Educator as Researcher, Scholar and Lifelong Learner
Exam Notes
Question 1
True or False? Give a brief motivation/argument to substantiate your choice. Write only the
number, true or false and the reason for your answer.
1. The approach in this module is based on the principles of structural functionalism.
FALSE – It is based on Critical Rationalism.
(Structural functionalism, or simply functionalism, is a framework for building theory
that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity
and stability.[1] This approach looks at society through a macro-level orientation, which is
a broad focus on the social structures that shape society as a whole, and believes that
society has evolved like organisms.[2] )
(Critical rationalism is a kind of evolving philosophical tradition concerning how we
should approach knowledge. It is the Socratic method only with a little bit of modern
awareness. While most philosophical traditions regard knowledge as something that has
to be certain and justified, CR takes the view that we don’t have ultimate answers, but
knowledge is nevertheless possible. Truth is an endless quest. The modern founder of
critical rationalism was Karl Popper. Popper pointed out we can never justify anything, we
merely criticize and weed out bad ideas and work with what’s left.)
2. The approach of this module is based on problem-solving, questioning and argument.
- TRUE. It is based on CR which entails those things. “CR is also known as the theory of
critical analysis because it entails constant questioning of our taken-for-granted
assumptions or notions of ‘truth’ or ‘knowledge’. The educator as researcher, scholar and
lifelong learner, should always ask critical questions, try to solve problems and be open
to criticism from other scholars. Classroom practice should mostly consist of questioning,
dialogue and debate.”
3. Research, problem-solving and questioning are all tools of a philosophy called critical
functionalism.
- FALSE. It is called critical rationalism.
4. Teachers and learners should question what they are told and need to be open to new ideas
and solutions.
- TRUE. Critical rationalism is also known as the theory of critical analysis because it
entails constant questioning of our taken-for-granted assumptions or notions of “truth”
or “knowledge”. CR entails that educators and learners always ask critical questions.
5.
It is not a requirement for well-trained educators to conduct research because that is not
their business.
- FALSE. It is absolutely necessary for educators to be researchers as there are many
problems in education which need thought and solutions.
L.Laubser 2015
6. As researchers educators should be cautious not question best practices that work well.
- FALSE. Educators should develop a questioning approach to life. Critical entails constant
questioning of our taken-for-granted assumptions or notions of “truth” or “knowledge”.
The key question that critical rationalists ask is: “How do we know this is true?”. The
Socratic commitment to self-examination.
- CR is based on the idea that knowledge as not fixed, but as open to questioning.
- The commitment to falsify existing knowledge through trial and error.
7. Educators who seek new ideas and explore new solutions will only confuse curricular
implementation.
- FALSE. The need to interrogate and critique existing social order.
- The importance of freedom of expression.
- The commitment to falsify existing knowledge through trial and error.
8. Research is not about problems, but about learning.
- FALSE. Research arises out of the need to find answers about a general or specific
education problem.
9. All human beings are educators and learners.
- TRUE. All of us learn from each other, all the time. To learn and educate is to be alive.
10. To learn and educate is to be alive because all of us learn from each other all the time.
- TRUE. All human being are educators and learners.
11. The moment that any one of us surf the internet, we are doing research.
- TRUE. Research about getting information and can be defined as a more focused form of
learning, because it is about finding out something specific or general.
12. It is true to say that an elderly person is more of a scholar than a teenager.
- TRUE. An elderly person has had more years in which to learn.
13. Educators are not supposed to stand in front of a classroom and teach.
- FALSE. Educators standing in front of the classroom teaching, is also part of what an
educator does.
14. Problem-solving is unique to all human beings.
- FALSE. All species are engaged in problem solving.
15. Socrates is renowned for having an answer to every question his students asked.
- FALSE. Socrates is renowned for puzzling his students with probing and mind boggling
questions.
16. Greek Philosopher Socrates was notorious form spoon-feeding his students.
- FALSE. He was never willing to give them straightforward answers. Instead he would
turn the question around, explore numerous ways in which the same question could be
asked.
17. Researchers are only found in laboratories where scientific experiments are carried out.
L.Laubser 2015
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FALSE. Anyone can be a researcher. The moment we go onto the Internet, go to the
library or ask our peers to find something out, we are doing research.
18. Intelligence is a critical faculty, while intellect is a manipulative faculty.
- FALSE. Intelligence is a manipulative faculty and intellect a critical faculty. Intelligence is
about information. Information can be manipulated. Intellect is about critical
examination of basic assumptions. It is about being self-critical and self-corrective.
19. Argumentation, research, scholarships and learning are interlinked.
- TRUE. You cannot be a scholar and argue a point without also being a researcher,
learner and for all this you need educators.
