ELECTIVE ANAPHYSIOLOGY: Lesson 1
Systemic – study of anatomy by system
The Human Body
(An Orientation)
Regional – study of anatomy by region
Anatomy – The study of the structure of the
human body
Physiology - The study of body function
Anatomical terminology

Based on ancient Greek or Latin

Provides standard nomenclature worldwide
Branches of anatomy

Gross anatomy

Microscopic anatomy (histology)

Surface anatomy
Most students use a combination of regional
and systemic study
The Integumentary System

Forms external body covering

Protects deeper tissues from injury

Synthesizes vitamin D

Site of cutaneous receptors

(pain, pressure, etc.) and sweat and oil
glands
The Hierarchy of Structural Organization
Chemical level – atoms form molecules
Protoplasmic Level - basis of Life with
macromolecules
Cellular level – cells and their functional subunits
Tissue level – a group of cells performing a
common function
The Skeletal System
Organ level – a discrete structure made up of
more than one tissue

Protects and supports body organs

Provides a framework for muscles
Organ system – organs working together for a
common purpose

Blood cells formed within bones

Stores minerals
Organismal level – the result of all simpler levels
working in unison
The Muscular System

Allows manipulation of environment

Locomotion

Facial expression

Maintains posture

Produces heat
The Cardiovascular System
The Nervous System

Fast-acting control system

Responds to internal and external changes

Blood vessels transport blood

Carries oxygen and carbon dioxide

Also carries nutrients and wastes

Heart pumps blood through blood vessels
The Lymphatic System
The Endocrine System

Glands secrete hormones that regulate

Growth

Reproduction

Nutrient use

Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels

Disposes of debris in the lymphatic system

Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes)

Mounts attack against foreign substances in
the body
The Urinary System

Eliminates nitrogenous wastes

Regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base
balance
The Respiratory System

Keeps blood supplied with oxygen

Removes carbon dioxide

Gas exchange occurs through walls of air
sacs in the lungs
Reproductive System

Overall function is to produce offspring

Testes produce sperm and male sex
hormones

Ovaries produce eggs and female sex
hormones

Mammary glands produce milk
The Digestive System

Breaks down food into absorbable units

Indigestible foodstuffs eliminated as feces
Gross Anatomy – An Introduction
Anatomical position – a common visual
reference point
Person stands erect with feet together and eyes
forward
Palms face anteriorly with the thumbs pointed
away from the body
Regional Terms
Regional terms – names of specific body areas
Axial region – the main axis of the body
Appendicular region – the limbs
Directional terminology

Refers to the body in anatomical position

Standardized terms of directions are paired
terms
Orientation and Directional Terms
Body Planes and Sections
Coronal (frontal) plane - Lies vertically and
divides body into anterior and posterior parts
Median (midsagittal) plane - Specific sagittal
plane that lies vertically in the midline
Transverse plane - runs horizontally and divides
body into superior and inferior parts
Ventral body cavity – subdivided into:
Thoracic cavity – divided into three parts
Two lateral parts each containing a lung
surrounded by a pleural cavity
Mediastinum – contains the heart surrounded by
the pericardial sac
Oblique section through the trunk
Body Cavities and Membranes
Ventral body cavity

Dorsal body cavity
Abdominopelvic cavity – divided into two parts

Cavity subdivided into the cranial cavity and
the vertebral cavity.

Abdominal cavity – contains the liver,
stomach, kidneys, and other organs

Cranial cavity houses the brain.


Vertebral cavity runs through the vertebral
column and encloses the spinal cord
Pelvic cavity – contains the bladder, some
reproductive organs, and rectum
Serous cavities – a slit-like space lined by a
serous membrane
Pleura, pericardium, and peritoneum
Parietal serosa – outer wall of the cavity
Visceral serosa covers the visceral organs
Abdominal Regions and Quadrants

Abdominal regions divide the abdomen into
nine regions
Abdominal quadrants divide the abdomen into
four quadrants

