncriminal, discretionary offenses at more than twice the rate of their representation in
school enrollment. Skiba and Peterson (2000) determined that Black students
were not only being assigned discipline in greater numbers than White students and in larger proportion than their representation in the student population, but additionally, Black students received discipline consequences for
subjective reasons such as disrespect, whereas White students were referred
less often and for more objective reasons such as smoking and vandalism.
Additionally, Gordon et al. (2000) determined that the subjective beliefs of
teachers and administrators may influence Black student referral and consequences. The findings of their study on racial discrimination in United States
schools indicated that educators were more willing to consider extenuating
consequences in assigning discipline when they perceived that the student
involved had the possibility of a future that could be destroyed by suspension
or expulsion. That is, educators seem to view Black students as having different future possibilities from those of White students.
Ladson-Billings (2006) supported the conviction that a historical basis
exists for the discipline and achievement gap as well as other inequities that
exist between predominantly Black schools and predominantly White
schools. Ladson-Billings contended that Black students did not receive a
quality education until 1968. Furthermore, she reported funding disparities
that existed between schools that served predominantly Black students and
schools that served predominantly White students. The quality of the teaching staff in predominantly Black schools became suspect when Ferguson
(1998) revealed that lowest income, low-performing schools, populated by
mostly Black youth, had a difficult time recruiting and retaining high-quality
teachers.
Multiple researchers (e.g., Ladson-Billings, 2006; Morris, 2005; O’Brien,
1998) have studied the idea that Black students are caught in a vicious cycle
that causes them to not be as prepared to receive a quality education as White
students. To support the idea that most Black students do not focus on education at home, O’Brien determined that the achievement gap between Black
and White students did not increase during the school year but did increase
during the summer months. Thus, when educators were present to focus Black
students’ attention on learning, O’Brien demonstrated that learning occurred.
In the absence of these teachers, Black students’ achievement lessened over
the summer months. Morris (2005) contended that students who receive
increasing amounts of discipline in school become disillusioned with the educational process and develop low self-esteem. This low self-esteem leads to
students developing the feeling that school is unfair and that educators have no
Hilberth and Slate
315
vested interest in helping them be successful (Whitfield & Bulach, 1996).
Therefore, this lowered self-esteem adds to the lack of focus on education in
the summer, when teachers are not present.
Many of those students drop out of school and/or become incarcerated
(Coalition for Juvenile Justice, 2001). Even if Black students do successfully
graduate and establish families, the researchers at the Urban Institute (1998)
reported a discrepancy in postsecondary success for Black males. These discrepancies between Black and White students remain today, as noted by
Strayhorn (2008). Even with a college degree, 1 in 9 Black males was unemployed as compared with 1 in 29 White males, and Black men between the
ages of 25 and 64 worked 7 fewer hours per week than their White peers. This
progression leads to instability in Black families that may cause young Black
students to enter school less prepared than young White students (LadsonBillings, 2006). This instability in working fewer hours may also be linked
with discipline issues of Black students at school.
Furthermore, middle school researchers have cited general inequities in
discipline as a reason why students of all ethnic backgrounds may receive
unwarranted discipline consequences. For instance, Gottfredson (1989)
reported that inconsistent and unclear school rules and rule enforcement led
to an increase in suspension and expulsion in middle schools. Additionally,
McNeely, Nonnemaker, and Blum (2002) determined that students in schools
with harsh discipline reported feeling less safe at school and exhibited less
school connectedness than students in schools where discipline was not as
harsh. This uncaring and disinterested attitude led to more students acting out
and being referred to the office. Skiba et al. (1997) analyzed data in middle
schools and documented that a 40% referral rate was common in middle
schools over the course of a year. This finding led them to conclude that
school disciplinary consequences may represent a response to developmentally appropriate behaviors of 11- to 13-year-olds with which middle school
personnel are poorly equipped to deal.
Statement of the Problem
When Barack Obama was elected to the most influential position in the
world, many people believed that America’s racial history was becoming a
thing of the past. Prior to his election, Black parents would prepare their
offspring for the insensitive realities of racism by telling them they had to
work twice as hard as everyone else, just to have an opportunity to have a
successful and productive life. Despite Obama’s election, current statistics
still support the belief that inequities exist in fair treatment of persons of different ethnic backgrounds (Shuford, 2009).
