Forensic Science and Drug War
Introduction to Forensic Science/Criminalistics
Forensic Science is any science used for the purpose of the law. It provides impartial
scientific evidence for use in the courts of law. In typical criminal investigations, CSI collects the
evidence from the crime scene then forensic scientist will examine the evidence. In criminal
cases concerning controlled substances there are a few scientists that will assist in the
investigation; there are forensic chemist and forensic toxicologist. Forensic chemist and forensic
toxicologist work hand in hand with the police to identify unknown chemicals, drugs, powders,
and such. Forensic toxicologist are primarily used in three divisions; postmortem drug testing,
workplace drug testing, and investigation of contraband materials.
The illicit drugs that are tested or analyzed by forensic chemist and toxicologist are known as
controlled substances, which are substances whose possession or use is regulated by the
government. The analysis of controlled substances is a basic function of the forensic laboratory.
The section that performs this function is known by a variety of names: the drug section, narcotic
analysis, and forensic chemistry are just a few. No matter what the section is referred to as it all
have an objective and that is to confirm the presences of a substance that is either statutorily
regulated or is illegal to possess. There are many different types of drugs that fall under different
categories, mainly because of their components and or the side effects.
There are six main groups under which drugs may be classified. THC and stimulants are the
most used worldwide, while alcohol is the most abused in the United States. In criminal cases
forensic labs are often called in to identify unknown powders, liquids, and pills that may be illicit
drugs; the toxicologist and or the chemist are usually notified. In forensic science illicit drugs are
classified as naturally occurring. While there are different classifications of these many drugs
there are also many different ways to examine each drug and how to confirm the identity of the
drug. There are basically two categories of forensic tests used to analyze drugs and other
unknown substances: Presumptive tests and Confirmatory tests. Presumptive tests give only an
indication of which type of drug is present but, the substance can’t be specifically identified
using this test. Confirmatory tests are more specific and can determine the precise identity of a
substance.
All controlled substances of side effects, but the most common controlled substances would
be discussed in this paper. Information on these drugs is important and a lot of the population is
affected by these drugs; therefore, it is important to discuss the side effects of THC, LSD, and
GHB. THC is most commonly used amongst teens and young adults. THC is normally found in
marijuana and hashish. LSD is a synthetic drug that has been abused for hallucination properties
since the 1960’s. The last drug that would be discussed is GHB. GHB used for body building but
because of the effects it has on a person, FDA recommend that people not use this drug.
There are two types of scientist that helps law enforcement crack down on drug cases,
contrabands, and etc., those scientist consist of Forensic Chemist and Forensic Toxicologist.
Forensic Chemistry deals with the chemical analysis of various substances that may be important
or used in the commission of a crime. It encompasses various fields in chemistry and law
enforcement such as serology, toxicology and drug analysis. In addition, a wide array of
laboratory techniques and instrumentation is used in forensic studies such as ultraviolet, infrared,
neutron activation analysis, gas and mass chromatography. These techniques are often used to
find out connections between evidence found at a crime scene and trace evidence found on the
suspects accused of the crime, but the chosen technique and instrumentation depends on the type
of sample or substance to be examined.
Forensic Toxicology is an interdisciplinary science dealing with the adverse effects of
drugs and chemicals on various biological systems that may have legal implications. It includes
knowledge about the absorption, distribution and elimination characteristics of such substances
in the body, as well as the manner in which the body responds to their presence and the factors
which determine drug safety and effectiveness. Toxicologists examine a wide range of materials
such as blood stains, urine, and blood gases for traces of poisons or drugs. This branch of
toxicology also utilizes other disciplines such as analytical chemistry, pharmacology, clinical
chemistry, pathology and physiology to aid in medical or legal investigation of death poisoning
and drug use. Forensic toxicology is used today primarily in three divisions, postmortem drug
testing, workplace drug testing and investigation of contraband materials.
 Postmortem Drug Testing
The forensic toxicologist works with a medical examiner or coroner in order to determine
the role that a particular compound may have played in a death. In addition to explaining the
cause of death, the presence of a toxin may help to determine whether the death was an accident,
a suicide or a homicide. In drug related deaths, the forensic pathologist works alongside the
forensic toxicologist who identifies and quantifies the presence of drugs and chemicals in blood
and tissue samples. This is done by using state if the art chemical and biomedical instrumentation
capable of detecting small amounts of toxic materials, positively identifying them, and accurately
measuring how much is present.