Right upper and left upper quadrants

Right lower and left lower quadrants
Other Body Cavities

Oral cavity

Nasal cavity
ELECTIVE ANAPHYSIOLOGY: Lesson 2

Orbital cavities
Histology: The Study of Animal Tissues

Middle ear cavities
Tissues and Histology

Synovial cavities
•
Tissues are collections of similar cells and
the substances that surround them.
•
Tissues are communities of cells
embedded in a structural framework or
matrix performing a definite function.
•
Tissue Level of Organization
–
Epithelial
–
Connective
–
Vascular
•
–
Muscle
–
Nervous
Histology: Microscopic Study of Tissues
The epithelium is found in the linings of the
digestive tube.
3. Ciliated Epithelium
– specially found in trachea. With hair-like
structure known as cilia.
Tissue Level of Organization
4. Cuboidal Epithelium
1. EPITHELIAL TISSUE – These are arranged in
thin layers that cover various surfaces both
external and internal parts of the body.
Main Function: Protection
•
the tissue are compactly arranged with
little or no matrix or intercellular space
between them.
•
In some tissue these are provided with
cilia or flagella.
•
If it consist of one layer- simple
epithelium, if its layered – stratified
epithelium.
Epithelium Characteristics
•
Consists almost entirely of cells
•
Covers body surfaces and forms glands
•
Has free and basal surface
•
Specialized cell contacts
•
Avascular
•
Undergoes mitosis
Functions of Epithelia
•
Protecting underlying structures
•
Acting as barriers
•
Permitting the passage of substances
•
Secreting substances
•
Absorbing substances
Kinds:
1. Squamous Epithelium
– cells are flat and polygonal resembling like
tiles in the pavement. Found in outermost
part of the skin.
2. Columnar Epithelium
– elongated and prismatic due to the
pressure exerted by the neighboring cells.
– found in the lumen of the kidney.
Classification of Epithelium by layers:
•
Simple
–
•
Stratified
–
•
Squamous, cuboidal, columnar
Pseudostratified
–
•
Squamous, cuboidal, columnar
columnar
Transitional
–
Cuboidal to columnar when not
stretched and squamouslike when
stretched
Types of Epithelium
Functional Characteristics
•
Cell layers and shapes
–
•
•
Cell surfaces
–
Microvilli: Increase surface area
absorption or secretion
–
Cilia: Move materials across cell
surface
Cell connections
–
•
Diffusion, Filtration, Secretion,
Absorption, Protection
Desmosomes: tight, gap
Glands
–
Exocrine: Have ducts
–
Endocrine: Have no ducts
Cell Connections
•
Functions
–
Bind cells together
–
Form permeability layer
–
Intercellular communication
•
Types
–
Desmosomes
–
Tight
–
Gap
•
Macrophages that phagocytize or
provide protection
•
Stem cells
1. Areolar or Loose Connective Tissue
2. CONNECTIVE TISSUE – This tissue supports,
bounds and connects together the different parts
of the body. Cells are loosely arranged, with large
amount of matrix between them.
•
Abundant
•
Consists of cell separated by extracellular
matrix
•
Diverse
•
Performs variety of important functions
– the matrix is composed of fibers
embossed in a liquid amorphous
substance.
•
•
•
•
Also known as areolar tissue
Loose packing material of most organs
and tissues
Attaches skin to underlying tissues
Contains collagen, reticular, elastic fibers
and variety of cells
With 3 kinds of fibers:
1. Collagenous of White Fibers
Functions of Connective Tissue
•
Enclosing and separating as capsules
around organs
•
Connecting tissues to one another as
tendons and ligaments
•
Supporting and moving as bones
•
Storing as fat
•
Cushioning and insulating as fat
•
Transporting as blood
•
Protecting as cells of the immune system
•
Specialized cells produce the
extracellular matrix
•
Suffixes
2. Elastic or Yellow Fibers
– occur singly and do not consist of fibrils.
They branch and appear darker than the
individual white fibers.
3 .Reticular Fibers
– fine, wavy, branched and form a
network.
2. Adispose Connective Tissue
•
-blasts: create the matrix
•
-cytes: maintain the
matrix
•
-clasts: break the matrix
down for remodeling
•
Adipose or fat cells
•
Mast cells that contain heparin and
histamine
•
– most common. Long wavy and consist
of bundles of fine fibrils known as fibrillae
which lie parallel along with each other
that gives a long striated appearance.
White blood cells that respond to injury
or infection
–this tissue fills up the spaces between organs.
Cells are round and appear hollow with thin
cytoplasm at its periphery. The small flattened