20. Research must be neutral and objective.
TRUE. It is important that research is not one-sided and biased, because it may lead to
weak arguments.
21. A qualified educator is a scholar.
- TRUE. A scholar is a person who is widely learned about a specific field of study.
22. A qualified educator has answers to any question.
- FALSE. A qualified educator is a lifelong learner and can admit that he/she does not have
all the answers.
23. An educator will undeniable find older, more experienced educators as a reliable source of
first-hand information.
TRUE. We learn form each other all the time.
24. The principle of falsification is based on the assumption that we can find out whether a
statement is definitely true or false.
- FALSE. The principle of falsification or CR is based on the the assumption that we can
never know whether a statement or belief is definitely true, but we can find out whether
it is false.
Question 2
2.1 Give a brief explanation of the following concepts:
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Educator
The dictionary definition of the educator is “someone who imparts knowledge to learners”.
Another definition is “someone who gives instruction”.
It is necessary to mention that “all human beings are educators and learners”, because we
all learn from each other all the time. – To learn and educate is to be alive.
 Researcher
 A researcher is someone who conducts research that is focused on solving problems.
 Research arises out of the need to find answers about a general or specific education
question or problem.
 It is a more focused form of learning.
L.Laubser 2015
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Scholar
An academic or an intellectual.
Someone who has learned a lot about a specific field of study.
A dictionary definition is “a learned person”.
An elderly person could be more of a scholar than a teenager, because he/she has had more
years in which to learn.
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Lifelong learner (LLL)
A lifelong learner is someone with a questioning approach to life. (Socratic approach)
Someone who is in constant search for answers.
There are no straightforward answers to questions about life, so we all should be LL
learners.
 All human being should be lifelong learners and lifelong educators.
 Socratic activity of self-examination, self-interrogation, self-questioning.
2.2 Show how these concepts are interrelated in education:
Researcher and Educator
 All educators must be
researchers because
there are so many
problems in
education.
 All research should
start with an
educational problem
that needs to be
solves.
 Research is a more
focused form of
learning.
Scholar and Educator
 Anyone who wants to
solve an education
problem should seek
advice and knowledge
of people who have
conducted research in
the field in question
aka a scholar.
 By conducting and
distribute research
through publications,
an educator becomes
a scholar.
Lifelong Learner and Educator
 Nobody has all the
answers to life’s
problems.
 Must develop a
questioning (Socratic)
approach to life.
 Socrates was also an
educator.
 When confronted
with problems, the
educator should
conduct research in
order to find
evidence-based
answers.
 Research is conducted
to find solutions to
problems, which make
the educator a lifelong
learner.
 EDUCATIONAL PROBLEM→ EDUCATOR DOES RESEARCH → DISTRIBUTES RESEARCH
THROUGH PUBLICATIONS → BECOMES A SCHOLAR → EDUCATOR KEEPS ON ASKING
QUESTIONS AND IS THEREFORE A LIFELONG LEARNER.
 (Socratic activity if self-examination, self-questioning and self-interrogation – courage to
think critically for oneself)
L.Laubser 2015
 The willingness to engage in lifelong learning is what makes an educator a researcher
and a scholar.
 Lifelong learning, scholarship and research are all part of the activity of problem
solving.
 If we seek to solve a problem or improve our understanding or what happens in our
classrooms, we will automatically be practicing lifelong learning, scholarship and
research.
Question 3 - Critical Rationalism
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Provide a brief outline of the central assumptions of the principle of Critical Rationalism, and
show how you would apply it in a classroom setting.
The principle of Critical Rationalism implies a questioning mind/intellect. Indicate how you
would apply the principle of Critical Rationalism in a classroom setting.
Discuss and indicate how you would apply the principle of critical rationalism in your classroom
setting.
What is it?
It is a teaching approach (philosophical strategy) that is based on problem-solving,
questioning and argument.
Critical rationalism is also known as the theory of critical analysis because
It entails constant questioning of our taken-for-granted assumptions or notions of
“truth” or “knowledge”.
IT FOCUSSED ON PROBLEM-SOLVING AND ON INFORMATION (seek relevant information
and to argue.
CR is well suited to the classroom because CR wants educators and learners to think
form themselves and to question what they are told.
The key question that critical rationalists ask is: “How do we know this is true?”
The educator as researcher, scholar and lifelong learner, should always ask critical
questions, try to solve problems and be open to criticism from other scholars.
Classroom practice should mostly consist of questioning, dialogue and debate.
The educator should therefore be prepared to debate and argue points with the learners
in the classroom without feeling threatened.
