NATIONALISMS
1.1 Introduction: WHAT IS NATIONALISM?
“Nationalism is an infantile disease. It is the measles of
mankind.” – Albert Einstein
Nationalism (not to be confused with Patriotism) may be defined
as a sense of belonging to and identifying with a nation.
But what is a nation? A nation is not the same thing as an ethnic
group or a country. Briefly, it is a political and cultural unit, i.e
an ‘imaginary community’. A nation consists of people who
speak the same language, have the same religion and are bound
by a shared history. Most importantly, these people recognize and
celebrate these shared characteristics.
In newly-established states (Italy, Germany) a sense of national
identity had to be developed. This was done through
propaganda, emphasis on heroic traditions, re-examination of
past events and in some cases (South Africa) the invention and
establishment of a language and culture.
In theory, all nations are equal.
1.1 a) Where does Nationalism come from?
Nationalism developed through three main areas:
i)
The idea of Nationalism was born during the French
Revolution, when the feudal system began to break down.
It acted as a catalyst to events that would allow the births
of new states, empires to disintegrate and the reshaping
of existing regimes.
Personal loyalty to nobility began to disappear as it was
no longer required by a social hierarchy. It was replaced
by a growing sense of loyalty to the nation as a whole.
This idea was largely influenced by the writings of JeanJacques Rousseau in The Social Contract.
ii)
iii)
However, at the beginning, nationalism was unpopular.
Its main supporters were the middle classes, as the
political change that nationalism inspired benefitted them
enormously. They became better educated and much
more politically aware, and began to criticize the
privileges and actions of the nobility. This led to writing
about the idea of The Nation as representative of the
people, and separate from The Country. This linked up
with the establishment of new and democratic states, and
governed by The People.
The Industrial Revolution and the urbanization of
European populations made nationalism the sentiment of
choice – it allowed people to feel linked with those around
them, despite the fact that they didn’t know them. It also
allowed them to stand united against the various social
and political challenges faced by the growing working
classes.
1.1 b) Key events in the development of Nationalism
i)
The French Revolution
ii)
The Industrial Revolution
iii) The formation of the British Empire
iv) The American War of Independence
v)
The Unifications of Italy (1861) and Germany (1871)
ACTIVITY ONE
1. What is Nationalism?
2. Why did the idea of Nationalism develop in the late 18th
Century?
3. How did Nationalism develop in
a) France
b) Germany
c) Italy
d) Britain
e) America
4. What is meant by ‘an imagined community’? Give two
examples that we see in South Africa.
5. Study the photograph.
6. Make an argument in favour of promoting Nationalism in
post-1994 South Africa.
7. How is heritage used to promote nationalism? Is it useful in
building national unity?
2. THE ARAB-ISRAELI CONFLICT
Up until 1948 the area labelled on this map as Israel was called
Palestine.
The root of much of the conflict between the Palestinians and
Israelis lies in the struggle over who has ownership and control
over this piece of land. The struggle is the result of two kinds of
nationalisms – Arab nationalism and Jewish nationalism. Palestine
was an area of particular interest during the cold War, with both
America and the Soviet Union supplying arms, and attempting to
gain a degree of control. This was in part due to an attempt to
gain control over the supply of oil in the region. This is a major
source of wealth, as this is the oil that supplies most of the world.
2.1 The Origins of Arab Nationalism
 At the end of the 19th Century, Palestine was a part of the
Ottoman Empire. Not all the people living there were Arab,
but most were. This led to feelings of Nationalism
 Turkey, also a part of the Ottoman Empire, supported
Germany in World War One and Arab Nationalists saw this
as an opportunity to break away from the Empire and
establish their own state
 Britain encouraged the Arab Revolt as it would help them to
gain an advantage over Turkey, and thus Germany
 Britain pledged to recognize and support any
emerging Arab State, through letters of support by
McMahon. However, he was very vague about the conditions
of this recognition. Britain helped the Arab Nationalists
to defeat the Turks, and in return the Arab
Nationalists expected Britain to honour their promise
2.2 Zionism and the Balfour Declaration
 Britain had also made a promise to the Jewish
Nationalists. This, naturally, conflicted with the promise
they had made to the Arab Nationalists.