316
Education and Urban Society 46(3)
Researchers continue to support the fact that White students are not as
likely as Black students to receive discipline consequences in school (Wallace,
Goodkind, Wallace, & Bachman, 2008). Because of the disproportionate
amount of discipline received by Black students in schools, they are excluded
from learning opportunities that other races receive while staying in the classroom. Educators believe these school absences might have decreased Black
students’ ability to be successful in school, thereby increasing the achievement gap between Black and White students.
Theoretical Framework
Multiple theories support and help explain the belief that excessive or unfair
application of discipline consequences in schools can lead to student and
parent disillusionment with the educational process. Discussed in equity
theory is the fairness of social relationships and the belief that punishments
should be allocated in proportion to a student’s input or contribution
(Leventhal, 1976). This theory, developed in 1962 by a workplace and
behavior psychologist named John Stacy Adams, posits that employees think
it is important for equality to be maintained between the contribution that
they make at the job site and the result that they receive from their input. If
this equity theory is applied to schools, and to this research, then students in
schools should believe that consequences and rewards should be distributed
to students based on their contributions to the classroom environment.
In 1965, James Coleman developed another theory that is relevant to this
research: the equality of educational opportunity. Coleman believed that
equality of educational opportunity existed when children were provided a
free education at a level that allowed them to enter the labor force successfully. He also stated that equality existed when a common curriculum was
provided to all children regardless of their background. Additionally, students
must attend the same school. And finally, equality was provided within a
specified locality because local taxes provided support for the schools
(Coleman, 1967).
Even though the typical child traditionally spends an average of about
15,000 hours (from the age of 5 until leaving school) in the schoolhouse,
Coleman’s (1967) research and that of others during that time period, such as
Jencks and Plowden, led to a general acceptance among intellectuals that
schools, particularly teachers, made little difference in a child’s behavior and
that home influences outweighed the influence of the school (Rutter,
Maughan, Mortimore, & Ouston, 1979). Since that time, researchers have
determined that multiple factors in schools do affect students’ school success.
Evidence is provided in this study that the kind and amount of discipline
Hilberth and Slate
317
students receive in school is related to the academic achievement of Black
and White students.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to analyze data in order to determine the extent
to which discipline referrals assigned to Black and White students enrolled
in Texas middle schools were disproportional in nature. That is, to what
extent were Black students and White students assigned to in-school suspension (ISS), out-of-school suspension (OSS), and DAEP placements in a manner that was disproportionate to their percentage in the school enrollment?
Research Questions
The following research questions were addressed in this study: (a) What is
the difference in the proportion of Black students and White students
assigned to ISS by grade (i.e., Grades 6, 7, and 8)? (b) What is the difference
in the proportion of Black and White students assigned to OSS by grade (i.e.,
Grades 6, 7, and 8)? (c) What is the difference in the proportion of Black
students and White students assigned to disciplinary alternative education
program placement by grade (i.e., Grades 6, 7, and 8)?
Method
Participants
Student data for this study included information on all the 172,551 Black and
White Grade 6 students, all the 173,671 Black and White Grade 7 students,
and all the 175,730 Black and White Grade 8 students enrolled in public
school in the state of Texas in the 2008-2009 school year. Students were
identified through data received from the Texas Education Agency and the
State of Texas Public Education Information Management System (PEIMS;
2010) report.
Collection of PEIMS data is required by all school districts according to
the Texas Education Code 42.006 (Texas Education Agency Public Education
Information Management System, 2010). The major categories of data collected by PEIMS include (a) organizational data, (b) budget data, (c) actual
financial data, (d) staff data, (e) student demographic data, (f) program participation and school leaver data, (g) student attendance data, (h) course
completion data, and (i) discipline data. For purposes of this study, the
318
Education and Urban Society 46(3)
discipline data contained within the PEIMS were obtained. A request was
made to the Texas Education Agency for the discipline data by ethnic category for all middle school students in the 2008-2009 school year. Data were
received in SPSS format.
Definitions
In-school suspension. For purposes of this study, ISS was defined as
“instances in which a child is temporarily removed from his/her regular
classroom(s) for disciplinary purposes but remains under the direct supervision of school personnel” (U.S. Department of Education, 2010, p. 80).