nucleus is located close to the cell membrane.
This appearance of the cell is due to the
destruction of the stored fat globule during the
preparation of the cell.
3. Cartilage Connective Tissue
- Obtainable from ends of ribs, articular surfaces
of the long bones, tip of the nose and ears.
- The matrix is glass-like of opalescent bluish
ground substance called
Hyaline - Scattered in hyaline matrix are several
spaces called
Bone
Lacunae - In the lacuna are lodged cells called
Chondrocytes.
Perichondrium - The connective tissue envelope
which forms the outermost covering of the
cartilage.
Fibrocartilage
•
Slightly compressible and very tough
•
Found in areas of body where a great
deal of pressure is applied to joints
–
Knee, jaw, between vertebrae
Elastic Cartilage - Rigid but elastic properties
(External ears, epiglottis)
4. Bone or Osseus Tissue –
•
make up the framework of the
body and offers protection of
many vital organ.
•
Composed of substance
primarily calcium that produces a
very rigid structure capable of
supporting weight.
•
The bone matrix is arranged in
somewhat regular coecentric
rings called lamellae.
•
Within the bone matrix are
osteocytes are lodged.
•
Arising from the lacuna are
branching canals called the
canaliculi.
•
In the center of each lamellae is a
cavity called Haversian Canal.
•
The lamellae which encloses a
haversian canal constitute a
haversian canal system called
Osteon.
•
Osteon is also known to be the
structural unit of the bone tissue.
3. VASCULAR TISSUE - The Blood or vascular
tissue is a circulating tissue. It functions as the
transporting medium in the body carrying gases
to and from the tissues. It also protects the body
from the effects of disease causing foreign
organism. This tissue is composed of a liquid
medium and formed elements.
Formed Elements:
1. Erythrocytes/Red Blood Cells
- red corpuscles – give color to blood and carry
oxygen – 4-5 million per cc of blood. Appears oval
with centrally located nucleus.
2. Leucocytes/White Blood Cells
- White corpuscles – protects from disease
foreign organisms – 8-10 thousand per cc of
blood. Smaller than erythrocytes.
Classified as:
a. granulocytes – with granules in cytoplasm
Types:
Eosinophil – red
Basophil – blue
Neutrophil - colorless
Muscle Tissue
•
Characteristics
3. Thrombocytes/Blood Platelets
–
Contracts or shortens with force
- check hemorrhagic activity- 200-400 thousand
per cc of blood.
–
Moves entire body and pumps
blood
•
Blood
•
Matrix between the cells is liquid
•
Hemopoietic tissue
–
Forms blood cells
–
Found in bone marrow
•
Yellow
•
Red
Types
–
•
–
–
4. MUSCULAR TISSUE
A. Skeletal or Striated Voluntary Muscle Tissue
attached to bones. With a membrane called
sarcolemma.
B.Cardiac or Involuntary Muscle Tissue –
composes the wall of the heart.
C. Visceral or Smooth Unstriated Involuntary
Muscle Tissue – linings of the visceral organs
such as blood vessels, intestine, stomach, uterus
and other visceral organs.
Cardiac Muscle
Striated and involuntary
Smooth
•
Skeletal Muscle
Striated and voluntary
Cardiac
•
Bone Marrow
- This tissue has one primary function
that is for contraction. The contractility of this
tissue causes movements in animals from place
or another.
Skeletal
Nonstriated and
involuntary
Smooth Muscle
Neurons
5. NERVOUS TISSUE
- This tissue is specialized to receive and
transmit impulses from either within or outside
of the body which induce appropriate responses.
The unit structure is called the nerve cell or
Neuron.
Neuron is composed of Cyton or cell body and
two fibers:
a. Dendrite – receive impulses
b. Axon – send impulses
Nervous Tissue
•
Found in brain, spinal cord and nerves
•
Ability to produce action potentials
•
Cells
–
Nerve cells or neurons
•
•
–
–
Consist of dendrites, cell
body, axons
Tissues and Aging
•
Cells divide more slowly in older than
younger people
•
Tendons and ligaments become less
flexible and more fragile
•
Arterial walls become less elastic
•
Rate of blood cell synthesis declines in
elderly
•
Injuries are harder to heal in elderly
Consist of multipolar,
bipolar, unipolar
Neuroglia or support cells
ELECTIVE ANAPHYSIOLOGY: Lesson 3
Integumentary System
Skin
Skin is like the ideal coat
a.
Waterproof
b.
Stretchable (2.2 m2) (~11 lbs)
c.
Washable
d.
Auto-repairing (Cuts, tears, & burns)
e.
Lasts a lifetime
Hair (Keratinized protein secreted by cells)
Nails (Hard keratinized protein)
Functions

