Chapter 8: Culture & Socialization 1. What is organizational culture? What is a sub-culture? What is climate? Organizational culture: The shared beliefs, values, and assumptions that exist in an organization. Culture provides uniqueness and social identity to organizations. It represents a true “way of life” for organizational members. It tends to be fairly stable over time. Culture can have a strong impact on both organizational performance and member satisfaction. Sub culture: Smaller cultures that develop within a larger organizational culture and are based on differences in training, occupation, or departmental goals. Ex. could be a different culture across faculties or across departments. Climate: "members" shared perceptions of the contingencies between behaviours that occur in the work environment and their consequences. X to Y relationships. Learning what behaviours are acceptable and unacceptable. 2. What is the Realistic Job Preview? Provide a balanced, realistic picture of the positive and negative aspects of the job to applicants. They do this by obtaining views of experienced employees and human resources staff about the positive and negative aspects of the job. Then, they incorporate these views into booklets or video presentations for applicants. 3. What is the Psychological Contract and what does a breach mean? Psychological contract: Beliefs held by employees regarding the reciprocal obligations and promises between them and their organization. For example, an employee might expect to receive bonuses and promotions in return for hard work and loyalty. Psychological contract breach: Employee perceptions that his or her organization has failed to fulfill one or more of its promises or obligations in the psychological contract. This occurs as a result with unrealistic expectations as well as recruiters are often tempted to promise more than their organization can provide to attract the best job applicants. 4. How do organizations develop early commitment in new recruits? - Visibility: person becomes more committed, the behaviour is more visible or observable - Explicitness: Extent to which the employee cannot deny the behaviour - Irreversibility: perception in the person that cannot quit - Personal Volition: glue that binds us to the course of action; perseverance; Willpower 5. What is socialization? What is the difference between a proximal and distal socialization outcome? Socialization: The process by which people learn the attitudes, knowledge, and behaviours that are necessary for a person to function. Long term processes are often informal. There are three kinds of fit that are important for socialization. 1. Person-job fit: The match between an employee's knowledge skills and abilities and the requirements of the job 2. Person-organization fit: The match between an employee’s personal values and the values of an organization 3. Person-group fit: The match between an employee’s values and the values of his or her work group One of the primary goals of organizational socialization is organizational identification which is the extent to which individuals define themselves in terms of the organization and what it is perceived to represent. PROXIMAL: Learning; Task mastery; Social integration; Role Conflict Reduced; Less role ambiguity DISTAL: Job satisfaction; organizational commitment; organizational identification goes up; OCB goes up; Stress down; Turnover down 6.What is the strategic importance of socialization? - Sets the tone of employment relationship - Clarifies expectations/ how things are done - Reduces anxiety for new employees: less cognitive dissonance, Will I fit in? Will I enjoy the job/ my co-workers - Effects employee attitudes and behaviour: talking to a client, Job satisfaction, commitment, Job performance 7.What is the difference between orientation and socialization? Orientation: Program that informs new employees about their job and company. It’s short and formal. Already discussed socialization in question 5 8. What are the three stages of socialization? What are the six socialization tactics? 1. Anticipatory Socialization: socialization that occurs before a person becomes a member of a particular organization. Not all anticipatory socialization is accurate and useful for the new member. Can be both formal and informal. Employees begin with certain expectations about organization and job. May be unrealistic if unmet, result in dissatisfaction, turnover, etc. 2. Encounter: At this stage, the organization and its experienced members are looking for an acceptable degree of conformity to organizational norms and the gradual acquisition of appropriate role behaviour. Recruits on the other hand, are interested in having their personal needs and expectations fulfilled. Inconsistencies between expectations and reality emerge. Needs info re: policies, procedures, etc. •E.g., via Orientation program –Organizational issues, policies, etc. –Benefits –Introductions –Job Duties –Benefits of a good orientation program •Shows organization values to employee •Reduces employee anxiety and turnover •Clarifies job and organizational expectations •Improves job performance 3. Role Management: After surviving the encounter stage, the new member’s attention shifts to fine tuning and actively managing his or her role in the organization. The organizational member must also confront balancing the now-familiar organizational role with non-work roles and family demands. Inconsistencies start to get worked out. Employees begin to identify with the organization. Transition from being an “outsider” to feeling like an “insider”. Often involves taking on new attitudes, values, and behaviours to align with organization’s. Misalignment = dissatisfaction and turnover. Six (6) Socialization tactics: Institutionalized Socialization Vs. Individualized Socialization Collective Context Tactics Individual Formal Context Tactics Informal Sequential Content Tactics Random Fixed Content Tactics Variable Serial Social Tactics Disjunctive Investiture Social Tactics Divestiture 9. What are the elements of a strong cultured organization? What are the advantages and disadvantages of a strong cultured organization? Strong Culture: An organizational culture with intense and pervasive beliefs, values, and assumptions A strong culture provides great consensus concerning “what the organization is about” or what it stands for” Weak cultures are fragmented and have less impact on organizational members Assets: Coordination, Conflict Resolution, Financial Success Liabilities: Resistance to change, culture clash, pathology 10. What is mentoring? What are the two primary functions of a mentor? Mentoring: Is a type of developmental relationship that produces benefits for a protege's work and/or career. However, for mentors to be effective they must perform two types of developmental functions: career and psychological functions. Career functions: A mentor provides knowledge and tips to the mentee based on the mentors experience, knowledge of how the organization works, status, and influence with powerful people in the organization. The career functions of mentoring include. Sponsorship, Exposure and visibility, Coaching and feedback, Development assignments. Psychological functions: Mentors helping the mentee in their self-confidence, sense of identity, and ability to cope with emotional traumas that can damage a person's effectiveness. These include Role modelling, Providing acceptance and confirmation, counselling. 11. What are three quick ways to diagnose a culture? Symbols: To reinforce cultural values Rituals: Rites, rituals and ceremonies that can convey essence, e.g, casual fridays, walmart cheer Stories: The folklore of organizations – stories about past organizational events – is a common aspect of culture 12. What is proactive socialization? H ow can you be involved in your socialization and culture adaptation? Proactive Socialization: the employee plays an active role in his/her own socialization by: Feedback Seeking: Requesting information about how one is performing ones task and role Information seeking: Requesting information about one's job,role, group, and organization General socializing: Participating in social office events and attending social gatherings Relationship building: Initiating social interactions and building relationships with others in ones area or department Boss-relationship building: Initiating social interactions to get to know and form a relationship with ones boss Networking: Socializing with and getting to know members of the organization from various departments and functions Job change negotiation: Attempts to change one's job duties or the manner and means by which one performs one's job in order to increase the fit between oneself and the job Chapter 9: Leadership 1. What is Leadership? Leadership occurs when particular individuals exert influence on the goal achievement of others in an organizational context. Effective leadership exerts influence in a way that achieves organizational goals by enhancing the productivity, innovation, satisfaction, and commitment of the workforce. Leadership is about motivating people and gaining their commitment. Effective leaders can change the way people think, feel, and behave, and they can have a positive effect on individuals, groups, units, and even entire organizations. 2. What is the difference between a formal and informal leader? A leader versus a manager? Formal: Legitimacy; Role position - Formal leaders to assign, expected to influence other, given specific authorities to direct employees Example: CFO, CIO Informal: No legitimate title; positive power always - Rely on being perceived as highly skilled 3. What is the difference between a transactional leader versus a transformational leader? Transactional leader: Motivate by exchanging reward for services; Manager-like role Transformational leader: Arouse intense feelings; Intellectual stimulation; Inspiration Motivation; Rely on personal sources of power; Individualized consideration;Charisma 4. What is the difference between universal leader influence and situation contingent leader influence? Universal Leader Influence: Belief that certain individuals are destined to be leaders regardless of the situation. Traits associated with leadership effectiveness. Limitations of the trait approach. Leadership Categorization Theory. Situation Contingent Leader: Adjusts their expression of traits to meet the demands of the situation 5. What do universal trait approaches teach us?/ 6.What is the difference between the two universal behavior approaches of “Initiating Structure” and “Initiating Consideration” Initiating Structure (Task Leader) -The degree to which a leader concentrates on goal attainment -A leader who is concerned with accomplishing a task by organizing, planning and dividing labour Initiating Consideration (Social-emotional Leader) -The extent to which a leader is approachable and shows personal concern for employees -A leader who is concerned about reducing tension, resolving disagreements and maintaining morale It is important to note that consideration and initiating structure are not incompatible; a leader could be high, low, or average on one or both dimensions. Consideration tends to be more strongly related to follower satisfaction (leader satisfaction and job satisfaction), motivation, and leader effectiveness, while initiating structure is slightly more strongly related to leader job performance and group performance. Moreover, the effects of consideration and initiating structure often depend on the characteristics of the task, the employee, and the setting in which work is performed. 