 Due to the Jewish history of displacement, many Jews began
to question whether they would ever be safe as long as they
were ‘aliens’ or foreigners
 Theodor Herzl, and Autrian-Jewish journalist, organized the
first Zionist Congress in Switzerland in 1897, which
spearheaded the Zionist movement.
 The aim of this movement was to create a home for the
Jews where they could feel safe, in their biblical home of
Palestine
 A small number of Jews settled in Palestine and bought land
from Arab landlords. By 1914, The Jewish population
comprised roughly 10% of the population of Palestine.
 The aim of the Zionist movement was to gain support
from the international community in establishing their
own state. This was achieved in 1917, with the Balfour
Declaration. This was a letter, written by British Foreign
Secretary (Balfour), confirming British support for the Jewish
State in Palestine. This raised a serious conflict of interest,
leading Arab Nationalists to question Britain’s right to
approve the establishment of any state other than the
previously agreed Arab State of Palestine.
2.3 The British Mandate of Palestine
 Britain had ambitions in the Middle East. Due to the
recent discovery of oil in the region, and the construction of
the Suez Canal, trade with the region was very strategic and
lucrative
 In May 1916, Britain and France had made an
Agreement to divide the Ottoman Empire between
them. This agreement preceded the Arab Revolt and the
McMahon and Balfour’s relative agreements. This BritishFrench agreement stated that Britain would maintain
control over Palestine, i.e. that Palestine would NOT
become an independent state
 France retained Syria and Lebanon as their mandates, and
Britain took control of Iraq, (Trans)Jordan and Palestine. The
only state to become independent was Saudi Arabia
2.4 The Jewish Agency and the Arab Uprising
 In 1920 Palestine became a British mandate, and the Jewish
population was just under 10%
 The Zionist movement set up a Jewish Agency in Palestine to
administer Jewish affairs.
 After 1933 (when Hitler came to power in Germany) Jewish
immigration increased drastically and opposition from the
Arab population began to increase.
 In 1936, there was a general Arab strike, demanding
that Britain limit immigration to Palestine. This led to
the Arab Uprising, which lasted for the next three
years. Britain responded very harshly to this uprising,
as control over Palestine became more and more
difficult
 Britain could not honour either agreement they held with the
Jewish and Arab people. By 1939, the inevitability of war
with Germany had been realized, and once again Britain
sought to keep the Arabs on their side. They did not want
their oil supplies and the Suez Canal to be in the
hands of an opposing power
 In 1939 Britain began to severely restrict Jewish
immigration to Palestine
 This angered the Zionists, who wanted to revolt, but were
halted by the outbreak of the Second World War.
Do Activity 1 on p.143
2.5 The Israeli State
 By 1945, the number of Jewish refugees had increased
drastically. Despite this, the British maintained their limited
immigration policy for Palestine. Both the British
government and the immigration policy itself were
internationally criticized
 The Zionists responded by smuggling immigrants into
Palestine, and launching propaganda in America to gain
support
 Extremist groups Irgun and Lehi used terrorist tactics,
attacking British military bases, police stations, railway lines
etc. This was an attempt to get Britain to withdraw their
mandate. This coincided with pressure from the Arab League
NOT to change the immigration policy
 Due to the increasing violence, the newly-formed United
Nations established UNSCOP (The United Nations Special
Committee on Palestine) to investigate the growing issue.
