 DEFINITION OF SURVEYING
All surveying operations have the basic characteristics - that of delineating a portion of the
earth's surface or subsurface or of establishing the position or boundaries of some object upon it. A
host of definitions have been made by different authors, and the following are listed:
1. “Surveying is the art of determining the positions of points on or near the earth's surface
by means of measurements in the three elements of space: namely, distance, direction, and
elevation." – Rayner and Schmidt
2. “Surveying is the art of measuring horizontal and vertical distances between objects, of
measuring angles of establishing points by predetermined angular and linear measurements."
– Davis, Foote, Anderson and Mikhail
3. “Surveying is the art of making such measurements of the relative positions of points on
the surface of the earth that, on drawing them to scale, natural and artificial features may be
exhibited in their correct horizontal or vertical relationships." – Clarke
4. “Surveying is that branch of applied mathematics which teaches the art of determining the
area of any portion of the earth‘s surface, the length and directions of the boundary lines, the
contour of the surface, and of accurately delineating the whole on paper." – Webster
5. “Surveying is the science or art of making such measurements as are necessary to determine
the relative position of points above, on, or beneath the surface of the earth, or to establish
such points.” – Breed Hosmer and Bone
6. “Surveying is the science and art of determining relative positions of points above, on, or
beneath the surface of the earth, or establishing such points.” – Brinker and Welf
From the different definitions given above, it is obvious that surveying activities during the earlier part
of the decade have only been limited to surveys on or near the surface of the earth. Times, however,
have changed and modern surveying techniques are now applied to space exploration and in the
mapping of extra-terrestrial bodies such as the moons, mars, and in the near future the other planets,
stars, and other heavenly bodies in the universe.
The author believes that the science of surveying is now, much wider and complex in extent,
and feels that it should be redefined more appropriately as, the art and science of determining
angular and linear measurements to establish the form, extent, and relative position of points,
lines, and areas on or near the surface of the earth or on other extra-terrestrial bodies through
applied mathematics and the use of specialized equipment and techniques.
 PLANE AND GEODETIC SURVEYING
Surveys are divided into two general classifications, plane and geodetic.
1. Plane Surveying - is that type of surveying in which the earth is considered to be a flat surface,
and where distances and areas involved are of limited extent that the exact shape of the earth is
disregarded. With regard to horizontal distances and directions, a level line is considered a
mathematically straight, the direction of the plumb is assumed to be the same at all points within the
limits of the survey, and all angles are considered to be plane angles.
2. Geodetic Surveying - are surveys or wide extent which takes into account the spheroidal shape of
the earth. These surveys employ principles of geodesy, are of high precision, and the related
calculations involve the solving of equations derived from advanced mathematics particularly spherical
trigonometry, calculus, and some applications of the theory of least squares.
 TYPES OF SURVEYS
Of the different types of surveys, the following are the more commonly executed:
1. Cadastral Surveys - are usually closed surveys which are undertaken in urban and rural locations
for the purpose of determining and defining property lines and boundaries, corners, and areas. These
surveys are also made to fix the boundaries of municipalities, towns, and provincial jurisdictions.
2. City Surveys - are surveys of the areas in and near a city for the purpose of planning expansions or
improvements, locating property lines, fixing reference monuments, determining the physical features
and configurations of the land, and preparing maps.
3. Construction Surveys - these are surveys which are undertaken at a construction site to provide
data regarding grades, reference lines, dimensions, ground configuration, and the location and
elevation of structures which are of concern to engineers, architects, and builders.
4. Forestry Surveys - a type of survey executed in connection with forest management and
mensuration, and the production and conservation of forest lands.
5. Hydrographic Surveys - refer to surveying streams, lakes, reservoirs, harbours, oceans, and other
bodies of water. These surveys are made to map shore lines, chart the shape of areas underlying water
surfaces, and measure the flow of streams. They are of general importance in connection with
navigation, development of water supply and resources, flood control, irrigation, production of hydroelectric power, subaqueous constructions, and recreation.