7. What is a contingency trait approach to leadership? What did Fiedler’s Contingency Model teach us with examples? What is the LPC scale? What were Fiedler’s Leadership Orientations? Fiedler’s Contingency Model - The association between leadership orientation and group effectiveness is contingent on how favourable the situation is for exerting influence 1.Leadership Orientation 2.Situational Favourableness 1.Leadership Orientation - Least Preferred Coworker Scale - LPC: A current or past co-worker with whom a leader has had a difficult time accomplishing a task. 2.Situational Favourableness - Leader-member relations - Task structure - Position power The Contingency Model Least Preferred co-worker (LPC): A current or past co-worker with whom a leader has had a difficult time accomplishing a task. The leader who describes the LPC relatively favourable (a high LPC score) can be considered relationship oriented, that is, despite the fact that the LPC is or was difficult to work with, the leader can still find positive qualities in him or her. A leader who describes the LPC unfavourably (a low LPC score) can be considered task oriented. This person allows the low task competence of the LPC to colour his or her views of the personal qualities of the LPC (If he’s no good at the job, then he’s not good, period) 8. What did House’s Path-Goal Model teach us with examples? What four Leader Behaviors did House speak about in his model? What Situational Factors did House speak about in his model? House path-goal theory: Robert House’s theory concerned with the situations under which various leader behaviours (directive, supportive, participative, achievement oriented) are most effective. Fire chief in multi-car accident would use Directive behaviour Manager of retail store would use Participative behaviour Supervisor for new graduates in top consulting firm would use Achievement oriented Directive behaviour: Do what is expected of them; providing specific guidance on what and how Supportive behaviour: leader showing concern with the well being of the subordinates; being friendly and approachable and helpful Participative behaviour: Consulting subordinates; asking for suggestions or opinions; allowing them to participate Achievement oriented: setting challenging goals for employees; expecting a high level of performance; confidence that people will achieve these goals Two situational factors include Employee characteristics and Environmental factors Employee characteristics examples: Employees who are high need achievers should work well under achievement-oriented leadership Employees who prefer being told what to do should respond best to directive leadership Environmental factors examples: Frustrating, dissatisfying jobs should increase employee appreciation of supportive behavior. To some degree, such support compensate for a disliked job, although it should probably do little to increase effort 9. What is Participative Leadership? What are its advantages and disadvantages? Participative Leadership: Involving employees in making work related decisions Minimally, participation involves obtaining employee opinions before making a decision Maximally, it allows employees to make their own decisions within agreed-on limits Advantages: Motivation- can increase motivation of employees Quality- Can enhance quality in two ways, first is the old saying two heads are better than one. Second, as high levels of participation often empower employees to take direct action to solve problems without checking every detail with the boss. Acceptance- Can increase employees’ acceptance of decisions Disadvantages: Time and energy Loss of power- some leaders feel that a participative style will reduce their power and influence Lack of receptivity or knowledge- Employees might lack the knowledge to contribute effectively to decisions 12. What are new and emerging approaches to Leadership? - Empowering Leadership Ethical Leadership (“Values Based”) Authentic Leadership Servant Leadership Emotional Intelligence and Leadership Culture and Leadership Gender and Leadership Change Leadership Leadership and Sustainability 10. What degrees of participation are suggested in Vroom and Jago’s Model? Chapter 12: Power, Politics, and Ethics 1.What is Power? Power: The capacity to influence others who are in a state of dependence. Firstly, power is the capacity to influence the behaviour of others. Power is not always perceived or exercised. Second, the fact that the target of power is dependent on the power holder does not imply that a poor relationship exists between the two. Third, power can flow in any direction in an organization. Often members at higher organizational levels have more power than those at lower levels. However, in specific cases, eversals can occur, Finally, power is a broad concept that applies to both groups and individuals. 