 Workplace Drug Testing
Use of drugs by people in the workplace has significant safety and economic
consequences. Workplace drug testing consists of testing employees or job applicants for the
possible presence of drugs. Workplace drug testing is conducted to question whether or not the
prospective employee is a drug addict or if the behavior of an established employee in the
workplace is erratic and suggestive of drug use. This drug test usually requires a urine sample.
Workplace drug testing is concerned primarily with drugs of abuse such as amphetamines,
opiates, and cannabinoids. All Federal agencies require pre-employment drug testing and 90%
of the largest U.S. corporations require drug free urine as a condition of employment.
 Investigation of contraband materials
Forensic toxicologists work diligently with the police agencies to prove that seized material
is in fact identical to a prohibited substance. A suspect cannot be convicted of unlawful
possession if the suspected substance does not undergo presumptive tests. The forensic
toxicologists then apply sophisticated methods in the laboratory to confirm the field
identifications.
Analytical Methods in Forensic Toxicology- Drug Analysis
Accuracy is a major component in forensic toxicology. To attain maximum accuracy in
testing, toxicologists demonstrate the presence of a toxin by two different methods. By doing so,
it increases the credibility of the result. The two types of methods are screening tests
(presumptive tests) and confirmatory analyses.
 Screening Tests
1) Immunoassays: A laboratory technique that makes use of the binding between an antigen and
its homologous antibody in order to identify and quantify the specific antigen or antibody in
a sample. Immunoassays use antibodies to recognize the analyte of interest. Analytes in
biological liquids such as serum or urine are frequently assessed using immunoassay
methods. Immunoassays are objective and capable of high sensitivity but they lack 100%
specificity which is why it is a screening test.
2) Thin Layer Chromatography: Chromatography is a means separating chemicals. Thin Layer
Chromatography is capable of identifying hundred of compounds but the relatively high
detection limits for many compounds makes it a screening test.
3) Ultraviolet-Visible Spectrophotometry (UV-VIS): this method utilizes the way drugs absorb
light. The spectrum that each drug produces allows them to be clearly identified.
A
disadvantage to this technology is that many spectra lack highly specific features. Also, there
is a high risk of misidentification when an addition drug is present.
 Confirmatory Analyses
1) Gas Chromatography: in this method, the substance to be tested is separated from other
components of a mixture on a column. The retention time is then measured and compared to
known retention times.
2) Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS): this method is done with gas
chromatography. The retention time is also measured but the mass spectrum of each
component in the mixture is recorded.
3) Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS): just like GC-MS but this process uses
liquid instead of gas.
There are six main groups under which drugs may be classified. A list of these groups
includes: alcohol, sedative hypnotics, opiates, stimulants, psychedelics, and THC. Out of those
six categories, THC and stimulants are the most used. Many people that drink coffee in the
mornings normally do that because it wakes them up. That is the reason why coffee is one of the
most widely used drugs. It contains a stimulant that causes the brain and body to become very
alert.
Alcohol is one of the most abused drugs in the United States. Because it is a depressant, after
a few drinks a person may become belligerent and in many cases very violent. Some of the
effects of alcohol includes, but are not limited to, reduced intensity of physical sensations, body
heat loss, loss of body control, and reduced muscular coordination. Prolonged use of alcohol may
cause liver damage, ulcers, chronic diarrhea, amnesia, brain damage, or internal bleeding. Many
people who have used this drug for a long period of time eventually have withdrawal symptoms
when they try to stop using it. They may have convulsions, shakes, hallucinations, loss of
memory, uncontrolled muscle spasms, or psychosis.
Opiates are depressants as well as alcohol. They include Morphine, Heroin, Codeine, and
Methadone. The effects of these drugs may be clammy skin, coma, respiratory depression, and
possible death. The development of tolerance of Opiates is very high and that means once you
try it once, it is very hard not to become addicted to the drug. Prolonged use of this type of drug
may cause depressed sex drive, lethargy, infections, and maybe hepatitis. People with withdrawal
symptoms after using Opiates may experience watery eyes, runny nose, or stomach cramps.
Stimulants such as coffee, as mentioned earlier, cause a person’s brain to become alert. Some
effects of the drug would be increased blood pressure and heart rate, loss of appetite,
restlessness, paranoid reaction, or irritability. The tolerance of this drug is also very high.
Prolonged use of stimulants results in insomnia, paranoia, and nervous system damage.
Withdrawal symptoms include both physical and mental severe depression.