6. Industrial Surveys - sometimes known as optical tooling. It refers to the use of surveying
techniques in ship building, construction, and assembly of aircraft, layout and installation of heavy and
complex machinery, and in other industries where very accurate dimensional layouts are required.
7. Mine Surveys - are surveys which are performed to determine the position of all underground
excavations and surface mine structures, to fix surface boundaries of mining claims, determine
geological formations, to calculate excavated volumes, and establish lines, and establish lines and
grades for other related mining work.
8. Photogrammetric Surveys - a type of survey which makes use of photographs taken with specially
designed cameras either from airplanes or ground stations. Measurements are obtained from the
photographs which are used in conjunction with limited ground surveys.
9. Route Surveys - involves the determination of alignment, grades earthwork quantities, location of
natural and artificial objects in connection with the planning, design, and construction of highways,
railroads, pipelines, canals, transmission lines, and other linear projects.
10. Topographic Surveys - are those surveys made for determining the shape of the ground, and the
location and elevation of natural and artificial features upon it. The features shown include such
natural objects as hills, mountains, rivers, lakes, relief of the ground surface, etc.: and works of man,
such as roads, buildings, ports, towns, municipalities, and bridges.
 DEVELOPMENT OF SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS
Surveying instruments were developed gradually. It is believed that, an extensive use of
surveying instruments came about during the early days of the Roman Empire. This remarkable
engineering ability of Romans is clearly demonstrated by their extensive construction of structures
and buildings which continue to exist even up to these modern eras. It will be noted that many
surveying instruments and devices evolved from those which were earlier used in astronomy. The
following instruments were the early fore-runners of our present-day instruments.
1. Astrolabe. The astrolabe of Hipparchus is considered to be one of the best known of the measuring
instruments that have come down from ancient times. It was developed sometime in 140 B.C., and
further improved by Ptolemy.
2. Telescope. The invention of the telescope in 1607 is generally accredited to Lippershey. In 1609,
Galileo constructed a refracting telescope for astronomical observations. However, it was only when
cross hairs for fixing the line of sight were introduced, that the telescope was used in early surveying
instruments.
3. Transmit. The invention of the transmit is credited to Young and Draper who worked
independently from each other sometime in 1830. Both men were able to put together in one
instrument the essential parts of what has long been known as the universal surveying instruments.
4. Semicircumferentor. An early surveying instrument which was used to measure and lay off angles,
and establishes lines of sight by employing peep sights.
5. Plane Table. One of the oldest types of surveying instruments used in field mapping. It consists
of a board attached to a tripod in such a way that it can be levelled or rotated to any desired direction.
6. Dioptra. The dioptra was perfected by Heron of Alexandria, was used in levelling and for measuring
horizontal and vertical angles.
7. Roman Groma. The Roman surveyors used the groma as an instrument for aligning or sighting
points.
8. Libella. The Assyrians and Egyptians are believed to be the first users of the libella. The instrument
had an A-frame with a plumb line suspended from its apex and was used to determine the horizontal.
9. Vernier. The vernier is a short auxillary scale placed alongside the graduated scale of an instrument,
by means of which fractional parts of the smallest or least division of the main scale can be determined
precisely without having to interpolate.
10. Diopter. An instrument developed by the Greeks sometime in 130 BC, and known to be their
most famous surveying instruments. The diopter was used for levelling, laying off right angles, and
for measuring horizontal and vertical angles.
11. Compass. The magnetic compass came into wide use during 13th century for determining the
direction of lines and in calculating angles between lines.
12. Gunter's Chain. The Gunter's chain, which was invented by Sir Edmund Gunter in 1620, was
the forerunner of instruments used for taping distances.
13. Chorobates. This instrument was designed for levelling work. It consisted of a horizontal straightedge about 6 meters long with supporting legs, and a groove 2.5 cm deep and 1.5 m on top.
14. Merchet. The merchet was a device for measuring time and meridian. It was first used by the
Chaldeans in about 4,000 B.C. It consisted of a slotted palm leaf through which to sight and a bracket
from which a plumb bob was suspended.