Out-of-school suspension. In this study, OSS was defined as “instances in
which a child is temporarily removed from his/her regular school for disciplinary purposes to another setting (e.g., home, behavior center)” (U.S.
Department of Education, 2010, p. 108).
Disciplinary alternative education program. The DAEP is “an alternative school
setting for students temporarily removed from the regular school setting for
disciplinary reasons” (Division of Accountability Research, 2007, p. 1).
Results
In-School Suspension
To determine whether a difference was present in the proportion of Black
students assigned discipline consequences and the proportion of White students assigned discipline consequences, a Pearson chi-square was conducted
for each grade level, ethnic category, and discipline consequence. This statistical procedure was viewed as the optimal statistical procedure to use
because frequency data were present for consequences assigned by ethnicity.
As such, chi-square procedures are the statistical procedure of choice when
one variable is categorical such as ethnicity and the other involves a frequency count. In addition, with the large sample size per grade, the available
sample size was more than five. Therefore, the assumptions for using a chisquare were met (Field, 2009).
The Pearson chi-square, conducted to determine whether a statistically
significant difference was present in the proportion of Grade 6 Black students
assigned to ISS and the proportion of Grade 6 White students assigned to ISS,
yielded a statistically significant result, χ2(1) = 7292.02, p < .001. The effect
size for this finding, Cramer’s V, was small, .02 (Cohen, 1988). Table 1 and
Figure 1 display the percentages of Black and White students assigned to ISS.
319
Hilberth and Slate
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics for Students Receiving In-School Suspension
Discipline Consequences by Ethnic Membership.
In-school suspension
Sixth grade
Black students
White students
Seventh grade
Black students
White students
Eighth grade
Black students
White students
Received
(%)
Did not
receive (%)
Total percentage
in sample
32.1
14.2
67.9
85.8
14.1
34.7
35.9
16.2
64.1
83.8
14.2
35.2
36.4
17.5
63.6
82.5
14.4
35.3
Though only 14.1% of the Grade 6 participants in this study were Black, 32%
of them received ISS as compared with 14.2% of the Grade 6 White population who received ISS, yet White students comprised 34.7% of the study
population.
The Pearson chi-square used to determine whether a statistically significant difference in the proportion of Grade 7 Black students assigned to ISS
and the proportion of Grade 7 White students assigned to ISS was present
provided a statistically significant result, χ2(1) = 8054.96, p < .001. The effect
size for this finding, Cramer’s V, was small, .02 (Cohen, 1988). Illustrated in
Table 1 is the finding that although only 14.2% of the Grade 7 participants in
this study were Black, 35.9% of them received ISS as compared with only
16.2% of the Grade 7 White population, who comprised 35.2% of the Grade
7 student population.
Finally, a Pearson chi-square was used to determine whether a statistically
significant difference was present in the proportion of Grade 8 Black students
assigned to ISS and the proportion of Grade 8 White students assigned to ISS.
The result was statistically significant, χ2(1) = 7317.38, p < .001. The effect
size for this finding, Cramer’s V, was small, .02 (Cohen, 1988). Depicted in
Table 1 are the percentages of Grade 8 Black and White students who were
assigned to ISS. Although only 14.4% of the Grade 8 participants in this
study were Black, 36.4% of them received ISS as compared with only 17.5%
of the Grade 8 White students who received ISS, even though White students
comprised 35.3% of the Grade 8 student population.
320
Education and Urban Society 46(3)
40
35
30
25
20
Black
15
White
10
5
0
Grade 6
Grade 7
Grade 8
Figure 1. Percentage of Black and White students who received in-school
suspension as a function of grade level.
Out-of-School Suspension
The Pearson chi-square, conducted to ascertain whether a statistically significant difference was present in the proportion of Grade 6 Black students
assigned to OSS and the proportion of Grade 6 White students assigned to
OSS, yielded a statistically significant result, χ2(1) = 11619.71, p < .001. The
effect size for this finding, Cramer’s V, was small, .02 (Cohen, 1988).
Depicted in Table 2 and Figure 2 are the percentages of Black and White
students who were assigned OSS. Even though only 14.1% of the Grade 6
participants in the study were Black, 19.4% of them received ISS. Of the
Grade 6 White student population, only 3.7% of them received OSS,
although they comprised 34.7% of the Grade 6 student population.