2. What are the five bases (types) of individual power? Legitimate Power: Power derived from a person’s position or job in an organization (eg. President of your company asks you to do something) Reward Power: Power derived from the ability to provide positive outcomes and prevent negative outcomes (eg. you accept overtime because you want your boss to promote you) Coercive Power: Power derived from the use of punishment and threat. Controlling people through fear (eg. you arrive to work 15 minutes early because you know your boss will be very agitated if you’re late) Referent Power: Power derived from being well liked by others (eg. people will do a favour for you because you are highly respected, admired and are seen as a role model by others) Expert Power: Power derived from having special information or expertise that is valued by an organization (eg. everyone at work comes to you with questions about data analytics because your have an EMBA in Digital Transformation from McMaster) 3. How do people obtain power? Doing the right things –Extraordinary Activities (non-routine positions) –Visible Activities –Relevant Activities Cultivating the right people –Develop informal relationships with the right people (outsiders, subordinates, peers, superiors) 4. What is empowerment? What are the three degrees of empowerment? What are the characteristics of empowered people? What is empowerment? •Giving people the authority, opportunity, and motivation to take initiative and solve organizational problems •Giving people the freedom and ability to make decisions and commitments •Puts power where it is needed to make it effective •People who are empowered have a strong sense of self-efficacy What are the three degrees of empowerment? No Discretion (routine, repetitive, tasks assigned, operate according to rules rather than initiative) Participatory Empowerment (autonomous work groups, given some authority) Self-Management (full decision-making power, mg’t has faith in employees carrying out organizational missions and goals) What are the characteristics of empowered people? •Self-determination •Sense of meaning •Sense of competence •Sense of impact 5.What are influence tactics? What determines which influence tactics you would use? Provide examples of how you would match bases of power with associated influence tactics? Influence Tactics: Tactics that are used to convert power into actual influence over others Examples? Assertiveness – ordering, nagging, setting deadlines Ingratiation – using flattery and acting friendly Exchange – doing favours or offering to trade favours Upward Appeals– making formal or informal appeals to superiors for intervention (also inspirational appeals and personal appeals) Coalition Formation – seeking united support from other organizational members Rational Persuasion – using facts and data to make a logical or rational presentation of ideas Type of power: Someone with coercive power might gravitate toward assertiveness, someone with referent power might gravitate toward ingratiation, and someone with expert power might try rationality. Whom you are trying to influence- Subordinates are more likely to be the recipients of assertiveness than peers or supervisors. 6. What are McClelland’s three types of power managers? Which one is the most effective? 1. Institutional managers (MOST EFFECTIVE): They use their power for the good of the institution rather than self-aggrandizement. They refrain from coercive leadership and do not play favourites, since they are not worried about being well liked. 2. Affiliative managers: Who are more concerned with being liked than with exercising power 3. Personal Power managers: Who use their power for personal gain McClelland argues that the most effective managers: –Have high N-Pow –Use their power to achieve organizational goals –Adopt a participative or “coaching” leadership style –Are relatively unconcerned with how much others like them 7. What is subunit power? What are the four strategic contingencies that allow subunits to gain power? Subunit power: The degree of power held by various organizational subunits, such as departments. In some cases, subunits could also refer to particular jobs, such as those held by software engineers or environmental lawyers. Organizational subunits acquire power by controlling strategic contingencies which are critical factors affecting organizational effectiveness. This means that the work other subunits perform is contingent on the activities and performance of a key subunit. Strategic Contingencies: –Scarcity of resources: Subunits tend to acquire power when they are able to secure scarce resources that are important to the organization as a whole –Uncertainty:Subunits that are most capable to cope with uncertainty will tend to acquire power –Centrality: subunits whose activities are most central to the mission or work flow of the organization should acquire more power than those whose activities are more peripheral –Substitutability: a subunit will have relatively little power if others inside or outside the organization can perform its activities. If the subunit’s staff is non-substitutable, however, it can acquire substantial power. 