The main ideas of CR:
CR is based on a set of ideas and/or assumptions:
1. The importance of critical and open debate.
2. The need to interrogate and critique existing social order.
3. The importance of freedom of expression.
4. The commitment to falsify existing knowledge through trial and error.
5. Recognition of knowledge as not fixed, but as open to questioning.
6. Recognition that thorough explanation of all points is necessary.
(DEBATE – INTERROGATE and CRITIQUE – EXPRESS – FALSIFY – EXPLAIN – QUESTION) – (DICEFEQ)
The advantages of CR:
1. It encourages people to question and debate.
L.Laubser 2015
2. Through questioning and debate mistakes and unsubstantiated assumptions are
revealed/exposed.
3. It promotes clear and rational thinking.
4. It promotes justice and fairness.
5. It can be regarded as the basis for democracy.
6. It is anti-dogmatic and anti-authoritarian.
(QUESTIONS AND DEBATE – REVEALS MISTAKES AND WRONG ASSUMPTIONS – RATIONAL THOUGHT –
JUSTICE AND FAIRNESS – DEMOCRACY – ANTI-DOGMATIC AND ANTI-AUTHORITARIAN.) – (MIS Q&D Rat is
Just Fair and love to Demo the Antidog and Anti Auth.
Application of the principle of Critical Rationalism in a classroom setting:
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CR is very well suited in a classroom setting because it wants educators and learners to
think for themselves and to question what they are told.
The CR approach leads to research of a high quality that is relevant, which in turn
creates scholars and lifelong learners.
It promotes a Socratic or questioning approach to life, because it entails that we do not
take things at face value.
In the classroom the CR approach can be applied through the activity of problemsolving, questioning and argument (debate).
The educator should be prepared to debate and argue points with the learners in the
classroom without feeling threatened.
To apply CR in a classroom setting one would:
 Present a critical problem to the learners which they must research and
solve for example. Eg. Does Learning French in a multilevel classroom
influence learning negatively?
 You could present them with a lot of reading material so that they would
have to decide which info is relevant.
 They will then have to apply the 9 steps of problem-solving which also
includes the main ideas of Critical Rationalism.
 Apply Popper’s Principles of Falsification (Fallibilism) (Critisism) and
(Verisimilitude) to find out if any
 Think critically about their own analysis and be open-minded. This has to do
with Socratic commitment of self-examination, self-criticism/questioning,
self-questioning and self-corrective.
 Both you and the learners must BE OPENMINDED
 Applying the approach of CR in the classroom should help the learners
develop a questioning approach to life.
 Through the exercise of problem solving they should practice how to
critically examine “Facts” and not just assume things as true.
 They will also learn how to think for themselves and critically analyse your
own and other’s theories and ideas.
 Applying the principle of CR (problem-solving, questioning and argument) in
the classroom will, encourage learners to develop independent and critical
thought, the capacity to question, enquire, reason, weigh evidence and form
judgements”.
L.Laubser 2015
Fallibilism (The principle of Falsification)- is the philosophical principle which consists of
being open to new evidence that would contradict some previously held position or
belief,[citation needed] and in the recognition that "any claim justified today may need to be
revised or withdrawn in light of new evidence, new arguments, and new experiences.
Popper envisioned science as progressing by the successive rejection of falsified theories,
rather than falsified statements. Falsified theories are to be replaced by theories that can
account for the phenomena that falsified the prior theory, that is, with greater explanatory
power.
Criticism - is the practice of judging the merits and faults of something (or somebody) in an
intelligible (or articulate) way.
Verisimilitude - is a philosophical concept that distinguishes between the relative and
apparent (or seemingly so) truth and falsity of assertions and hypotheses. The problem of
verisimilitude is the problem of articulating what it takes for one false theory to be closer to
the truth than another false theory. Popper proposed that closeness to the truth is a
function of two factors — truth and content. The more truths that a theory entails (other
things being equal) the closer it is to the truth.
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the concept of verisimilitude (getting closer to the truth) is NB, because it is only the
idea of the truth that allows us to speak sensibly of fallibilism and criticism. In other
words, it is through searching and eliminating mistakes through critical discussions that
we can come nearer to the truth.
According to Popper (1979), individuals engage with their surroundings on three levels. The
first is the physical world or the world of physical states (World 1); the second is the mental
world or the world of mental states (World 2); and the third world is the world of ideas in the
objective sense (World 3). World 3 is a world of possible objects of thought: the world of
theories in themselves, and their logical relations; of arguments in themselves; and of
problem situations in themselves.
The three Worlds are so interrelated that the first two can interact and the last two can
interact. We can say that the second world, which is the world of subjective or personal
experiences, interacts with each of the other two Worlds. The first and third Worlds cannot
interact; they can only do so through the intervention of the second World, the world of
subjective or personal experiences. In other words, the second World acts as a mediator
between the first and the third.