A Pearson chi-square was used to determine whether a statistically significant difference was present in the proportion of Grade 7 Black students
assigned to OSS and the proportion of Grade 7 White students assigned to
OSS. The result was statistically significant, χ2(1) = 12629.32, p < .001. The
effect size for this finding, Cramer’s V, was small, .02 (Cohen, 1988). Table
2 illustrates the finding that although only 14.2% of the Grade 7 participants
in the study were Black, 22.6% of them received OSS, as compared with
4.8% of the Grade 6 White population, who comprised 35.2% of the study
population.
Finally, a Pearson chi-square was used to ascertain whether a statistically
significant difference was present in the proportion of Grade 8 Black students
assigned to OSS and the proportion of Grade 8 White students assigned to OSS.
The result was again statistically significant, χ2(1) = 12015.95, p < .001. The
effect size for this finding, Cramer’s V, was small, .02 (Cohen, 1988). Table 2
321
Hilberth and Slate
Table 2. Descriptive Statistics for Students Receiving Out-of-School Suspension
Discipline Consequences by Ethnic Membership.
Out-of-school
suspension
Sixth grade
Black students
White students
Seventh grade
Black students
White students
Eighth grade
Black students
White students
Received
(%)
Did not receive
(%)
Total percentage
in sample
19.4
3.7
80.6
96.3
14.1
34.7
22.6
4.8
77.4
95.2
14.2
35.2
23.2
5.4
76.8
94.6
14.4
35.3
25
20
15
Black
10
White
5
0
Grade 6
Grade 7
Grade 8
Figure 2. Percentage of Black and White students who received out-of-school
suspension as a function of grade level.
illustrates the finding that although only 14.4% of the Grade 8 participants in
the study were Black, 23.2% of them received OSS, as compared with 5.4%
of the Grade 8 White population, who comprised 35.3% of the study
population.
Disciplinary Alternative Education Program Placement
A Pearson chi-square, calculated to ascertain whether a statistically significant difference was present in the proportion of Grade 6 Black students
322
Education and Urban Society 46(3)
assigned to DAEP and the number of Grade 6 White students assigned to
DAEP, was statistically significant, χ2(1) = 1716.66, p < .001. The effect size
for this finding, Cramer’s V, was small, .01 (Cohen, 1988). Depicted in Table 3
and Figure 3 are the percentages of Black and White students who received
DAEP. Although only 14.1% of the Grade 6 participants in the study were
Black, 4.1% of them received DAEP, as compared with 1.1% of the Grade 6
White population, who comprised 34.7% of the study population.
A Pearson chi-square was calculated to determine whether a statistically
significant difference was present in the proportion of Grade 7 Black students
assigned to DAEP and the proportion of Grade 7 White students assigned to
DAEP. The result was statistically significant, χ2(1) = 2090.25, p < .001. The
effect size for this finding, Cramer’s V, was small, .01 (Cohen, 1988). Table
3 illustrates the finding that although only 14.2% of the Grade 7 participants
in the study were Black, 5.9% of them received DAEP as compared with
1.8% of the Grade 7 White population, who comprised 35.2% of the study
population.
Finally, a Pearson chi-square was used to ascertain whether a statistically
significant difference was present in the proportion of Grade 8 Black students
assigned to DAEP and the proportion of Grade 8 White students assigned to
DAEP. The result was again statistically significant, χ2(1) = 1926.57, p <
.001. The effect size for this finding, Cramer’s V, was small, .01 (Cohen,
1988). Grade 8 Black students were assigned to DAEP 7.0% of the time,
compared with 2.6% of Grade 8 White students who were assigned to DAEP.
Readers are referred to Table 3 for these percentages.
Discussion
Researchers continue to document that Black students receive more discipline consequences in school than their same-aged White peers (Skiba &
Peterson, 2000). This inconsistency is particularly evident in middle school,
a time period when students seem to be the most curious and cunning and
seem to receive more discipline consequences than they do in elementary
and high school (Skiba et al., 1997). Black students are also referred to the
office for more minor infractions than are White students (Skiba & Peterson,
2000). One purpose of this study was to add to the growing body of research
in the area of school discipline and proportionality of disciplinary assignments by ethnic membership.
