DIRECTING
1. It is the fourth universal function of management
2. Refers to the process of motivation,
communication and leadership
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Stick- as punishments (demotions, penalties)
It should not be forgotten that rewards and punishment
are still strong motivators.
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The word motivation comes from Latin word
"movere" which means to move.
3. Deals with the managers and non-managers
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4. Managers as leaders should understand the
motives of people and they should maintain and
improve the interpersonal relationship in an
organization
Usually include are such words as aim, desire,
end, impulse, intention, objective, and
purpose.
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3 common characteristics of motivations
Nature of Directing
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Motivation is concerned with what activates
human behavior.
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Motivation is concerned with what directs this
behavior toward a particular goal.
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Motivation is concerned with how this behavior
is sustained.
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Motivation can be analyzed using the following
causative sequence:
Directing initiates organized and planned actions
and ensures effective performance by subordinates
towards the accomplishment of group activities. It is
regarded as the essence of management-in-action.
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Needs- are caused by deficiencies, which can
be either physical or psychological.
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Motives- a stimulus which leads to an action
that satisfies the need.
3. It Provides Necessary Link between Various
Managerial Functions
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Achievement of the goal- satisfies the need and
reduces the motive.
Directing links the various managerial functions of
planning, organizing, staffing and controlling. Without
directing, the function of controlling will never arise and
the other preparatory functions of management will
become meaningless.
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Theories of Motivation
4. It is a Universal Function
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Evolved theory of Frederick W. Taylor.
Directing is a universal function that is performed in
all organizations and at all the levels of management. All
managers have to guide, motivate, lead, supervise and
communicate with their subordinates, although more
time is spent on directing at higher levels of
management.
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It is a reward system wherein money is the
primary motivator.
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Taylor beleived that when everyone is
compensated equally, production of the highly
skilled decreases due to comparison with the
less skilled employees.
5. It is Concerned with Human Relationship
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This theory states that, employees are
rewarded based on their productivity which
means that by performing above the standard
one can increase his/her salary.
1. It is a Dynamic Function
Directing is a dynamic and continuing function. A
manager has to continously direct, guide, motivates
and lead his subordinates. With change in plans, and
oraganizational relationships, he will have to change his
methods and techniques to direction.
2. It Initiates Action
Traditional Theory
The direction function of management delas with
relationship between people working in an
organization. It creates cooperation and harmony
among the members of the group. It seeks to achieve
orderly arrangement of group effort to provide unity of
action in the pursuit of common objectives.
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Developed by psychologist Abraham Maslow.
MOTIVATION
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States that there is a hierachy of human needs
that should be satisfied in order, from the
lowest need to the highest.
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Cons includes the ever changing needs of
employees and the subjectivity of achievement.
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"The carrot and the stick"
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The use of rewards and penalties in order to
influence desired behavior.
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Carrot- as the rewards (money, pay, bonuses)
Hierarchy of Needs
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First Level (Physiological)
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Refers to the needs of the body or personal
needs such as food, shelter, sleep. For
businesses, this implies personal lives and salary
of employees.
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Second Level (Safety)
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Protection from harm, danger, deprivation and
less uncertainties. In business, this refers to the
working conditions and job security.
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Third Level (Love and Belongingness)
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This is the social needs such as love and friends.
In business, it is the relationship with coworkers, superior, and subordinates.
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Fourth Level (Self-esteem)
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Refers to the self-confidence and achievement
of the person as well as acceptance.
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Fifth Level (Self-actualization)
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The highest level and can only be met when the
four levels are satisfied. This is where people
reach their full potential. This is employees'
independence.
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better. This theory also states that motivation comes
from the individual rather than the manager.
McGregor's Theory X & Y
McGregor emphasizes that motivation of
employees is best achieved when management creates
an environment that encourages both intrinsic and
extrinsic rewards, by directing efforts towards the goal.
Attention should be given to both lower and higher
levels of management.
Lower level - should provide extrinsic rewards
(raises and bonuses) for contributions to productivity
Higher level - importance of planning,
organizing, staffing, directing and controlling are
stressed so as to
encourage employees
to seek intrinsic rewards (confidence, satisfaction)
Theory X
Theory Y
views humans as
inherently lazy hence
must be motivated by
force
punishment is NOT
the best way
*self-actualization is never satisfied, one can
always aim higher.
must be threatened with
punishment to increase
productivity
Achievement - Power - Affiliation Theory
needs to be supervised
This theory was developed by David McClelland
and states that people have three needs: (1)
need to achieve, (2) need for power, and (3)
need for affiliation. It is closely related to the
hierarchy of needs developed by Maslow.
assumes that employee
hates work
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Need to achieve- the desire to do something
better
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Need for power- concerned with influencing
people
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Need for affiliation- establishing friendly
relations.