The recommendation of the committee was to divide
Palestine into two separate states. The Zionists agreed
to this recommendation while disapproving strongly of the
terms; The Arabs rejected it outright. However, in 1947
the UN formally accepted the plan to divide the
Palestinian State, with Britain agreeing to withdraw in
May 1948
 Shortly before the date of British withdrawal civil war broke
out in Palestine, in a last-ditch Jewish effort to strengthen
their position
 In April 1948 they launched Plan D, in which Jewish forces
occupied over 200 Arab villages, mostly in the area between
Jerusalem and Tel Aviv; They proceeded to take over the
coastal regions of Jaffa, Haifa and the Arab areas of West
Jerusalem
 British forces withdrew on 14 May 1948
 The Jewish Agency declared that Palestine was now the
Jewish state of Israel. This led to the invasion of
Palestine/Israel by five Arab states on the following day, and
the first Arab-Israeli War, which lasted until 1949. This
was achieved through armistice agreements between Israel
and each Arab State
 Israel now occupied 78% of Palestine rather than the
56% that had been assigned. The Palestinian state had
ceased to exist, as all remaining areas were under Jordanian
or Egyptian control
 This war led to massive Arab emigration, into Jordanian
and Egyptian territory. They were placed into camps in Gaza
and the West Bank by the United Nations.
3.1 Interpretations of the 1948 War
INTERPRETATION
ISRAEL
WAR OF
NAME GIVEN TO
INDEPENDENCE
WAR
Zionists view the
HISTORICAL
war as an heroic
VIEWS
victory, and compare
it to David and
Goliath. They believe
that the Israelis were
better-trained and
better-led and that
they were more
determined than the
Palestinian refugees.
They believe that
Arab propaganda
encouraged refugees
to flee because they
planned to return
once Israel was
destroyed and
replaced with
Palestine.
PALESTINE
AL-NAKBA
(DISASTER/CATASTROPHE)
Historians claim that
Palestinian refugees were
forced to leave Palestine
due to the actions of the
Israeli army and the
terrorist activities of Irgun
and Lehi. They claim that
there is a Zionist Agenda to
force Palestinians out of
Palestine and to institute a
policy of ethnic
cleansing.
They blame the
Palestinians for
rejecting the UN
Plan, claiming that
their aggressive
attitude fuels the
conflict.
Historians challenge
this view: Israel had
larger forces of
experienced soldiers
and the rivalry and
distrust between the
Arab leaders created
disunity, thus the
Palestinians were
divided and poorly
prepared and poorly
organized.
Revisionist
historians agree
that Israel is
responsible for the
conflict, as they were
unwilling to give up a
small amount of land
or to allow
Palestinian refugees
to return.
Do Activity 2 on p.148
3.2 Arab Nationalism in Jordan, Egypt and Syria
 Despite the Arab Nationalists receiving neither independence
nor unity, support for Arab Nationalism continued to grow.
 In 1945, the Arab League was formed, to promote closer
relations between Arab States – namely, Egypt, Syria, Iraq,
Lebanon, Transjordan, North Yemen and Saudi Arabia.
However, no steps were taken towards unity.
 The Arab defeat by Israel in 1948 helped to promote the
cause of Arab nationalism; unity came through a desire for
revenge support of the Palestinian cause.
 1952: The Egyptian Revolution led to the accession Gamel
Abdel Nasser into power, and he championed the Arab
Nationalist cause, becoming a symbol for the movement
 Under his leadership, Arab Nationalism became a powerful
political force in the 1950s and 1960s. During this time the
terms Arab Nationalism and ‘Nasserism’ were synonymous.
 Nasser used Egyptian radio as a propaganda tool.
 The Arab leaders wanted Nasser to create a pan-Arab
movement that would bring unity to the Arab world, feelings
that were especially strong in Syria and Egypt. In 1958
these two states joined to form the United Arab Republic.
 The UAR lasted only three years. It fell apart in 1961 due
to rising tensions between Egypt and Syria. This was a huge
setback in the cause for Arab Nationalism.
 Conservative Arab leaders in Jordan and Syria viewed this
collapse as vindication of their view of Nasser as radical. The
Pan-Arab experiment had failed.
 In 1967 a further blow to Arab Nationalism occurred when
Israel defeated Syria, Egypt and Jordan in the 1967 War.
 After Nasser died in 1970, there was a general move away
from Arab Nationalism, as the movement morphed into
politicised Islam.
3.3 The Question of Palestine
 The creation of the Israeli State in 1948 left Palestine
divided and the Palestinians scattered. The area known as
Palestine became highly contested.