Participants in this study were Black students and White students who were
enrolled in Grade 6, Grade 7, or Grade 8 during the 2008-2009 school year;
the latest school year for which data were available. Data were obtained from
the PEIMS data base through the Texas Education Agency. For all discipline
323
Hilberth and Slate
Table 3. Descriptive Statistics for Students Receiving Disciplinary Alternative
Education Program Discipline Consequences by Ethnic Membership.
Disciplinary
alternative education
program
Sixth grade
Black students
White students
Seventh grade
Black students
White students
Eighth grade
Black students
White students
Received
(%)
Did not
receive (%)
Total percentage
in sample
4.1
1.1
95.9
98.9
14.1
34.7
5.9
1.8
94.1
98.2
14.2
35.2
7.0
2.6
93.0
97.4
14.4
35.3
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Black
White
Grade 6
Grade 7
Grade 8
Figure 3. Percentage of Black and White students who received a disciplinary
alternative education program as a function of grade level.
consequences, Grade 6 Black students received proportionally more discipline
consequences than did Grade 6 White students. In this study, Grade 6 Black
students received ISS consequences 2.26 times more often than Grade 6 Black
students. Although Wallace et al. (2008) stated that little research in school
discipline has been conducted on whether racial differences exist in the distribution of consequences less severe than suspension from school and expulsion, this finding for ISS was in line with their research finding that Black
students had between 2 and 3 times higher suspension and expulsion rates than
324
Education and Urban Society 46(3)
White students. The data for this study were reported using the commonly
used definition of disproportionality (Harry & Anderson, 1995). The reported
percentages reflect the percentage of the target group compared with the distribution of the category being analyzed. For example, the Grade 6 data analysis finding that 32.1% of Grade 6 Black students in this study received ISS
indicated that 67.9% of the Grade 6 Black student population in this study did
not receive ISS. However, Grade 6 Black students comprised only 14.1% of
the study population. Using this calculation, Grade 6 Black students were
assigned OSS and DAEP consequences, respectively, more than 5 times and
almost 4 times the rate of their Grade 6 White peers. This finding supports
earlier findings by Monroe (2005b) who reported that Black students were 2
to 5 times more likely to be suspended than their White peers.
As depicted in Table 1, Grade 7 Black students were 2.2 times more likely
to receive ISS consequences than were Grade 7 White students. Table 2 illustrates that Grade 7 Black students were 4.7 times more likely to receive OSS
than were Grade 7 White students. Table 3 illustrates that Grade 7 Black students were 3.7 times more likely to receive DAEP than were Grade 7 White
students. Billitteri (2008) asserted that even in mostly Black urban schools,
Black students were disciplined out of proportion to their enrollment. Adams
(2008) reported that even middle-class and wealthy Black students were punished more often and more severely than their non-Black peers.
For all discipline consequences, Grade 8 Black students received proportionately more discipline consequences than Grade 8 White students. Grade
8 Black students received ISS more than 2 times as much as Grade 8 White
students. This finding supports the research of Jordan and Anil (2009) who
documented that in their study of Grade 8 students in four middle schools,
Black students had a 1½ times greater chance of receiving a discipline referral than White students. Although Jordan and Anil also stated that poor students were more than 2½ times likely to receive disciplinary referrals than
other students, this finding has been contradicted by the findings of a larger
study of more than 11,000 students. Skiba et al. (2002) determined that socioeconomic status had a minimal influence on which ethnic group received
more discipline consequences. This research, however, and the research of
others continue to support the fact that Black students in middle school
receive more discipline consequences than their same-aged White peers.
Therefore, it is important to understand why Black students receive more
discipline consequences than White students.
Researchers (e.g., Christle, Nelson, & Jolivette, 2007; Gordon et al., 2000;
Monroe, 2005a) have established that differences in Black culture and White
culture may influence Black student learning in schools. Monroe (2005a)
Hilberth and Slate
325
supported the belief that because 87% of the teachers in the nation’s 100 largest school districts are White, a Eurocentric climate exists in schools, a climate that is different from the Black culture. In a recent study by Bone, Slate,
and Martinez-Garcia (2011), the majority of the teachers employed in Texas
public school districts were also White teachers. Black students use different
communication styles and exhibit nonspoken behaviors that are very different from the communication styles of White students, who subscribe to the
Eurocentric culture. Therefore, Black students are oftentimes disciplined for
culturally based behaviors that are not intended to be disruptive (Gordon
et al., 2000). This finding was supported by Christle et al. (2007), who determined that in 161 middle schools in Kentucky, majority White student enrollment was associated with low suspension rates. Additionally, Monroe (2005a)
determined that the criminalization of Black males causes teachers to believe
that Black youth require greater discipline control than White students, therefore, putting more emphasis on control of discipline in classrooms highly
populated by Black youth than on academic learning.