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This also states that everyone have different
dominating needs and that it is the managers
duty to identify them.
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Motivation-Maintenance Theory
This was developed by Frederick Herzberg,
Bernard Mausner, and Barbara Syndeman and also
referred by several names such as dual-factor theory, or
motivation-hygiene theory. There are two factors to be
considered under this theory: motivation and
hygiene/maintenance. Hygiene factors are those that
do not produce motivation but their absence prevents
satisfaction from people. Motivation factors on the
other hand are those that motivates an employee to do
individual is capable
of exercising selfcontrol and selfdirection
freedom of action as
responsibility
trust based
view work as fulfilling
and challenging
Achievement Theory
Proposed by David MacClelland and states that
an individual's ambition to do things better is dueto a
specific motive or need. This need is not something
inborn rather it can be taught through training and
teaching trainees to think and behave in terms of
achievement.
Achievement-oriented people likes situations in
which they take personal responsibility for finding
solutions to problems. They are independent, relying on
their own abilities and does not depend on chance.
Have the tendency to get concrete feedbacks as to how
well they are doing.
Barnard-Simon's Theory of Equilibrium
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Inducements provided by the organization must
be kept in equilibrium with the contributions
given by the employees.
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Inducements include wages and other benefits.
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If inducement and contributions are not
balanced then motivation will be affected.
1. Stimulus. The environmental setting in which
behavior occurs (performance).
2. Response. The behavior itself.
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It mostly deals with sustaining motivation
rather than increasing motivation.
3. Reinforcement. Good performance equals
rewards.
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Individuals also like to compare the benefits
they get with that of others.
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People are motivated not only by what they get
but what they see or believe others are getting.
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They make social comparison of inputs
(education, efforts, time spent, etc.) and
rewards (money, recognition, work conditions,
etc.) for themselves and others in the
organization.
Performance is conditioned by reward-giving.
Maturity Theory
This Theory states that as one grows
(psychologically) and matures they strive
toward the highest level in Maslow's hierarchy.
Immature people are dependent while mature
people are self-reliant.
IMMATURE
MATURE
passive
active
dependent
independent
short term
perspective
long term
perspective
subordinate
position
equal or subordinate
position
lack of selfawareness
self-aware
Vroom's Preference-Expectancy Theory
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Individual assigns values to the outcome of each
alternative course of action.
The assignment of values reflects the
individual's expectations and order of
preferences among the alternative courses of
action and outcomes.
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Outcome may give the person greater
satisfaction than expected or harm which he
failed to anticipate.
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Motivation is a result of the actual or perceived
rewards.
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Outcome occurs at two levels (first and second)
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The choice of outcome is based upon how the
choice of first level outcome is related to the
second level.
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The preference for a partricular outcome is
based upon the strength (valence) attached to
the outcome.
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The preference attached depends on the
second level outcome.
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Expectancy is the probability that a specific
action will be followed.
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Instrumentality is the perceived relationship
between valence and expectancy.
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This theory recognizes that employees have
different expectations but it makes no attempt
to categorize them.
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Due to its complexity, most find it unattractive.
Reinforcement Theory
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Developed by B.F. Skinner, this theory states
the componenents of motivated behavior:
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Job Enlargement vs Job Enrichment
The difference between job enrichment and job
enlargement is quality and quantity. Job
enrichment means improvement, or an increase
with the help of upgrading and development,
whereas job enlargement means to add more
duties, and an increased workload. By job
enrichment, an employee finds satisfaction in
respect to their position and personal growth
potential, whereas job enlargement refers to
having additional duties and responsibilities in a
current job description.
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COMMUNICATION
Communication- is defined as the transfer of
information that is meaningful to those
involved- in general the transmittal of
understanding.
- Communication can occur in many forms
ranging from face to face contact involving
facing expressions and body movements.
- Communication is viewed as the transfer of
information from one person to another,
whether or not it gives rise to confidence.
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Types of Communication
FORMAL AND DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION
- appear to be the more common methods
of communication in many organizations. under
this approach the information flows down
through the formal channels in the
organization.