 Palestinians were scattered in small Israeli-ruled villages
close to the borders, and numbered only about 160000.
Israeli rule in these villages continued into the 1960s.
 Any sympathy towards Palestinians or the Palestinian cause
resulted in imprisonment or expulsion
 Around 760000 Palestinians had fled to surrounding
countries and been placed into refugee camps by the UN.
These camps were overcrowded and completely without
basic infrastructure.
 Because of the strain placed on these countries’ economies,
refugees were unwelcome and were forced to live under
strict controls. They remained unassimilated into their
hosting country’s society and were kept entirely separate.
There are three views as to why assimilation did not occur:
1. Arab governments made sure that refugees would not
assimilate in an attempt to fuel conflict
2. The Arab countries hosting the refugees could not
afford to support the influx, as their own economies
were underdeveloped and unemployment high
3. The Palestinians did not wish to become assimilated, as
they wanted to return to their own country
 After the collapse of the UAR, the Palestinians began to form
guerilla organisatons, such as Fatah, to launch raids into
Jordan and Gaza. This was perceived by the Palestinians as
a national liberation movement, but by the Israelis as a
terrorist organisation
 The Israelis responded to the raids with military units that
carried out raids in retaliation. The targets for these attacks
were no longer hierarchical organisations, but civilians.
 In 1964 various Palestinian groups joined to form the
Palestinian Liberation Organisation (PLO) led by
Yasser Arafat. There was much disagreement as to how
the PLO was to proceed: Some believed in working through
the UN, while others felt that an armed struggle was the
only way forward.
3.3 The Jewish State
 In 1950 Israel passed the Law of Return, which recognized
the right of any Jewish person to settle in Israel; as a result,
by 1952, the Jewish population of Palestine had almost
doubled
 These immigrants were made up of Holocaust survivors and
Jewish emogrés from other parts of the world, like the USA,
Western Europe, Latin America, Australia, South Africa and
finally from Arab countries (particularly Morocco) where,
after 1948, they were no longer welcome.
 All these emigrés formed a community and adopted Hebrew
as their common language. They lived on co-operative farms
called kibbutzim, sharing property and work. National
service in the army (conscription) was also instigated.
Do activity 3 on p.153
4. The Arab-Israeli Conflict after 1948
4.1 The occupation of the West Bank
 After 1948 there were three more wars between the Arab and
Israeli states:
1. The Suez Crisis also known as The Sinai War in 1956
2. The Six Days’ War in 1967
3. The Yom Kippur War in 1973
1. The Suez Crisis occurred after Nasser nationalized the
Suez Canal and Egypt was subsequently attacked by Israel,
Britain and France [why all three?]. Following opposition
from the United Nations, the USA and the Soviet Union, a
UN peacekeeping force was sent in to protect the IsraeliEgyptian border
2. The Six Days’ War was the result of increased tensions and
the belief held by the Israelis that the Arab States were
planning to attack; Israel made a pre-emptive strike and
attacked Egypt, Jordan and Syria, ultimately claiming victory
and occupying these Arab territories, including the West
Bank. As a result the Palestinian refugee situation worsened,
with the numbers swelling to around 970000 under Israeli
occupation. The United Nations passed Resolution 242
ordering the immediate withdrawal of Israel from Arab
territories. Israel ignored this Resolution and began to build
Jewish settlements in the areas.
3. The Yom Kippur War was a retaliation to the Six Days’ War
and for Israeli occupation of Arab territory. Palestinian arms
stored were rebuilt with the help of the Soviet Union and an
attack was launched on the Jewish Festival of Yom Kippur (in
October). In response to these attacks, Israel responded in
turn, but within three weeks both sides had accepted
demands made by the United Nations and initiated a
ceasefire.