8.What is organizational politics? Organizational politics is the pursuit of self-interest within an organization, whether or not this self-interest corresponds to organizational goals. Political activity is self-conscious and intentional. Would be countered if detected by those with different agendas (“Whistle-Blowers”) 9. What does it mean to have political skills? What are observable characteristics of those with political skills? Political skills: The ability to understand others at work and to use that knowledge to influence others to act in ways that enhance one’s personal or organizational objectives. Observable characteristics of those with political skills: Social Astuteness: The ability to read and anticipate situations Interpersonal Influence: The direct social pressure exerted on a person or group by another person or group in the form of demands or threats or promises of rewards or social approval. Apparent sincerity: Involves being transparent, honest, and sincere with others. Networking ability: establishing good relations with key organizational members and outsiders to accomplish one’s goals Beware: •Machiavellianism: A set of cyclical beliefs about human nature, morality, and the permissibility of using various tactics to achieve one’s ends •Defensiveness 10.What is the difference between ethics and morals? What are examples of ethical conduct? What Are examples of ethical misconduct? Ethics/Business Ethics –An acceptable set of standards/behaviours –Established by a body –Standards of conduct/standards of right versus wrong in business settings –What you say you believe in/live by –“above the water line” Morals/Business Morals –Embedded and personal/ your “internal compass ”–That which drives how you actually behave –“below the water line” Ethical Conduct: themes and associated behaviours, honest, continuous fair treatment of others Ethical Misconduct: Issues covered in corporate codes of ethics, Zero tolerance for: abusive behaviour, falsifying expense reports, violation of environment regulations 11.What are causes of unethical behavior? Gain •Performance pressure –Ex.Wells Fargo Fake Accounts Scandal •Role conflict •Strong organizational identification •Competition •Personality •Org Industry and Culture 12.What are the four components of corporate social responsibility? Ethical Actions: Define the core values of a business. Instead of merely abiding by the law, a business that focuses on corporate social responsibility needs to go above and beyond that and make choices based on what is right, not just what is legal. For example, if a business pays its employees minimum wage, that action follows a legal directive. However, if an employer chooses to pay its employees more than minimum wage in the belief that the employees do important work and deserve to be compensated accordingly, that is making a socially responsible decision. In addition to the compensation, employers can offer paid vacation, education and training perks and health coverage to improve the lives of their employees. Legal Aspects: From a legal perspective, it’s critical for businesses to follow the letter of the law. In addition to being aware of local, federal and international laws, companies also need to understand the rules of regulatory bodies for their industries. All businesses have a legal responsibility to do so.For example, if a small business sells toys for children, it needs to ensure that the products meet all safety regulations specified by the regulatory bodies. Economic Interests: It is socially responsible for the company to thrive and meet its revenue goals. In addition to increasing revenue, businesses need to work to reduce expenses and costs so they can maximize their profits Philanthropic Responsibilities (TOP): One of the best-known aspects of social responsibility is philanthropy. Companies take actions that improve the society around them, such as donating money or products and volunteering time. By helping those in need, businesses make a positive difference in the lives of people in their communities.For example, a bakery could send leftover bread at the end of the day to a nearby food bank, or a hairdresser can offer free haircuts to homeless people in the community. These philanthropic actions help the businesses to remain accountable and show employees and customers the true values of their businesses. Chapter 13: Conflict & Stress 1. What is Conflict? What are the four levels of conflict? Conflict: A process that occurs when one person, group, or organizational subunit frustrates the goal attainment of another. Levels: Interpersonal: refers to a conflict between two individuals. This occurs typically due to how people are different from one another Intrapersonal: occurs within an individual. The experience takes place in the person’s mind. Hence, it is a type of conflict that is psychological involving the individual’s thoughts, values, principles and emotions Intragroup: is a type of conflict that happens among individuals within a team. The incompatibilities and misunderstandings among these individuals lead to an intragroup conflict Intergroup: takes place when a misunderstanding arises among different teams within an organization. 2.What is the difference between traditional and contemporary views of conflict? Traditional view of conflict: •Negative, dysfunctional, detrimental •Distracts managers •Managers motivated to eliminate or suppress conflict Contemporary view of conflict: •Benefits of conflict are recognized •Realization that suppressing conflict can lead to further negative consequences •Conflict is seen as inevitable rather than avoidable 3.What are common causes of organizational conflict? 1.Group identification and intergroup bias 2.Interdependence 3.Differences in power, status and culture 4.Ambiguity 5.Scarce resources 4. What are the three primary types of conflict? 