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WAYS TO COMMUNICATE
William Exton Jr. Enumerates twelves ways to
communicate;
1 informal talk or grapevine communication.
2 Memoranda.
3 Telephone Calls
4 Interoffice News
5 Letters
Downward communication is classified to
6 Reports
1. Specific Task directives; job instructions
7 Conferences/ Convention
2 Information regarding understanding of the task and
its position in the organization
8 Meetings
9 Bulletin Board Notices
3. Information on procedures and practices
10 Exhibits and Display
4 Subordinates performance feedback
11 Visual Aids
5 Information on mission indoctrination of goals.
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Downward and lateral information flow
Upward Communication
- is encouraged by some innovative organization.
Future growth and efficiency through innovations and
the correction of problems are enhanced by upward
communication system.
Upward flow of communication can be facilitated
through the grievance procedure, the complaint
system, counselling methods, survey questionnaires, an
open door policy, exit interviews, special meetings,
suggestions system, and other participative techniques.
Lateral communication or peer level communication
enable members of a particular level in organization to
share information and thus improve their decisions and
decision making skill.
According to Simsson, the state of technology
determines the need for lateral communications. He
found lateral communication among foremen because
of the mechanized nature of work.
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GRAPEVINES
Many informal paths of communication also exist in
organizations. These informal channels are generally
referred to aAs grapevines.
1 Permanent part of the formal organizational
structure.
2. Managers should have a knowledge of what the
grapevine is communicating and why
3 All levels of management should be provided with the
total and accurate information so that the messages
they communicate through the grapevine are accurate.
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It is understandable too that downward and latteral
information for decision making is important to
subordinate managers in an enterprise.
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Upward flow of information
Information moves upward from the supersivory level
and is summarized for thw consumption of department
managers who take action within the scope of theis
authority
1 An attitude of reasonable access and an open mind
and ear.
2 Suggestion system that are objective
3 Availability of counselling and grievance system
4 Encouragement od employee letters
5 Participation in social activities which provide an
opportunity for information conversation
6 Communicating with employees families
7 Utilizing employee attitude surveys and exit interview
data
8 Promising opportunities for subordinates to make
presentation
Communication networks

It is refer to the pictorial depictions of informal
channels. Several research studies have been
conducted to determine the type of
communication network that would result in
better performance. one such study was
conducted by Alex Bavelas and his associates.
BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
1. DISTANCE
The physical distance between the supervisor
and his subordinates results in less face-to-face
communication. We know that less face-to-face
communication may lead to misunderstanding or lack of
understanding of the message being communicated.
The physical distance also makes it difficult for
supervisor and subordinate to seek clarification.
2. DISTORTION
This occurs when an individual fails to
distinguish actual data from his own views, feelings,
emotions, etc. Carl Rogers contends that the major
barrier to communication is the tendency to make value
judgments on the statements of others. Sometimes the
supervisor and subordinates tend to interpret the
information in the light of their own views, values,
opinions and background rather than interpreting the
message objectively. There are supervisors who are
closed-minded.
3. SEMANTICS
This deals with the language aspect of
communication. Graham states that the structure of our
language leads to misrepresentation of the true nature
of events. In the English language and in other
languages, there are certain words which have multiple
meanings.
4. LACK OF LEVELLING
This refers to various differences in the levels of
supervisors and subordinates. For instance, there is a
difference in the level of knowledge and expertise of a
supervisor and subordinate. If a supervisor
communicates with his subordinates on his own level of
knowledge and ignore the level of the subordinates,
then communication breaks down. Sometimes,
supervisors tend to use supervisory jargon, either
technical or administrative, which is totally alien to the
subordinates.
5. LACK OF TRUST
In some organizations we find supervisors who
are often out, or keep themselves busy with trivial
things and therefore are not available to subordinates
for consultation, discussion, or guidance. Such
inaccessibility results in communication breakdown.
This affects the motivation of subordinates in seeking
proper direction from the boss and relies more on trial
and error approaches. The inaccessibility is not
necessarily physical, it can be psychological.
7. LACK OF CLEAR RESPONSIBLITIES
When the responsibilities assigned to the
subordinates are not clear, they find scapegoats or
come out with excuses. Often we hear people say “I
thought this is what you wanted me to do,” or “I
thought this should be done by Robert.” Lack of clarity
in duties and responsibilities result in status and role
ambiguities., which simply means the position and the
role which are occupied and played by the subordinate
are unclear to him.