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Research, problem-solving and questioning are all tools of CR and in order to engage in
the Socratic activity is to engage in the activity of self-examination, self-interrogation
and self-questioning… This requires the courage to think critically, for oneself. It
requires more courage to dig deep into the corners of one’s own soul and wrestle with
what one finds”.
Drawing on these expositions, indicate what in your view are the implications of
Critical Rationalism to you as a researcher, scholar and lifelong learner.
L.Laubser 2015
The theory of Critical Rationalism entails constant questioning of assumptions or what
we perceive as being true. As researcher, scholar and lifelong learner an educator should
always ask critical questions, solve problems and be open to criticism of other scholars.
CR and Researcher
 Critical Rationalism
entails constant
questioning and the
search for or coming
closer to the truth
(Verisimilitude).
 One has to do
research in order to
find information and
formulate possible
solutions.
 CR also implies that
we never know
whether a statement
or belief is
definitively true, but
that we can find out
whether it is false.
This principle of
falsification
(Fallibilism)
demands that we do
research, because
truth is content
based.
CR and Scholar
CR and LLL
 Seeing
that
a
 CR implies that the
scholar is someone
truth can change.
who has learned a
 Both critical
lot about a field of
rationalism and
study and who is
being a LLL entail
interested
in
the constant
conducting
questioning of
research
and
taken-for-granted
distributing
assumptions or
knowledge (truth),
truths.
a good scholar will
 LLL accept that not
follow the theory
all questions have
of CR by asking and
answers.
attempting
to
answer
critical
questions,
solve
problems and be
open
to
the
criticism of other
scholars.
 CR is also known as
the
theory
of
analysis – Scholars
have to analyse,
think, debate and
reformulate ideas,
facts
and
assumptions when
they attempt to
solve problems.
Being a LLL is admitting that we do not have all the answers.
It implies a perpetual search for knowledge and solutions.
We are all LLL because life is about solving problems.
The willingness to engage in LLL (the act of searching for answers and solving problems)
makes you a researcher and a scholar by default.
The philosophy of CR is a way in which we can conduct the practice of LLL because CR
about constant questioning. “How do we know this is true?”,problem-solving and
arguing.
If we seek to solve a problem or improve our understanding of what happens in our
classrooms, we will automatically be practicing LLL, scholarship and research.
Questioning why something does not work is the same as critically analysing it. (CR is
also called the theory of critical analysis).
L.Laubser 2015
Question 4
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If lack of resources [books, electricity, internet connectivity] is identified as a
critical problem affecting the performance of learners in you school, how
would you use the NINE (9) STEPS of problem identification to solve this
problem?
Poverty has been identified as the most critical problem affecting the
performance of learners in you school, how would you use the NINE (9) STEPS
of problem identification to solve this problem?
You have identified the non-mastery of reading and writing skills as the most
critical problem affecting the performance of learners in you school, how
would you use the NINE (9) STEPS of problem identification to solve this
problem?
The module EDRHODG aims to equip student teachers with the skills of
questioning, argumentation and problem-solving. With this in mind, identify a
critical problem in your classroom or in your school, and show how you would
resolve it using the above-mentioned skills.
Problem: Learners struggle academically because the classroom is under-resourced.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
9 STEPS of Problem-solving
Identify the problem
Formulate the problem as precisely as
possible.
Gather other people’s ideas about the
problem.
Determine the relevance of information
in the context of your problem.
Apply a possible solution.
Problem
Under resourced Classroom
Define under resourced: not enough textbooks,
computers, electricity or internet.
Other educators. Principal. All have tried to raise
funds etc.
There are others in the same situation.
Ask principal for more money, donation. – It
does not work. Last time the computers were
stolen.
If it does not work, try alternative Can the learners share? Photocopying? One of
approach
the reasons for needing books is that …
Reformulate the problem (LLL)
the work is too advanced for the learners’ level.
Seek new solutions (LLL)
ask questions about curriculum
Think critically about your analysis. E.a. Questioning why something did not work is
Be open-minded.
Critical analysis (CR) –, questions lead to
research – if he keeps on learning about a
problem he will soon become a scholar.
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L.Laubser 2015
Process starts again and might or
might not lead to a solution.
Problem: Learners has no concept of history.
9 STEPS of Problem-solving
Problem
1. Identify the problem
Multilevel classroom.
2. Formulate the problem as precisely as Some learners do not understand the concept of
possible.
dates and times in history, due to different
cultural backgrounds and learning stages.
3. Gather other people’s ideas about the Ask other educators if these learners also
problem.
struggle in other subjects.
4. Determine the relevance of information There are others in the same situation.
in the context of your problem.
