PROPER NAMES
1 Astronomical Objects:
Planets, Stars, Galaxies
The Usage of Articles with Geographical Names
The Zero Article - Ø
The definite Article - THE
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
BUT:
Neptune, Pluto, Scorpius, Andromeda,
The Milky Way, the Red Spider Nebula, the Sun
Cassiopeia
2 Names of continent
Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, South America,
North America, Latin America, Northern
Europe, Central Africa, Asia Minor, South
East Asia,
3 Names of peninsulas
Indo-China, Hindustan, Kamchatka, Labrador,
Taimir, Scandinavia, etc.
4 Names of deserts
5 Names of
oceans (a),
seas (b),
straits (c),
channels /canals (d),
rivers (e)
lakes (f)
6 Names of
BUT:
Lake Baikal, Lake Ohio, Lake Como, Lake
Superior, Lake Ladoga, etc.
BUT:
the Balkan Peninsula, the Kola Peninsula, the Crimea
Peninsula
the Sahara (Desert), the Gobi (Desert), the Karakum
(Desert), the Atacama(Desert), the Kalahari
(Desert), etc.
a) the Pacific (ocean), the Atlantic (ocean), the
Indian (ocean), the Arctic (ocean);
b) the Baltic (sea), the Mediterranean (sea), the
Black Sea, the Adriatic (sea), the North Sea, the
South Seas, etc.;
c) the Magellan Strait, the Bering Strait, the Torres
Straits,
d) the English Channel, the Panama Canal, the
Grand Canal, the Suez Canal, etc.;
e) the Volga, the Thames, the Nile, the Amazon, the
Mississippi, etc.;
f) the Leman, the Baikal, the Ontario,
a) the Rocky Mountains, the Andes, the Alps, the
mountain chains (a)
groups of islands (b)
7 Names of separate
mountain peaks (a),
separate islands (b)
and waterfalls (c)
Pamirs, etc.;
b)the Philippines, the Bahamas, the East Indies,
the Canaries, the Hebrides, the Bermudas, etc.
a) Elbrus, Mont Blanc, Everest, Vesuvius,
etc.;
b) Sicily,
Cuba,
Haiti,
Cyprus,
Newfoundland, Madagascar, etc.;
c) Niagara Falls, Nevada Fall, Swallow
Falls, Victoria Falls, etc.
8 Names of
a) France, Great Britain, China, Brazil,
countries (a),
Austria, India, Croatia, ..... ;
states or provinces (b), b) California, Kashmir, Brittany, Katanga, ;
regions / territories /
c) Cornwall, Essex, Kent, Sussex, Wessex
districts (c)
BUT:
a) the USA - the States of America), The Emirates,
the French Republic, the Republic of Crimea, the
Komi Republic, the Russian Federation, the
Netherlands (the Low Countries), the Cameroon, the
Senegal,
b) the Caucasus, the Tyrol, the Transvaal, the
Riviera,
c) the Far East, the Tverskaya Region, the Kalinin
Region, the Lake District, the Yorkshire Forests, the
Virgin Lands, the Arctic, the Antarctic, the North
South Pole, the East End, etc.
9 Names of
cities / towns (a)
and villages (b)
a) Moscow, Oslo, Rome, Delhi, Dubai, Brighton, BUT:
Tartu, Newcastle, Sevastopol, Volgograd,
a) The Hague
b) Douglas Bridge, Hillhall, Moneymore,
b) the City of New York, the village of Grasmere,
Elizarovo, Dobruchi
10
a) Oxford Street, Southampton Row,
Kingsway, Piccadilly, Fleet Street,
Names of
streets (a),
BUT:
a) the Strand, the High Street, the Mall
parks (b)
and squares (c),
bridges (d),
stations /airports (e),
b)
c)
d)
e)
11 Names of theatres
(a), museums (b),
picture galleries (c),
concert halls (d),
cinemas (e), clubs (f)
and hotels (g)
Whitehall, Wall Street, etc.
Hyde Park, Central Park, Memorial Park,
Regent's Park,
Trafalgar Square, Russel Square, Hyde
Park Corner, Piccadilly Circus, Leicester
Square, etc.
Tower Bridge, Chelsea Bridge, London
Bridge, Waterloo Bridge, Westminster
Bridge, Krymsky Bridge, Borodinsky
Bridge, Palace Bridge, etc.
London Airport, Moscow Airport, Victoria
Station, etc.
a) the Coliseum Theatre, the Opera House,
the Bolshoi Theatre, etc.;
b) the British Museum, the Scottish
National Museum, etc.;
c) the National Gallery, the Tate {gallery),
the Tretiakov Gallery, the Hermitage, the
Louvre, etc.;
d) the Festival Hall, the Albert Hall, the
Carnegie Hall, the Chaikovsky Hall, etc.;
e) the Empire, the Dominion, the Odeon,
etc.;
f) the National Liberal Club, the Rotary
Club, etc.;
g) the Ambassador Hotel, the Continental
Hotel, the Savoy, etc.
b) the Gorki Park, the Botanical Gardens,
c) The Golden Gate Bridge, the Brooklyn Bridge the
Pearl Bridge, the Tower Bridge, the Kerch
Bridge, the Millennium Bridge, the Italian
Bridge, the Hermitage Bridge, etc.
The Usage of the Perfect Tenses
The Present Perfect
The Present Perfect is an analytical form which is built up by means
of the auxiliary verb to have (has) in the Present Simple and
Participle II of the notional verb (looked, fallen, taught, felt).
 I have closed the window.
 He has caught a cold.
 We have driven to the country at last.
The same auxiliary verb is used to form the interrogative and the
negative forms.
 Have you locked the door?
 Has he taken a pill?
 He has not seen them for ages.
 They have not left yet.
We live in the life that have we created.
Miss Lazy has hardly done any work this week.
The country has made enormous progress this year.
You have read the details.
Take = am taking
The Present Perfect Progressive
The Present Perfect Progressive is an analytical form
which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to be in
the Present Perfect - have/has been and Participle I of
the notional verb (doing, reading, sitting, swimming).
 I have been running for an hour.
 She has been teaching at school since 2015.
 They have been dating since they left school .
The same auxiliary verb is used to form the interrogative
and the negative forms.
 Have you been working? not
 Has she been reading?
 Where have they been hanging about so long?
 We have not been reading.
 They have been working
 How have They been working.
 They have not been working
How long have You been telling me your secrets since you
were eight.
The rain has been falling steadily since six o’clock.
It has been bothering me lately / for a long time
They have been answering my letters for two months
I. RESULTATIVE
The present perfect is used:
1) to express a (single) completed action or actions
connected with the present through a result (resultative) at the
moment of speaking (with adverbial modifiers of time already,
just, not...yet, so far, recently, lately, today, this
morning/month/year):
I have broken my leg recently. (It's broken now.)
= I broke yesterday
Your sister has just arrived. (She's here now.) = she arrived10
minutes ago
The post has not come yet. (There's a letter for you.)
They have already gone out. (They aren't here.)
She has not sent the message so far.
This term the students have read two books.
I have seen him today. have lost + don't have
I saw him in the bus , in the uni, in the canteen. today
Lost at the uni.
BUT: With the past simple, with the results in the past:
I broke my leg last year and didn't play football from August to
October.
My sister arrived late and missed the beginning o f the film.
2) to express past experiences / events completed and
connected with /before the moment of speaking; there is no
past time indication. (We can use before, once, twice, several
times, ever, never etc. to say how often an action has occured):
 John has worked out in several gyms. ⧣ He worked there two
years ago/ in 2015.
 I've travelled a lot. ⧣ I travelled around this country last year.
 I haven't visited the gym before but I've stayed at this hotel