To decrease the amount of discipline consequences assigned to students of
all ethnicities and backgrounds, administrators throughout Texas, and other
states as well, should collect and disaggregate data on the reasons why students are assigned discipline consequences. These data could be used to
develop interventions that can occur in the classroom before a student is sent
out of the classroom for discipline-related issues. Additionally, researchers
should focus on schools that have successfully reduced their discipline referral rate and determine what is currently occurring to keep students in class.
Last, valuable insight may come from studies on school climate and how it
influences student discipline referral rate.
Because of a focus in this study on discipline as related to Black students
and White students, data on only two ethnic groups were analyzed. In the
process of data coding, it was determined that more than 45% of the middle
school students in Texas were Hispanic. Further research should focus on
ethnicities besides Black and White to ascertain if discipline consequences
affect students in the Hispanic community, Asian community, and others in
the same manner as Black students and White students.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research,
authorship, and/or publication of this article.
326
Education and Urban Society 46(3)
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
References
Adams, C. (2008). What are your expectations? Instructor, 117(4), 26-30.
Billitteri, T. (2008). Discipline in schools. CQ Researcher, 18(7), 145-168.
Bone, J. A., Slate, J. R., & Martinez-Garcia, C. (2011, August). Relationships of
teacher and student diversity in Texas elementary schools: A multi-year, statewide study. Paper presented at the National Council of Professors of Educational
Administration, Portland, OR.
Christle, C., Nelson, C., & Jolivette, K. (2007). School characteristics related to the
use of suspension. Retrieved from http://www.kysafeschools.org/pdfs-docs/clearpdf/issuesbriefs/EDJJresearch.pdf
Coalition for Juvenile Justice. (2001). Abandoned in the back row: New lessons in
education and delinquency prevention. Washington, DC: Government Printing
Office.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.).
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Coleman, J. (1967). The concept of equality of educational opportunity. Retrieved
from http://webapp.icpsr.umich.edu/icpsrweb/ICPSR/index.jsp;jsessionid=0961
E0630928BIE733CAC2165EC9BFE9
Division of Accountability Research, Department of Assessment, Accountability, and
Data Quality, Texas Education Agency. (2007, August). Disciplinary alternative
education program practices (Report No. 17). Washington, DC: Government
Printing Office.
Ferguson, R. (1998). The Black-White test score gap. Washington, DC: Brookings
Institution Press.
Field, A. (2009). Discovering statistics using SPSS (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Fielding, C. (2004). Low performance on high-stakes test drives special education
referrals: A Texas survey. The Educational Forum, 68, 126-132. doi:10.1080/​
00131720408984619
Gordon, R., Piana, L., & Keleher, T. (2000). Facing the consequences: An examination of racial discrimination in U.S. public schools (Research Report No. 141).
Retrieved from http://www.arc.org/pdf/196apdf.pdf
Gottfredson, D. (1989). Developing effective organizations to reduce school disorder. In O. C. Moles (Ed.), Strategies to reduce student misbehavior (pp. 87-104).
Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement. (ED311 60)
Hilberth and Slate
327
Harry, B., & Anderson, M. (1995). The disproportionate placement of African American males in special education programs: A critique of the process. Journal of
Negro Education, 63, 602-619. doi:10.2307/2967298
Irvin, L., Horner, R., Ingram, K., Todd, A., Sugai, G., Sampson, N., & Boland, J. (2006).
Using office discipline referral data for decision making about student behavior
in elementary and middle schools: An empirical evaluation of validity. Journal of
Positive Behavior Interventions, 8(1), 10-23. doi:10.1177/10983007060080010301
Jordan, J., & Anil, B. (2009). Race, gender, school discipline, and human capital
effects. Journal of Agricultural & Applied Economics, 41, 419-429.