5. Apply a possible solution.
Draw a time line to show them. Use a rope with
knots which represent different stages in history.
Role Play (dress up), talk about their own
“history”.
6. If it does not work, try alternative Take them on a field trip to the Museum. Show
approach
them a few movies.
7. Reformulate the problem (LLL)
Learners lack cognitive skills to grasp dates. This
makes it very difficult to learn history.
8. Seek new solutions (LLL)
ask questions about curriculum – cognitive
development. (maths) How do we teach history
9. Think critically about your analysis. E.a. Questioning why something did not work is
Be open-minded.
Critical analysis (CR) –, questions lead to
research – if he keeps on learning about a
problem he will soon become a scholar.
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Process starts again and might or
might not lead to a solution.
Problem: Bad behaviour in classroom
9 STEPS of Problem-solving
Problem
1. Identify the problem
Learner constantly misbehaves during lessons.
2. Formulate the problem as precisely as Stephen misbehaves because he comes from a
possible.
bad home without adult supervision and
guidance.
3. Gather other people’s ideas about the Talk to other teachers.
problem.
4. Determine the relevance of information He also misbehaves in their lessons.
in the context of your problem.
5. Apply a possible solution.
Take an older teacher’s advice and ignore the
learner.
6. If it does not work, try alternative Does not work. Give him a lot of attention. It
approach
works for a while.
7. Reformulate the problem (LLL)
Learner’s has behavioural problems. Serious.
Issues at home. Complex. What exactly is
happening at home? Might he also have other
barriers to learning? – Isolated child.
8. Seek new solutions (LLL)
Research. Psychology, Social conditions, Test.
Scholars.
9. Think critically about your analysis. E.a.
Be open-minded.
L.Laubser 2015
9 STEPS of Problem-solving
Problem
1. Identify the problem
Poverty in community
2. Formulate the problem as precisely as The learners are underprivileged and do not
possible.
have money to buy food, school supplies. Other
issues like drugs, gangsterism.
3. Gather other people’s ideas about the Other educators. Principal. All have tried to raise
problem.
funds etc.
4. Determine the relevance of information There are others in the same situation. National
in the context of your problem.
problem.
5. Apply a possible solution.
Ask principal to create feeding scheme at school.
Sandwich day. Old clothing. Donations.
6. If it does not work, try alternative Try and help communities. Veg gardens,
approach
workshops for parents. After school care.
7. Reformulate the problem (LLL)
Poverty – no jobs. Drug, abuse, violence.
8. Seek new solutions (LLL)
Research. Scholars. Police. Governmental
programmes. Social workers. Big corporations.
9. Think critically about your analysis. E.a. Questioning why something did not work is
Be open-minded.
Critical analysis (CR) –, questions lead to
research – if he keeps on learning about a
problem he will soon become a scholar.
- Process starts again and might or
might not lead to a solution.
How do we help create jobs.
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9 STEPS of Problem-solving
Identify the problem
Problem
non-mastery of reading and writing skills
Formulate the problem as precisely as The learners cannot read or write properly by
the time they reach Gr.8. This influences all
possible.
aspects of academic life. They read slowly and
cannot spell.
Gather other people’s ideas about the How have other educators solved this problem?
– Some feel that the problem is LoLT related.
problem.
Situation at home.
Determine the relevance of information in There are others in the same situation. Very
the context of your problem.
Ask the children what their mother tongue is.
Apply a possible solution.
Assess them in their mother tongue. Extra
classes. Easy books. More exercise.
If it does not work, try alternative Contact parents. Find out what the situation is at
home.
approach
Problem is also cultural and social. Little or no
Reformulate the problem (LLL)
parent involvement. LoLT is is a barrier. Underresourced classrooms.
Poverty. Intellectual
barriers. LLL – Work might be too advanced.
Research. Scholars. LLL – Quesiton the
Seek new solutions (LLL)
curriculum. Revise. Complex.
Think critically about your analysis. E.a. Be Questioning why something did not work is
Critical analysis (CR) –, questions lead to
open-minded.
research – if he keeps on learning about a
L.Laubser 2015
problem he will soon become a scholar.
- Process starts again and might or
might not lead to a solution.
Question 5
5.1 Briefly describe what the following imply using examples:
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Untested assumptions
Def: An untested assumption is a statement which has not been subjected to
examination, experiment, or experience. It is a an unproven assumption.
Eg:
- Sarah’s handbag was stolen from her office. (We do not know for sure that her bag
was STOLEN, it might have been misplaced.)
- John was seen near her office. ()
- John stole her handbag. (We do not know whether he entered her office. We have no
proof that he took it.)