1.Relationship conflict (the who) –Interpersonal tensions among individuals that have to do with their relationship per se, not the task at hand –E.g., personality clashes 2.Task conflict (the what) –Disagreements about the nature of work to be Done -E.g., differences of opinion about goals or technical matters 3.Process conflict (the how) –Disagreements about how work should be organized and accomplished -E.g., disagreements about responsibility, authority, resource allocation, and who should do what 5. When conflict exists between two groups, what are the changes within each group as well as what are the changes in relations between the groups? Changes within each group: •Loyalty to group more important •Increased concern for task accomplishment •Autocratic leadership •Group structure more rigid •Group cohesiveness increases Changes in relations between groups: •Information concealed •Interaction/communication decreases •Win-lose orientation rather than problem-solving •Increased hostility toward rival group 6. What are five approaches to managing interpersonal conflict according to the Thomas model? Avoiding: A conflict management style characterized by low assertiveness of one’s own interests and low cooperation with the other party Accommodating: A conflict management style in which one cooperates with the other party while not asserting one’s own interests Competing: A conflict management style that maximizes assertiveness and minimizes cooperation Compromising: A conflict management style that combines intermediate levels of assertiveness and cooperation Collaborating: A conflict management style that maximizes both assertiveness and cooperation 7. Describe the Stressor-Stress Response Model with all its variables? Stressors: Environmental events or conditions that have the potential to induce stress Stress: A psychological reaction to the demands inherent in a stressor that has the potential to make a person feel tense or anxious. Stress reactions: The behavioural, psychological, and physiological consequences of stress 8.What are organizational stressors? What are work-family stressors? Organizational Stressors: •Work overload •Heavy responsibility •Poor job design •Role conflict; role ambiguity; role boundary management •Interpersonal conflict •Psychological environment stressors •Physical environment stressors Work/Non-work Stressors (Work/Family) •Time conflict •Strain conflict 9.What are three categories of stress reactions? •Psychological reactions: Involves emotions and thought processes rather than overt behaviour. The most common psychological reaction to stress is the use of defense mechanisms which include rationalization, projection, displacement, reaction formation, compensation –E.g., rationalization, projection, compensation •Physiological reactions: causes problems in the cardiovascular system, which can elevate levels of blood pressure, cholesterol, and pulse. –High blood pressure, sweatiness, heart palpitations, dizziness, more cortisone, etc. •Behavioural reactions: overt activities that the stressed individual uses in an attempt to cope with the stress. They include problem solving, seeking social support, modified performance, withdrawal, presenteeism, and the use of addictive substances –Attempts to cope (e.g., shopping, exercise) 10.What are the symptoms of burnout? What are organizational outcomes of burnout? What is the General Adaptation Syndrome (G.A.S)? •Emotional exhaustion –Lack of energy –Compassion fatigue: no longer able to empathize •Cynicism / depersonalization –Indifferent attitude to work –Treating individuals as objects / callousness –Strict adherence to rules and regulations •Reduced professional accomplishment –Lower self-efficacy –No longer see value of extra effort General Adaptation Syndrome (G.A.S.): Is the three-stage process that describes the physiological changes the body goes through when under stress. The alarm: makes our body ready to deal with the stress, resistance: repairs your body for instance makes your blood pressure go down, etc if stress is no longer there. If there is still stress then the body continues to be on high alert. and exhaustion stages: which occurs when you are in the resistance stage for too long in which your body is too weak and too physically drained to fight the stress. Organizational Outcomes - too much stress can lead to: •Job dissatisfaction •Occupational injuries and illnesses •Decision-making, cognitive abilities, task performance •Absenteeism, turnover 11.What is the relationship between personality and stress? What do the equations S+T+R and Dp>Rp=Sd tell us about stress? What is the difference between flight/fight/freeze? What is distress/normal stress/eustress? What are the coaching questions pertaining to frequency/intensity/duration? Personality can have an important influence on the stress experience. It can affect both the extent to which potential stressors are perceived as stressful and the types of stress reactions that occur. There are three key personality traits. Locus of Control •People’s beliefs about the factors that control their behaviour •Externals are more likely to feel anxious in the face of potential stressors (it’s all faith) –E.g., The world is against me •Internals are more likely to confront stressors directly (they can control it) –E.g., I can get through this Type A Behaviour Pattern •People’s beliefs about the factors that control their behaviour •Externals are more likely to feel anxious in the face of potential stressors –E.g., The world is against me •Internals are more likely to confront stressors directly –E.g., I can get through this Negative and Positive Affectivity Negative: The propensity to view the world, including oneself and other people, in a – light E.g., pessimistic, moody Positive: View world in a + light E.g., happy go lucky, always smiling, optimistic People high in Negative Affectivity report more stressors in the work environment and feel more subjective stress