Prevents dehydration

Prevents bacterial & viral infection (chemical
& physical barrier)

Most substances cannot penetrate;
exceptions are:
Epidermis
Stratified squamous epithelium (replenished
~25-45 days)
Five layers (From top to bottom)
a.
Vitamins A,D,E,K
b.
Oxygen & Carbon dioxide (in limited
amounts)
1. Stratum corneum (Horny layer) “cornu”
Greek for horn not what you are thinking!!!
a.
Top layer and fully keratinized
b.
20-30 cell layers thick
d.
Oleoresins of certain plants (e.g. Poison
Ivy, Oak, Sumac, etc…)
c.
Protect skin from abrasion and penetration
d.
Glycolipids provide waterproofing
e.
Salts of heavy metals (e.g. Lead,
Mercury, Arsenic, etc…)
e.
40 lbs shed in a lifetime
c.
Organic solvents (paint thinner,
acetone) which dissolve cell lipids
f.
Too far from blood vessels for diffusion so
cells die
Skin Functions

Regulates body temperature

Vitamin D synthesis (Needed to absorb
calcium in the digestive tract)

Blood reservoir (Blood can be shunted to
other organs in need e.g. skeletal muscles)

Excretion – Water, salt, ammonia, urea, and
uric acid are excreted in sweat
2.
Stratum granulosum (Granular layer)
a.
3-5 cell layers thick
b.
Keratinocytes produce keratin and
squamous cells flatten as they are pushed
upward (Held together by numerous
desmosomes)
3.
Stratum spinosum (Prickly Layer)
a.
Prickly layer (Keratinocytes shrink but
desmosomes hold in place)
b.
Melanin granules (UV protection) and
Langerhan’s (macrophage) cells abundant in this
layer
4.
Stratum basale (Base germinating layer)
Dermis
a.
Deepest layer of the epidermis

b.
Single layer thick
Strong flexible connective tissue (collagen,
elastin, and reticular fibers)

Papillae from upper dermis form ridges in
the
epidermis
for
grip
(Fingerprints/footprints) 20% of thickness

Reticular layer of lower dermis 80% of
thickness made up of dense irregular
connective tissue
c.
Contain melanocytes and Merkel cells (Fine
touch receptors)
5.
Stratum lucidum (Clear layer)
a.
Found only in thick skin between the
Stratum granulosum and Stratum corneum
1.
Palms of hands
2.
Fingertips
Pigments which affect skin color
3.
Soles of feet
Melanin
Only a few cell layers thick
(melan is Greek for black)
THE ONLY PIGMENT
PRODUCED IN THE SKIN – varies in color from
yellow to brown to black
Key #Genotype
Phenotype
1 M1M1M2M2
2 M1M1M2m2
3 M1M1m2m2
4 M1m1m2m2
5 m1m1m2m2
Black Skin
Dark Brown Skin
Brown Skin
Light Brown Skin
White Skin
Carotene
Yellow/orange pigment found in plants which
accumulates in the thick epidermis this is why the
soles of your feet appear orange

Cyanosis – bluish hue to the skin due to
heart failure or respiratory distress

Erythema – reddish hue to the skin due to
blushing, fever, hypertension, polycythemia

Pallor or blanching – pale skin hue due to
emotional stress (fear, anger), anemia, or
hypotension

Jaundice – yellow hue to the skin due to liver
disorder

Bronzing of the skin due to Addison’s
disease (adrenal cortex of the kidney
hypofunctions)

Hematoma – (Bruises) blood leaks out of
capillaries due to trauma and clots under the
skin
2.
Appocrine - Located in the axillary and
anogenital areas
a.
Secreted into hair follicles beginning at
puberty
b.
Contains true sweat, lipids, and proteins
and appears
viscous with a white/yellow hue
c.
odorless upon secretion, but bacteria
decompose molecules forming body odor
Dermal Structures
Sudoriferous (sweat) glands ( 2.5 million per
person)
2 types:
d.
Increase of secretions during pain, stress, or
sex but physiological function is unknown
(believed to be sexual scent glands as
menstruation affects output
1. Eccrine (Merocrine) – Most abundant sweat
gland covers most of the body
Ceruminous glands are modified apocrine
glands found in the external ear canal which
secrete cerumen or ear wax which deters insects
and blocks entry of foreign material
a.
sweat is secreted by exocytosis into pores
which empty onto the skin (500 mL per day… up
to 12 L per day)
Mammary glands are modified apocrine
glands which secrete milk
Sebaceous (Oil) glands
b.
99% water, remaining solutes are sodium
chloride, vitamin C, urea, uric acid, ammonia, and
lactic acid (which attracts mosquitoes)
1. Located all over body except palms and soles
c.
Hot sweat begins on forehead and spreads
to other parts of the body
2. Secrete sebum which lubricates and softens
hair and skin, prevents water loss, and has
bactericidal properties
d.
Cold sweat due to fright or nervousness
begins on palms, soles, and axillae (armpits) and
spreads to other parts of the body
3. Whitehead - occurs when duct is blocked by
accumulated sebum & staphylococcus infection
begins
4. Blackhead – when whitehead oxidizes & dries
out
Hair