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Hidden assumptions
Def: A hidden assumption or implicit assumption is an assumption that is not made
explicit. It includes the underlying agreements or statements made in the
development of a logical argument, course of action, decision, or judgment that are
not explicitly voiced nor necessarily understood by the decision maker or judge.
Often, these assumptions are made based on personal life experiences, and are not
consciously apparent in the decision making environment. These assumptions can
be the source of apparent paradoxes, misunderstandings and resistance to change
in human organizational behaviour.
Eg: Homosexuality is wrong because it is unnatural. (All things that are unnatural is
wrong).
Moby Dick is a whale. So Moby Dick is a mammal. (Whales are mammals)
“There is no point in studying beyond school level, because when Tom left school
at 13, he still became a rich man.
Hidden assumption: The purpose of higher education is to ensure wealth.
This argument as it stands is not valid. Someone who gives such an argument
presumably has in mind the hidden assumption that whatever that is unnatural is
wrong. It is only when this assumption is added that the argument becomes valid.
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Factual statements (express fact: is)
Def: An factual statement is represents what can be observed as being undeniably
true. It is neutral, objective and gives information about the world as it is.
Eg: Women are part of the human race.
L.Laubser 2015
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Value statements (express values: ought to, should)
Def: A value statement is prescriptive in that it expresses an “ought.”
It is normative in that it states a norm or standard.
`Eg: One should not steal.
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Generalising statements (always, everybody, all)
Def: A generalising statements often uses the words “always”, “all” and “everyone”
without this being a proven fact. These statements are usually untrue.
It is normative in that it states a norm or standard.
`
Eg: Men are always more intelligent than woman.
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Universal statements (all)
Def: A universal statement is one which expresses the fact that all objects (in a particular
universe of discourse) have a particular property. Logic. (of a proposition) asserted of every
member of a class. These are statements that tell you something about an entire category.
Here’s an example of a universal statement:
Eg. All dogs are loyal.
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Inconsistency in articulation, which leads to
- Contradictions.
Eg. People are retrenched because the company is in financial trouble and then the boss
approves the building of an executive gym.
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Vagueness
- Of uncertain, indefinite, or unclear character or meaning. Vagueness arises from the use
of terms that are inherently vague
- Eg. ". The cabinet minister who says,
My officials are monitoring this situation very closely, and I can promise that we shall
take all appropriate measures to ensure that the situation is resolved in a way that is
fair to all the parties involved.
This statement should be challenged on grounds of vagueness. Despite the appearance
of having promised to do something specific, the minster has not really promised to do
anything at all. What are appropriate measures?
Values are valid if we acknowledge that they are OUR values. Eg. In my opinion, I think...etc.
According to Critical Rationalism it is normal to be a certain person with a certain point of view.
5.2 Explain the difference between fact and value with reference to the following statement: p37
“Children belong to the human race, therefore they ought to have equal rights”.
A fact is what can be observed as being undeniably true. It is neutral, objective and gives information
about the world as it is.
It is a fact that children belong to the human race.
L.Laubser 2015
A value is based on a personal belief. It is prescriptive in that it expresses an “ought. It is normative
in that it states a norm or standard.
That children ought to have equal rights, is a value statement.
There is NO LOGICAL CONNECTION between a fact and a value. (“is” cannot be related to “ought”)
5.3 Research Ethics (2012) p9-10
BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR RESEARCH
1.1 Moral principles
UNISA promotes the following four internationally recognised moral principles of ethics as bases
for research:
• autonomy (research should respect the autonomy, rights and dignity of research participants)
• beneficence (research should make a positive contribution towards the welfare of people)
• nonmaleficence (research should not cause harm to the research participant(s) in particular or
to people in general)
• justice (the benefits and risks of research should be fairly distributed among people) These
principles are not ranked in any order of preference. In disputes a balance between the four
principles should be pursued.
1.2 General ethics
principles In addition to, and expanding on, the above moral principles, the following ten general
ethics principles should be adhered to by researchers. Again, the ethical principles may not, by
themselves, resolve all ethical problems and dilemmas which confront researchers. Researchers
may be required to balance the demands made by moral principles of research and to privilege
one principle over another, depending on the context and circumstances of the research
involved.
(i)
ESSENTIALITY AND RELEVANCE Before undertaking research adequate consideration
should be given to existing literature on the subject or issue under study, and to
alternatives available. In view of the scarcity of resources in South Africa, it should be
clearly demonstrated that the research is essential to the pursuit of knowledge and/or
the public good.
(ii)
(ii) MAXIMISATION OF PUBLIC INTEREST AND OF SOCIAL JUSTICE Research should be
carried out for the benefit of society, and with the motive of maximising public interest
and social justice. All efforts should be made to make public in an appropriate manner
and form, and at an appropriate time, information on the research undertaken, as well
as the results and implications of the completed research.