S+T=R and D>R=S - If perceived demands are greater than perceived resources then that can result in stress. •“Flight” or “Fight” or “Freeze”: The fight-flight-freeze response is your body’s natural reaction to danger. It’s a type of stress response that helps you react to perceived threats, like an oncoming car or growling dog. Specifically, fight-or-flight is an active defense response where you fight or flee. Your heart rate gets faster, which increases oxygen flow to your major muscles (The ALARM STAGE). Your pain perception drops, and your hearing sharpens. These changes help you act appropriately and rapidly. •Distress, Normal Stress and Eustress: moderate or normal stress which can be beneficial for the person who’s experiencing it. It’s not necessarily bad stress. •Frequency: How often does imbalance occur Intensity: How severe is the imbalance Duration: How long does the imbalance last 12.What are ways to reduce or cope with stress? Job redesign: Ex. An overloaded executive might be given an assistant to reduce the number of tasks he or she must perform Social support Human resource policies Stress management programs Work- life balance programs Chapter 15: Organizational Change 1. Why do organizations change? •External sources of pressure (eg. External Environmental pressures such as global competition; deregulation; advanced technologies; Covid-19 all bringing about changes in structure and strategy) •Internal sources of pressure (eg. Internal Environmental pressures such as lower productivity; internal conflict; strikes; high absenteeism and turnover bringing about changes in structure and strategy) 2. What do organizations change? •Goals and strategies •Technology •Job design •Structure •Processes •Culture •People 3. Describe Lewin’s 3-Stage Model of the Change Process? Change involves a sequence of events or a psychological process that occurs over time. The distinguished psychologist Kurt Lewin suggested that this sequence or process involves three basic stages-unfreezing, changing, and refreezing Unfreezing: The recognition that some current state of affairs is unsatisfactory. This might involve the realization that the present structure, task design, or technology is ineffective. Crises are especially likely to stimulate unfreezing. A dramatic drop in sales, a big lawsuit, or an unexpected strike are examples of such a crisis. Of course, unfreezing can also occur without crisis. Employee attitude surveys, customer surveys, and accounting data are often used to anticipate problems and to initiate change before crises are reached. Change Agents helpful at this stage: experts who apply behavioral science knowledge to organizational diagnosis and change. Change: Occurs when some program or plan is implemented to move the organization or its members to a more satisfactory state. Change efforts can range from minor to major. In order for change to occur, people must have the capability and the opportunity and the motivation to change. Refreezing: The condition that exists when newly developed behaviours, attitudes, or structures become an enduring part of the organization. At this point, the effectiveness of the change can be examined, and the desirability of extending the change further can be considered. It is a relative and temporary affairs. 4. What is meant by Diagnosis during the Change Process? Diagnosis: The systematic collection of information relevant to impending organizational change. Initial diagnosis can provide information that contributes to unfreezing by showing that a problem exists. Once unfreezing occurs, further diagnosis can clarify the problem and suggest just what changes should be implemented. 5.What is a Change Agent? Change agent: Experts in the application of behavioural science knowledge to organizational diagnosis and change. Some large firms have in-house change agents who are available for consultation. In other companies, outside consultants might be brought in. In any event, the change agent brings an independent, objective perspective to the diagnosis. 6.What is meant by Resistance during the Change Process? What are the common causes of Resistance? Resistance to change occurs when people either overtly or covertly fail to support the change effort. Causes of Resistance: •Politics and self-interest: People might feel that they personally will lose status, power, or even their jobs with the advent of the change. For example, individual departments will lose power and autonomy when a flat and decentralized structure is centralized and made more hierarchical •Low individual tolerance for change: Predispositions in personality make some people uncomfortable with changes in established routines. People who seek routine are cognitively rigid, and have a short-term focus are inclined to resist change. Those who feel self-efficacy to change tend to be committed to proposed changes. •Lack of trust: People might clearly understand the arguments being made for change but no trust the motives of those proposing the change •Different assessments of the situation: The targets of change might sincerely feel that the situation does not warrant the proposed change and that the advocates of change have misread the situation. For example, at UPS, managers saw the introduction of scanning bar-coded packages as a way to help customers trace goods. Employees saw it as a way to track them and spy on them. •Strong emotions: Change has the capacity to induce strong emotions in people trying to make sense of the change, emotions that often make people feel helpless and resistant •A resistant organizational culture: Some organizational cultures have especially stressed and rewarded stability and tradition. Advocates of change in such cultures are viewed as misguided deviants or aberrant outsiders. Microsoft has a culture that is somewhat resistant to the realities of consumer electronics. 