Psychedelics are basically just hallucinogens. They cause you to have bizarre thoughts and to
forget where you are. Examples of a psychedelic drug would be LSD and PCP. The effects such
as the alteration of mental processes and distorted perceptions caused by these drugs are very
serious to one’s mental health. They may wake up the next day and never remember how they
arrived at their location or what happened the day before. Prolonged used causes loss of drive
and, besides possible depression, there are no true withdrawal symptoms. THC,
tetrahydrocannabinol, is most commonly used amongst teens and young adults. THC is normally
found in marijuana and hashish. This drug is classified by itself because
In forensic science illicit drugs are classified as naturally occurring, plant extracts, semisynthetic, or synthetic. Naturally occurring substances are found in nature in plants. Part of the
plant is ingested, and the drug is extracted and used by the person. Examples include marijuana
and peyote cactus. Plant extracts are naturally occurring and they are also extracted from plants
and then ingested. Cocaine and morphine would be examples of this. Semi-synthetic means the
substances are derived chemically from a naturally occurring substance. Examples include heroin
and LSD. Synthetic drugs include amphetamines, barbiturates, PCP, and oxycodone. These
substances are man-made.
When analyzing drug cases, forensic scientists have to take into consideration a series of
questions before their work is complete. One of the questions they have to answer is about the
weight and amount of drug in question. In some jurisdictions not only is the identity of the drug
important, but also the quantity. Many prosecutors and police like to concentrate their
investigation on major drug dealers rather than low-level users. Most of the time drugs are not
sold in pure form. They are normally cut with another substance. In most states that have weight
laws, it is the aggregate weight that counts. Depending on the weight of the drug or drugs found,
determines the prison sentence of the suspect. Because of the aggregate weight, a substance
doesn’t have to weigh that much for a suspect to be penalized with life imprisonment. It is the
total weight of the drug that the prosecutors and police go by.
Another context in which weight is important is when a government wishes to punish the
possession of one form of drug more harshly than another; this way the government sanctions
cocaine. Under federal law, the possession of cocaine flakes and crack carries different penalties.
The crack form carries a much higher penalty. The weight considerations also work in the
opposite way because in some states there must be a usable quantity of substance in order for a
law to be broken.
Controlled substances that are regulated by the government are illegal; the harmful drugs
such as TCH, GHB, and LSD are the main ones that are illegal. They have many affects that are
similar and could affect the different parts of the human body. They also could be addictive and
also could result in death.
THC is short for tetrathydrocannabinol which is a chemical in marijuana. This drug is the
most abused illicit drug in the United States of America. Marijuana is a dry, shredded up
greenish-brown mix of flowers, stems, seeds, and leaves that was derived from the plant
Cannabis sativa. People abuse this drug by smoking it as a cigarette or in a pipe. It is also abused
when people smoke them in blunts mixed with tobacco. Some people mix marijuana in food and
drinks and it produces a black liquid which is called hashish. Marijuana has some effects that
will harm the brain, heart, lungs, and also your daily life.
The brain is a main function in a human body. The chemical of THC passes through the
bloodstream when inhale and travel to the brain cells. In the brain there are cannabinoid
receptors that react when people smoke marijuana and it tends to get them high. Cannabinoid
receptors influence pleasure, memory, thinking, concentration, sensory, and movement. People
who smoke marijuana can also experience problems with distorted perceptions, impaired
coordination, difficulty problem solving, and learning. When THC flows through the
bloodstream it affects the heart. After smoking marijuana the heart rate increases from 20-100 %.
The blood pressure also decreases and this effect can last up to 3 hours. A heart attack can also
occur when smoking the drug in the first hour.
Smoke inhalation can also harm the lungs. Studies show that marijuana can be dangerous
to the lungs because of the unfiltered smoke. In marijuana smoke there are more carcinogenic
hydrocarbons than there are in tobacco smoke. It hasn’t been proven that cancer has occurred to
people who smoke marijuana but they epithelial cells do deregulate in the body. One similar
cause that marijuana smokers have that tobacco smokers have is problems with their respiratory
system. They also tend to have more health problems than the people who smoke tobacco. Not
only the brain, heart, and lungs are affected by marijuana but also your daily life. Marijuana may
allow you to feel good but this drug could cause problems and make them worst. People who
heavily use the drug marijuana have mental and physical issues. Their cognitive skills, social
life, and career status also change when they abuse the drug.
GHB is known as gamma-hydroxybutyrate. It was used for body building but because of
the effects it has on a person, FDA recommend that people not use this drug. It could weak or
paralyzes the human muscles. It is central nerve system depressant. GHB can be clear liquid, a
white powder, or tablet. The street name for GHB is Georgia Home Boy, G, Grievous Bodily
Harm, and Liquid Ecstasy.