(iii)
(iii) COMPETENCE, ABILITY AND COMMITMENT TO RESEARCH Researchers should be
professionally and personally qualified for the research. Commitment to research in
general and to the relevant subject in particular is an essential prerequisite for good and
ethical research. Approved – Council – 21.09.07 - 10 – Revision – approved Council –
22.06.2012 © 2012 UNISA All rights reserved
(iv)
(iv) RESPECT FOR AND PROTECTION OF THE RIGHTS AND INTERESTS OF PARTICIPANTS
AND INSTITUTIONS Researchers should respect and protect the dignity, privacy and
confidentiality6 of participants and where relevant, institutions, and should never
expose them to procedures or risks not directly attached to the research project or its
L.Laubser 2015
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
(x)
methodology. Research and the pursuit of knowledge should not be regarded as the
supreme goal at the expense of the rights of participants and institutions.
(v) INFORMED AND NON-COERCED CONSENT Autonomy requires that individuals’
participation should be freely given, specific and based on informed consent. Direct or
indirect coercion, as well as undue inducement of people in the name of research should
be avoided. These act as barriers to autonomous decision making and may result in
people consenting against their better judgment to participate in studies involving risks.
(vi) RESPECT FOR CULTURAL DIFFERENCES Researchers should treat research
participants as unique human beings within the context of their community systems,
and should respect what is sacred and secret by tradition. Research should preferably be
undertaken with, and not merely on, an identified community. In some situations the
consent of “gatekeepers” may have to be obtained in addition to that of research
participants.
(vii) JUSTICE, FAIRNESS AND OBJECTIVITY Criteria for the selection of participants of
research should be fair, besides being scientific. Easily accessible individuals or groups
should not be inordinately burdened with research being carried out repeatedly on
them.
(viii) INTEGRITY, TRANSPARENCY AND ACCOUNTABILITY The conduct of research should
be honest, fair and transparent. Researchers should be honest about their own
limitations, competence, belief systems, values and needs. The contribution of other
researchers or members of the research team should be properly acknowledged.
Researchers should not abuse their positions or knowledge for personal power or gain.
(ix) RISK MINIMISATION Researchers should ensure that the actual benefits to be
derived by the participants or society from the research clearly outweigh possible risks,
and that participants are subjected to only those risks that are clearly necessary for the
conduct of the research. Researchers should ensure that the risks are assessed and that
adequate precautions are taken to minimise and mitigate risks.
(x) NON-EXPLOITATION There may be no exploitation of research participants,
researchers (including student and junior members), communities, institutions or
vulnerable people. There should be benefit to a community in which research is
conducted. As far as possible, communities should receive feed-back on research carried
out on them.
TUT 101 example.
Problem: Zandile has just started work as a history teacher in a school in the informal settlement of
Diepsloot, north of Johannesburg. The first thing she does is to give her class a short diagnostic test
to ascertain their level of knowledge of history. To her shock and horror the test reveals that the
learners have no knowledge of the basic facts on South African history. They have heard about the
word apartheid but they have no idea about the first multiracial elections that were held 1994 and
they are also unaware that South Africa has a constitution that is admired the world over for its
emphasis on individual rights and freedoms for all.
The problem that Zandile faces is the learners' lack of knowledge on some of these taken-forgranted historical facts. 6 Zandile‟s immediate task is to find out why the learners are so lacking in
such basic knowledge. That is, she has to conduct research in order to fully understand the problem
she faces. Research will require her to consult and ask questions, starting with the learners. She
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might have to speak with the school principal, other teachers in the school, as well as the learners‟
parents or guardians.
When Zandile‟s research was complete, the following worrying facts about her learners‟ poor
knowledge of South Africa‟s history became clear:
 She is the first history teacher the school has ever had. The school has neither had a history
teacher nor extra funds to privately employ a history teacher.
 The majority of learners in her class come from very poor households that cannot afford to buy
books or any educational resources. Even parents or guardians that buy newspapers usually buy
tabloids or newspapers that focus on sports. Some learners informed Zandile that even though they
watch the news on TV, the latter‟s coverage is more on current issues and rarely covers events such
as the fall of apartheid, the release of political prisoners from Robben Island, or the country‟s first
multi-party elections that led to the birth of democracy.
 The research also showed that, as a result of lack of regular exposure to reading and writing many
learners have poor reading and writing skills, which makes it difficult for them to learn about history
(or any other subject, for that matter).