7. What is meant by Evaluation and Institutionalization during the Change Process? organizations are notorious for doing a weak job of evaluating soft change programs that involve skills, attitudes, and values. however, it is possible to do a thorough evaluation by considering a range of variables: reactions. Did participants like the change program? learning. What knowledge was acquired in the program? Behavior. What changes in dog behaviour occurred? Outcomes. What changes in productivity, absence, and so on occurred? To some extent, reactions measure resistance, learning reflects change, and behaviour reflects successful refreezing. outcomes indicate whether refreezing is useful for the organization. Unfortunately many evaluations of change efforts never go beyond the measurement of reactions. Again, part of the reason for this may be political. The people who proposed the change effort fear reprisal if failure occurs. If the outcome of the chain is evaluated favorably, the organization will wish to institutionalize that change. This means that the change becomes a permanent part of the organizational system, a social fact that persists over time, despite possible turn over by the members who originally experience the change. It should be fairly easy to institutionalize a change that has been deemed successful. However, we noted that many change efforts are only weakly evaluated, and without hard proof of success it is very easy for institutionalization to be rejected by disaffected parties 8.What is Organizational Development(OD)? Organizational development (OD) is a planned, ongoing effort to change organizations to be more effective and more human. It uses the knowledge of behavioural science to foster a culture of organizational self-examination and readiness for change. a strong emphasis is placed on interpersonal and group processes. 9.What are specific OD strategies? –Team building: An effort to increase the effectiveness of work teams by improving interpersonal processes, goal clarification, and role clarification. Team building usually begins with a diagnostic session, often held away from the workplace, in which the team explores it’s current level of functioning. The goal at this stage is to paint a picture of the current strengths and weaknesses of the team. The ideal outcome of the diagnostic session is a list of needed changes to improve team functioning. –Survey feedback: The collection of data from organizational members and the provision of feedback about the results. –Total Quality Management (TQM): A systematic attempt to achieve continuous improvement in the quality of an organization’s products or services. Typical characteristics of TQM programs include an obsession with customer satisfaction; a concern for good relations with suppliers; continuous improvement of work processes; the prevention of quality errors; frequent measurement and assessment; extensive training; a high employee involvement and teamwork. –Reengineering: The radical redesign of organizational processes to achieve major improvements in such factors as time, cost, quality, or service. Reengineering does not fine-tune existing jobs, structures, technology, or human resources policies. Rather, it uses a “clean slate” approach that asks basic questions, such as, What business are we really in? And if we were creating this organization today, what would it look like? Then jobs, structure, technology, and policy are re-designed around the answers to these questions. 10.Does OD work? Conclusions - Most OD techniques have a positive impact on productivity, job satisfaction, or other work attitudes - OD seems to work better for supervisors or managers than for blue-collar workers. - Changes that use more than one technique seem to have more impact - There are great differences across sites in the success of OD interventions Problems - OD efforts involve a complex series of changes. There is little evidence of exactly which of these changes produce changes in processes or outcomes Novelty effects or the fact that participants receive special treatment might produce shortterm gains that really do not persist over time Self-reports of changes after OD might involve unconscious attempts to please the change agent Organizations may be reluctant to publicize facilities 11.What is the Innovation Process and how is it connected to the Change Process? •Innovation Is the process of developing and implementing new ideas in an organization. It is another way to foster change. •Innovation requires: –Creative ideas and creative people. –People who will fight for new ideas. –Good communication. –The proper application of resources and rewards. •Creativity refers to the production of novel but potentially useful ideas 12.What is the “Knowing-Doing Gap?” Many managers know what to do, but have considerable trouble implementing this knowledge in the form of action. • Why does the knowing-doing gap happen? –The tendency for some organizational cultures to reward short-term talk rather than longer-term action. –Many organizations foster internal competition that is not conducive to the cooperation between units that many changes require. –When managers do manage to make changes, they sometimes fail because techniques are adopted without understanding their underlying philosophy .