The drug GHB has been abused around the world in bars, clubs, and parties. GHB can be
used in powder form or liquid form. Many people abuse this drug by lacing drinks in the club, or
using it as a recreational drink to build their muscles. GHB can be odorless, colorless, and also
have a salty taste to it. When people lace drinks with GHB, many people cannot not taste or see
the drug.
Studies show that the drug GHB has long-term and short-term effects. When people
intake lower doses of GHB they can relieve anxiety and produce relaxation. If you mix this drug
with alcohol you could become nauseated, difficult breathing, and also have loss of muscle
control. Withdrawal effects such as insomnia, sweating, anxiety, and trembles can occur to
anyone who uses the drug incorrectly. The long-term effects of GHB can result into a coma or
even death. People who intake large doses of GHB can experience difficulties of thinking,
hallucination, slurred speech, headaches, and amnesia. Evidence has showed that many rape
cases are affiliated with GHB especially when someone is drugged and rape without consent.
LSD is abbreviated for lysergic acid diethylamide. This drug is a synthetic has been
abused for hallucination properties since the 1960’s. When people use LSD they have delusions
and visual hallucinations that make them forget who they are. It is typically sold as a liquid and
taken by mouth. It is also odorless and colorless and has a bitter taste. LSD is illegal and the
other names that are common are sunshine, acid, and bloomers. There are many effects that LSD
could do to a person.
The effect of LSD is very unpredictable. It depends on the amount of drug anyone intake,
their personality, moods, and expectations. People who use the drug LSD can experience some
psychological effects. The psychological effects are increased blood pressure and heart rate,
dizziness, loss of appetite, dry mouth, nausea, and numbness. People can also have a fear of
despair, losing control, going insane, and also death. This drug is not addictive but people tend to
have flashbacks when they are not using the drug.
The analysis of controlled substances is a major component of a forensic laboratory. Its
analysts perform a wide variety of examinations, such as presumptive and confirmatory test.
Each drug is examined with different test, such as screening test and confirmatory analysis.
Screening test consists of Immunoassays, Thin Layer Chromatography, and Ultraviolet
Spectroscopy (UV-VIS) and confirmatory analysis examinations consist of Gas
Chromatography, Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy (GC-MS), and Liquid
Chromatography- Mass Spectroscopy (LC-MS).
Immunoassay is a documentable laboratory technique that uses the binding between an
antigen and its homologous antibody in order to identify and quantify the specific antigen or
antibody in a sample. These tests are most commonly used to screen samples. In the event that
drugs or their metabolites are detected, then the sample is normally tested again using an even
more sensitive test such as Gas Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry. Thin Layer
Chromatography, TLC, is a traditional non-documentable technique that uses solvents traveling
through a porous medium to separate compounds by their chemical reactivity. It is considered a
wet chemical test to screen for the presences of controlled substances. Lastly, UV-VIS is an
instrumental technique that provides compound classification. The two general uses for UV
spectroscopy in the controlled substances unit are general screening and quantitiation. The shape
of the spectrum provides insight into the identity of the compound.
Gas chromatography is a documentable chromatography form that can be used in lieu of
TLC. It separates compounds by their size, shape, and reactivity with the chemical coating of the
GC column. GC-MS method is done with gas chromatography. The preservation time is also
measured but the mass spectrum of each component in the mixture is recorded. Lastly, for
confirmatory testing is LC-MS and it is very similar to GC-MS, but instead of gas it uses liquid.
The analytical tools and techniques available to the controlled substance section are as
varied as the analysis they perform. The tools can be as simple as a stereomicroscope or as
complex as GC-MS. The techniques can be as simple as visual observation with unaided eye, or
as complex the evaluation of the mass spectrum of a designer drug to determine which controlled
substance the unknown resembles.
There are six main groups under which drugs may be classified. A list of these groups
includes: alcohol, sedative hypnotics, opiates, stimulants, psychedelics, and THC. Out of those
six categories, THC and stimulants are the most used; however, alcohol is the most abused in the
United States. LSD, abbreviated for lysergic acid diethylamide. The effect of LSD is very
unpredictable. It depends on the amount of drug anyone intake, their personality, moods, and
expectations. GHB is known as gamma-hydroxybutyrate. The long-term effects of GHB can
result into a coma or even death. THC is short for tetrathydrocannabinol which is a chemical in
marijuana. This drug is the most abused illicit drug in the United States of America. Marijuana is
a dry, shredded up greenish-brown mix of flowers, stems, seeds, and leaves that was derived
from the plant Cannabis sativa.
Forensics plays a major role in the investigation and or identification of drugs and their
components. Without forensic chemist and toxicologist there would be a lot of guilty people
going free and a lot of medical examiners not finding the cause of many deaths.
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