several times.
My parents have visited the United States once.
'Have you ever played golf?' ‘Yes, several times.'
'Has she ever tasted Japanese food?' 'Only once. '
I ’ve never played golf. She's never cooked Italian food.
That was the best food I've ever tasted!
When we give more details about these events, we use the Past
Simple:
Julian has passed his driving test. He took it yesterday.
The US President has arrived in London. He flew here from
Washington last night,
II. DURATIVE
3) we use the present perfect (duration) with for or since to
The present perfect progressive is used:
express situations / actions that began before the moment of
speaking and continue upto/into it (the moment of speaking)
1) to express situations / actions that began in
with stative (non-progressive) verbs and some durative verbs
some moment the past (before the moment of
in the negative sentences: be, know, like, seem, feel, belong / live,
speaking) and continue upto (exclusive)or into
work, play, speak, sit, etc.):
(inclusive) the moment of speaking with for or

I've been here ever since I came to Paris.
since:

We have known this man for years.

He has had a beard since 2012 (since he finished university).
 It has been raining (идет дождь на момент

How long has this house belonged to them?
речи) ever since midnight, and it's still drizzling. 
I have detested such weather since my childhood!
inclusive
 I've been writing (пишу на момент речи) since
BUT with reference to the past:
morning and so I shall soon stop. - inclusive

I went to University here for four years and got a degree
 We have been preparing (готовимся на момент
(several years ago).
речи - inclusive) for the exam for half a year and

Yesterday he waited for her for two hours but she didn't turn
have revised (- resultative) several units so far.
up.
 Where have you been all this time? I have been fixing the car for 2 hours . -exclusive
Have been knowing him for 10 years = have known
Have adored watching since i first saw it
= fixed the car for 2 hours yersterday
 Why are they breathing so heavily? - They have been
running. - exclusive
 Why are her eyes red? - She has been crying. exclusive
The starting point in the past may be commonly
indicated by another action expressed by the past
simple to denote a completed action in the past,
which is introduced by the conjunction since:
 They have been dating (встречаются на момент
речи) since his parents moved to another town.
 What plants has she been growing (выращивает
на момент речи) since she retired?
 He has not been reading (не читает) anything
since he finished school. - durative
 BUT: He has not read anything (не прочитал)
since he finished school. - resultative
2) To express two parallel actions in progress
which started before the moment of speaking and
continue upto / into it:
 She has been living in the residential hall since she
has been studying / at university.
OR: Has she translated any sentences (перевела resultative) since the teacher has been marking
(проверяет - durative) the tests ?
past
a moment
In the Past
An action in progress
UPTO
— EXCLUSIVE
INTO
future
Since came /
Entered/May/summer
For two hours
Walked for 2 hours yesterday
Will work for for 2 hours
A moment of
speaking
In the Present
— INCLUSIVE
My hands are dirty as I have been fixing the car
(чинил). — EXCLUSIVE
I have been fixing the car (чиню) for two hours — INCLUSIVE