 DIRECT MEASUREMENTS
A direct measurement is a comparison of the measured quantity with a standard measuring
unit or units employed for measuring a quantity of that kind.
EXAMPLES:
1. Applying a wire or tape to a line
2. Determining a horizontal or vertical angle with a transit
3. Fitting a protractor between to intersecting lines to determine the intersection angle
 INDIRECT MEASUREMENTS
When it is not possible to apply a measuring instrument directly to a quantity to be measured
an indirect measurement is made.
 FIELD SURVEYING PARTY
1. Chief of Party - the person who is responsible for the overall direction, supervision, and operation
all control of the survey party. He is also responsible for its logistical and technical requirements, and
problems of a field survey operation.
2. Assistant Chief of Party - the person whose duty is to assist the chief if party in the
accomplishment of the task assigned to the survey party. He takes over the duties of the chief of party
during the absence of the chief.
3. Instrument Man - the person whose duty is to set up, level, and aerate surveying instruments such
as the transmit, engineer's level, theodolite, sextant, plane table, and alidade, and etc.
4. Technician - the person who is responsible for use and operation of all electronic instruments
required in a field work operation. It is his duty to see to it that these equipments are functioning
properly.
5. Computer - the person whose duty is to perform all computations of survey data and works out
necessary computational checks required in a field work operation.
6. Recorder - the person whose duty is to keep a record of all sketches, drawings, measurements and
observations taken or needed for a field work operation.
7. Head Tapeman - the person responsible for the accuracy and speed of all linear measurements
with tape. He determines and directs the marking of stations to be occupied by the surveying
instruments and directs the clearing out of obstructions along the line of sight.
8. Rear Tapeman - the person whose duty is to assist the head tapeman during taping operations and
in other related work.
9. Flagman - the person whose duty is to hold the flagpole or range pole at selected points as directed
by the instrument man. He helps the tapeman in making measurements.
10. Rodman - the person whose primary duty is to hold the stadia or levelling rod when sights are to
be taken on it.
11. Pacer - the person whose duty is to check all linear measurements made by the tapeman. He assists
the tapeman in seeing to it that mistakes and blunders in linear measurements are either reduced or
eliminated.
12. Amman/Lineman - the person whose duty is to clear the line of sight of trees, brush, and other
obstructions in wooded country. He is also responsible for the security and safety of the members of
the survey party at the survey site.
13. Aidman - the person whose duty is to render first aid treatment to members of the survey party
who are involved in snake and insect’s bites, safety, and well-being.
14. Utility Men - the persons whose duties are to render other forms of assistance needed by the
survey party or as directed by the chief of party. Where a survey vehicle is used, a utility man is
designated as driver.
 CONTENTS OF A FIELD NOTEBOOK
1. Title of the Field Work or Name of Project. The official name of the project or title of the field
work should always be identified. The location of the survey and preferably its nature or purpose
should always be stated.
2. Time of Day and Date. These entries are necessary to document the notes and furnish a timetable,
as well as to correlate different surveys. From the assigned survey timetable, precision, problems
encountered, and other factors affecting the survey may be referenced from.
3. Weather Conditions. Temperature, wind velocity, typhoons, storms, and other weather
conditions, such as fog, sunshine, and rain have a decided effect upon accuracy in surveying
operations.
4. Names of Group Member and Their Designations. The chief of party, instrument man,
tapeman, and other members of the survey party must be identified.
5. List of Equipment. All survey equipment used must be listed, including its make, brand, and serial
number. The type of instrument used, and its adjustment, all have a definite effect on the accuracy of
a survey.
 DIFFERENCE OF ERROR AND MISTAKE
Error is defined as the difference between the true value and the measured value of a quantity
while mistakes are inaccuracies in measurements which occur because some aspect of a surveying
operation is performed by the surveyor with carelessness, inattention, poor judgment, and improper
execution.
 DIFFERENCE OF ACCURACY AND PRECISION
Accuracy indicates how close a given measurement is to the absolute or true value of the
quantity measured while precision is portrayed by the closeness to one another of a set of repeated
measurements of a quantity.