Ladson-Billings, G. (2006). From the achievement gap to the educational debt:
Understanding achievement in U.S. schools. Educational Researcher, 35(3), 3-12.
doi:10.3102/0013189X035007003
Leventhal, G. (1976). What should be done with equity theory? New approaches
to the study of fairness in social relationships. Retrieved from http://www.eric.
ed.gov/PDFS/ED142463.pdf
McNeely, C., Nonnemaker, J., & Blum, R. (2002). Promoting school connectedness:
Evidence from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Journal of
School Health, 72, 138-146. doi:10.1111/j.1746-1561.2002tb06533.x
Monroe, C. (2005a). Understanding the discipline gap through a cultural lens: Implications for the education of African American students. Intercultural Education,
16, 317-330. doi:10.1080/14675980500303795
Monroe, C. (2005b). Why are “bad boys” always Black? Causes of disproportionality
in school discipline and recommendations for change. The Clearing House, 79(1),
45-50. doi:10.3200/TCHS.79.1.45-50
Morris, E. (2005). “Tuck in that shirt!” Race, class, gender, and discipline in an urban
school. Sociological Perspectives, 48(1), 25-48. doi:10.1525/sop.2005.48.1.25
O’Brien, D. (1998). Family and school effects on the cognitive growth of minority and
disadvantaged elementary school students (Working Paper). Dallas: Green Center
for the Study of Science and Society, University of Texas at Dallas.
Pennington, M. (2009, January 17). Re: Characteristics of middle school learners
[Web log message]. Retrieved from http://penningtonpublishing.com/blog/reading/characteristics-of-middle-school-learners/
Rutter, M., Maughan, B., Mortimore, P., & Ouston, J. (1979). Fifteen thousand hours.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Shuford, R. T. (2009). Why affirmative action remains essential in the age of Obama.
Campbell Law Review, 31, 503-533. Retrieved from http://law.campbell.edu/
lawreview/articles/31-3-503.pdf
Skiba, R., & Peterson, R. (2000). School discipline at a crossroads: From zero tolerance to early response. Exceptional Children, 66, 335-345.
328
Education and Urban Society 46(3)
Skiba, R., Peterson, R., & Williams, T. (1997). Office referrals and suspension: Disciplinary intervention in middle schools. Education & Treatment of Children, 20, 295-315.
Sprague, J., Walker, H., Stieber, S., Simonsen, B., Nishioka, V., & Wagner, L. (2001).
Exploring the relationship between school discipline referrals and delinquency.
Psychology in the Schools, 38, 197-206. doi:10.1002/pits.1010
Strayhorn, T. L. (2008). Influences on labor market outcomes of African American
college graduates: A national study. Journal of Higher Education, 79, 28-57.
Texas Appleseed. (2008). Texas school discipline policies: A statistical overview.
Retrieved from http://www.texasappleseed.net/pdf/School%20Discipline%20
Stat%20Report.doc
Texas Education Agency Public Education Information Management System. (2010).
Public Education Information Management System. Retrieved from http://www.
tea.state.tx.us/index4.aspx?id=3012
Urban Institute. (1998). Annual report. Retrieved from http://www.urban.org/about/
report/upload/98report.pdf
U.S. Department of Education. (2010, April). OSEP IDEA, part B data dictionary
(Grant Award No. H373Y070002). Rockville, MD: Data Accountability Center.
Wallace, J., Goodkind, S., Wallace, C., & Bachman, J. (2008). Racial, ethnic, and gender differences in school discipline among U.S. high school students: 1991-2005.
Negro Education Review, 59(1), 47-62.
Whitfield, D., & Bulach, C. (1996, March). A study of the effectiveness of in-school
suspension. Paper presented at the National Dropout Prevention Network Conference, Tampa, FL.
Witt, H. (2008, September 24). School discipline tougher on Black students. The Chicago Tribune. Retrieved from http://www.chicagotribune.com/services/newspaper/eedition/chi-070924discipline,0,7975055.story
Author Biographies
Michele Hilberth is the principal of Academy of Choice in Spring Branch
Independent School District and Director of the Disciplinary Alternative Education
Program for the district. As Chief Administrator of these academic and discipline
alternative learning programs, she focuses on identifying the strengths and gifts of
every child.
John R. Slate is a professor in the Department of Educational Leadership and
Counseling at Sam Houston State University, where he teaches academic and professional writing, proposal writing, and statistics courses. His research interests lie in the
use of state and national educational databases for school improvement and reform.