8. PERSONAL INCOMPATIBILITY
Often the personality of the supervisor and the
subordinate clash and thus create communication
blocks. Rather than viewing things objectively,
personality factors dominate and issues become
personalized.
9. REFUSAL TO LISTEN
There are some supervisors, who by their
careless attitude or arrogant nature, refuse to listen to
their subordinates. Such an attitude blocks effective
communication. Refusal to listen may be due to a
superiority complex feeling of “I know everything,” or
an inferiority complex feeling of “I am no good.”
10. FAILURE TO USE PROPER MEDIA
Several types of media are available in the
organizational situation for communication purposes.
The effectiveness of communication depends on how a
supervisor chooses the proper media for his own
situation. Some supervisors take great pride in sending
written memos loaded with jargon to their subordinates
who lack reading and comprehension skills.
This barrier has to do with the previous
experiences of subordinates dealings with supervisor.
Based on the past experiences, if the subordinate feels
that it is not good for him to report bad news to the
supervisor, then he will withhold such information from
the supervisor. On the other hand, if he feels that the
supervisor is considerate and helpful, then he will not
filter bad news or unfavorable information. There are
some supervisors who use subordinates for their own
selfish interest, such as promotion, merit increase and
good image. Such activity may change subordinates’
trust in the supervisor.
11. COMMUNICATION GAP
6. INACCESSIBILITY
12. LACK OF DIRECTION
This refers to the defects or loopholes inn the
formal network of communication. In large and complex
organizations, this kind of barrier is a common
occurrence. The formal communication networks are
built along the authority-responsibility lines of the
organization. As the organization grows and expands,
the networks tend to become large and complex.
Without much planned effort. Under such
circumstances defects start to develop in the
communication network.
A lack of direction in message content may
present a barrier. Some messages have two types of
content: the manifest or evident meaning and the
latent or real meaning. In some cases, the manifest
meaning of the message is made so attractive that the
real meaning is lost.
Human skill is the ability to work with others by
getting along with them, motivating them, and
communicating effectively with others. The manager
must focus his attention on improving his interpersonal
relations with peers, subordinates and his own
supervisors.
LEADERSHIP
CONCEPTUAL SKILL
The ability to lead effectively is one of the keys
to being an effective manager.
Leadership is generally defined as the art and
science of influencing people so that they willingly move
toward the achievement of the group goals
Leadership is a process of influencing the
activities of members of a group in performing their
tasks of goal setting and goal achievement.
Conceptual skill is the ability to coordinate and
integrate the entire organization’s interests and
activities. A manager must have the ability to see the
organization as a whole and not make decisions from
his own departmental point of view. He must be able to
see how his department is affected by the decisions of
others.
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Types Of Leadership
1. Dictatorial Leader
Accomplishes tasks through fear of penalties,
and maintains a highly critical and negative attitude in
relationships with subordinates.
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2. Autocratic Leader
Assumes a paternalistic role which forces subordinates
to rely on the leader for their satisfaction.
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According to Katz, their relative importance varies
according to the level of management.
At the first-line management level, technical
skill is most important and it becomes less important as
we move up the chain of command. On the other hand,
the importance of conceptual skill increases as we move
up the hierarchy. Human relations skill is important at
all levels of management.
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MANAGEMENT ROLES
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Concept of Managerial Roles
- Henry Mintzberg
3. Democratic Leader
Depends not only on their own capabilities but
encourage consultation of subordinates.
4. Laissez-faire Leader
Depend completely on subordinates to establish their
own goals and to make their own decision.
Managerial working roles = managerial functions
“ a categorizing process”
authority > status > interpersonal roles > information
> central point of organizational decision-making
process
INTERPERSONAL ROLES
Power
The ability to command or apply force. It is
necessarily accompanied by authority.
Authority
Which exists in the formal organization. It is the
right to issue directives and expend resources.
Authority has been viewed in the past as a function of
position in the organizational hierarchy, flowing from
the top to the bottom of the organization.
MANAGEMENT SKILLS
Katz has identified 3 Basic Types of Skills:
TECHNICAL SKILL
Technical skill is the ability to perform a
manager’s job. An accountant, doctor, engineer or a
musician all have technical skills in their respective
fields of specialization. A manager must possess
technical skill.
HUMAN SKILL
Figurehead
Leader
Liaison