By now you should have noticed that Zandile did not start teaching her class by making prior and
takenfor-granted assumptions. For instance, she did not simply assume that her learners are “just a
lazy bunch". Instead she made a commitment to find the facts. In other words, she demonstrated
what it means to be a lifelong learner. As a result of her research Zandile learned a range of new
things about her learners. In a sense Zandile became a scholar.
What does the word scholar imply?
To some people the word scholar may suggest someone who is very academic or very intellectual.
But that is not always the case. A scholar is simply someone who has learned a great deal, usually
about a specific subject or discipline. The dictionary definition of a scholar is: “A learned or erudite
person, especially one who has profound knowledge of a particular subject”. This means that a
scholar is someone who has much knowledge, such that they might be regarded as „a learned
professor‟ who has „deep‟ understanding of the subject or discipline in which they are a specialist.
Let us suppose Zandile becomes interested in ways to improve history teaching at her school. It will
not be enough for her simply to talk to other teachers. She will need to seek the advice and
knowledge of people who have studied history teaching in depth and have worked in the field for a
long time. In other words, Zandile will have to read the research results of scholars. It is possible that
most of the research Zandile will read will have been done by scholars in developed countries such
as the United States of America (USA), the United Kingdom (UK), or other parts of Europe. But there
are equally able scholars on the African continent and in Southern Africa in particular who have
conducted fascinating research on history that is worth reading and studying. Zandile will need to
access all these works through her local library or the internet, or obtain it from history lecturers in
nearby institutions of higher education.
Once she starts reading widely in this field and developing in-depth knowledge of the subject,
Zandile herself might be in the process of becoming a scholar.
Zandile's story is a classic example of how an ordinary teacher can become a researcher, a lifelong
learner and possibly even a scholar.
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Note that American educators often use the phrase "young scholars" to refer to very young children
who have learned something. This, we think, sheds light on the word "scholar" in that it underscores
the important link between scholarship and lifelong learning.
But what about the words we mentioned at the start of this discussion: argue and reason? Let us
return to Zandile and her learners who had a poor knowledge of South African history. After six
months of teaching, Zandile is pleased with her learners' progress. They now know something about
apartheid. They now know when the first multiracial and multi-party elections were held, and some
of the older learners have obtained copies of the Constitution, which they are studying in detail.
But all is not plain sailing. The main problem that Zandile still needs to resolve is finding more, and
better quality, books for teaching history. During her interview with the school principal Zandile
makes the following remarks:
"A major challenge with regard to the teaching of history is that we need more books. To be able to
help the learners, I need books that have been published recently, preferably books bearing
photographs, to give the learners a better idea of what has happened in South Africa over the last 20
years. I say this because earlier some of the learners did not even know that Nelson Mandela had
spent a large part of his life as a prisoner on Robben Island! Is it possible for the school to buy some
copies of Mandela's autobiography, Long Walk to Freedom? This is a very popular book that is also
fairly cheap. The older learners could be encouraged to read this book. It will give them a good
overall view of the history of South Africa, not just the history of Mandela."
We can infer that during the above interview, Zandile makes a reasoned argument.
She starts by defining the nature of the problem: the school does not have enough history books.
She then explains why she thinks the school should buy recently published books (such books will
give the learners a better idea of South African history). She strengthens her point by mentioning
that many learners do not know that Mandela was imprisoned on Robben Island. She concludes her
argument by making a concrete, reasonable proposal (the school should consider buying copies of
Long Walk to Freedom because it is a useful book for teaching South African history and it is
affordable).
We envisage that in this PGCE module you will learn to do what Zandile has done. Naturally the
problems, research and arguments included in the module are often more complicated and more
detailed than the example we have given here, but the methodology will always be the same:
 First, identify a problem (conduct a diagnosis).
 Second, find out more about the problem (conduct research).
 Third, think about how you will solve the problem (apply your mind to the planning, and use
reason).
When you do these three things, you are on the way to becoming a researcher, scholar and lifelong
learner. In this module we give examples of problems, sometimes showing you how we would solve
them. Sometimes we will ask you to think about how you would solve the problem yourself. We
include various activities, which make the module a hands-on problem-solving exercise. We will
always give you guidance and plenty of feedback. There is therefore no need for you to panic. There
is no doubt that the module requires a lot of hard work, but we are not throwing you in at the deep
end without a life-jacket. We will also discuss the advantages and disadvantages of traditional
research resources (eg .libraries) and current methods (eg. the use of the internet for research). Do
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note that we do not assume that everyone has access to the internet. However, we recognise that
the internet is no longer a privileged facility for the few rich people. The majority of us are now able
to access the internet in more ways than just through internet connected computers. For instance,
more people are now able to access online information through cell phones. In fact, the new
generation of smart phones qualify as hand-held computers because of their capacity to do what
computers do, and even better.
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