*During the Yom Kippur War Arab States reduced their supply
of oil to Western countries, triggering an economic crisis. This
indirect pressure on Western countries forced them, in turn, to
put pressure on Israel to end conflict in the Middle East. The
West recognized how much they depended on the goodwill of
the Arab states. In an effort to speed up the process America
sent officials to negotiate peace talks between Palestine and
Israel. However, although this was a full-scale war and decisive
action was taken at its conclusion, the conflict between
Palestine and Israel has continued to the present day.*
Discuss the role that this ‘trade’ relationship has played in the
Middle-Eastern conflict and the West’s reactions to it.
 In 1977 Anwar Sadat, Nasser’s successor, became the first
Arab leader to visit Israel. He was open to negotiation and
demonstrated this by a goodwill visit, which was returned by
Menachem Begin, the Israeli leader, who visited Egypt.
 In 1978 the two leaders held peace talks, with US President
Jimmy Carter acting as mediator. A peace agreement was
signed at Camp David in 1979, stating that a) Israel would
return Egypt and Sinai to Arab control and b) maintain control
of Gaza and the West Bank; finally it was agreed that c) Egypt
would recognize Israel as an autonomous state.
 The Camp David agreement was widely criticized by other Arab
states (Syria, Iraq, Libya), and there was much anti-Sadat
feeling – he was regarded as a traitor who had let his people
down. He was assassinated in October 1981.
4.2 The Palestinian refugees and increasing conflict
 In Jordan, Palestinian refugees made up more than 50% of the
population. Palestinian guerillas launched attacks from Israel
into Jordan, increasing tensions in the region.
 In September 1970, The Popular Front for the Liberation
of Palestine (PFLP) hijacked three planes and blew them up,
unpeopled, in Jordan. As a result, the Jordanian government
expelled the PLO and attacked the guerilla bases, forcing into
exile in Lebanon. From here, the guerilla forces of the PLO
continued to launch raids into Israel.
 The most shocking and high-profile incident occurred when a
splinter extremist group of the PLO, calling themselves Black
September, murdered 11 Israeli athletes at the 1972 Olympic
Games in Munich.
 The presence of the PLO in Lebanon created tension between
the Muslims and the Christians living there, which culminated
in a Civil War the broke out in 1975. The Christians received
support from Israel, resulting in an invasion of Lebanon by
Israeli militants in 1982, with the sole intention of destroying
the PLO camps and the movement itself. The notable feature
of this invasion was its particular violence, and many many
Lebanese and Palestinians were killed.
 Israel was heavily criticized (even by those from within Israel),
and a ceasefire was arranged. The PLO headquarters were
moved to Tunisia.
4.3 Intifadas
 Palestinians in occupied territories had become increasingly
bitter and tense about their situation: their chief concerns were
the fact of Israeli-occupied territory and the military nature of
that occupation.
 In 1987 and again in 2000, there were two major Intifadas
(Intifada means ‘uprising’ in Arabic) in the contested region.
The first one involved Arabic boycotting of Israeli businesses
and throwing stones at Israeli military personnel and
machinery. This provoked a disproportionately harsh response
from Israel, followed by a renewed attempt to negotiate peace.
 These peace negotiations, conducted primarily in secret
between the PLO the Israeli government, concluded with the
Oslo Accords agreement in August 1993. From this point,
Israel began withdrawing from parts of Gaza and the West
Bank.
 Yasser Arafat (leader of the PLO) and Yitzhak Rabin (Israeli
Prime Minister) jointly received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1994
for these endeavours, although Rabin was assassinated in
1995 by an extremist.
 In 1996, elections were held for the Palestinian Authority,
which enjoyed limited self-government under leader Yasser
Arafat, as Israel still possessed 60% of the West Bank and had
control over land, security and water supplies in the region.
 The issues between the Israelis and Palestinians were not
resolved however, as may be seen by the assassination of
Rabin, and a new congress at Camp David to address the
seemingly unresolvable issues failed to tackle both current and
past problems, not least the fact that the resolutions of the
first Camp David meeting had not been carried out.
 The second Intifada in 2000 was a result of these unresolved
issues – it was extremely violent and saw the wide-scale
introduction of suicide bombing.
How has Nationalism hampered peace settlements in the
Middle East? Suggest what would have to happen for peace to
be maintained.