1. Body hair – main function is to detect
insects before they bite or sting
Whether hair is mousy, brown, brunette or
black depends on the type and amount of
melanin and how densely it's distributed
within the hair.
2.
Found all over body except palms, soles,
lips, nipples, and genitalia
3.
Hair on the scalp prevents heat loss, UV
protection, and protects against trauma
4.
Eyelashes shield eyes from foreign particles
5.
Nose hair filters air entering respiratory
passages
6.
Hair appearance due to shaft shape (Flat
shaft = curly hair, oval shaft = wavy hair, round
shaft = straight hair)
Hair follicle
1.
Extend from epidermis into the dermis
2.
Form hair bulb and root plexus (Nerves
surrounding the bulb) rub your arm hair
gently…tickle you feel due to these nerves
3. Arrector pili muscles attach to hair and
epidermis (stratum basale) and cause
Goosebumps upon contraction
a.
Trap air close to skin for warmth
b.
Make us appear larger to predators
7. Hair color due to melanin (blonde to black
hair) gray hair is a result of lack of melanin or the
replacement of melanin with air bubbles in the
hair shaft
8. Hair growth controlled by androgens
(testosterone) in males and females (Hirsuitism
due to ovarian or adrenal tumor)
9.
Average hair growth is 2 mm per week
10. Hair thinning or baldness (alopecia) due to
new growth hairs being outnumbered by hairs
falling out (~100 per day)
Hair Color

Two kinds of melanin contribute to hair
color.

Eumelanin colors hair brown to black, and
has an iron-rich pigment

Pheomelanin colors it yellow-blonde to red.
Nerves
1.
Meissner’s corpuscles – light touch
2.
Merkel’s disks – light touch
3.
Pacinian corpuscles – deep pressure
4. Ruffini’s corpuscles – deep pressure and
stretch
5.
Bare nerve endings – pain, heat, cold
Nails
1. Analogous to hooves or claws of other animals
2. Nail matrix responsible for growth of new nail
pushing nail distally
Pathophysiology
Cancer & Burns
Skin Cancer
Benign (Non-spreading) vs. malignant (spread
into other tissue)
Basal cell carcinoma – most common & least
malignant
1. Shiny lesions in the stratum basale which
grow into the dermis
2. 99% cure rate after surgery
Squamous Cell Carcinoma
1. Cells of the stratum spinosum form a lesion
which appears small red and round
2. Lesion usually forms on scalp, ears, lips, or
hands
3. Grows rapidly and can metastasize if not
removed
4. If caught early & removed chance of cure is
good
Melanoma
Melanoma (5% of skin cancers)
1. Cancer of the melanocytes
2. Most dangerous of the skin cancers
3. Appears as a brown or black spreading patch
4. Metastasizes rapidly to lymph and blood
5. ABCDE rule to detect
a. Asymmetry – two sides don’t match
b. Border irregularity – not smooth & have
indentations
c. Color – more than one color
d. Diameter – larger than 6 mm in diameter
e. Elevation – elevated above skin surface
SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA
SCC WITH FACIAL LYMPH NODE METAS
MELANOMAS
BASAL CARCINOMA
Burns
1st degree – only epidermal damage e.g.
sunburn
Heal in 2-3 days
ULCERATIVE BCC
2nd degree – epidermis & upper dermis
damaged
Blisters form (Fluid collects between dermis &
epidermis)
Heal in 3-4 weeks
Critical if more than 25% of the body is affected
3rd degree – epidermis & all of dermis is
damaged
1. Charring of muscle is common
2. Nerve endings are destroyed so not painful
SCALDING BURNS (2ND DEGREE)
3. Fluid loss can be catastrophic (dehydration &
electrolyte imbalance lead to renal failure and
shock)
4. Infection can be rampant
5. Skin grafting necessary
6. Critical if more than 10% of the body is
affected or if the face, hands, or feet have 3rd
degree burns
CAMPFIRE BURN
BATHTUB SCALDING
BURN CONTRACTURE
SKIN GRAFTING
DEBRIDING
Edema
Umbilical Hernia
(Before & after Valsalva Maneuver)
Epigastric Hernia