Whitewashing Ghost in the Shell and the social media backlash
For over a century, Hollywood has long had a history with racism. In fact,
Hollywood’s earliest films were deeply steeped in racist overtones. A practice
known as Blackface, where a white actor would don black make-up to portray an
African man was the most flagrant display of racism in Hollywood. This
oppressive practice was repeated and extended towards other minorities
creating: Blackface, Yellowface, Brownface and etc. This was more than just
about make-up, it was a demeaning practice about power, specifically, the power
to strip one’s identity away to be used for ridicule, entertainment or oppressive
purposes. The underlying message broadcasted was that only white actors had
the right to appear on-screen. Throughout the years, the transition from
Blackface, Yellowface, and Brownface to “whitewashing, marks the simultaneous,
and intertwined persistence of white supremacy and so-called present day postracialism.”(Chengu 2016)
Whitewashing is a subtler but a more damaging form of racism. This is
because the silent erasure and replacement of another ethnic group on-screen
gives the impression that another group holds more importance over the other.
Whitewashing can be simply defined as casting a white male or female to portray
a character who is originally of an ethnic background. Earlier this year, the movie
“Ghost in the Shell”, adapted from the hugely popular sci-fi Manga (a Japanese
graphic novel), created by Masamune Shirow, found itself in the middle of a
social media firestorm due to whitewashing. This case study examines the recent
whitewashing controversy surrounding “Ghost in the Shell”; it also analyzes the
effects of whitewashing on society, reasons why it is prevalent in Hollywood and
how social media is fighting back.
The manga “Ghost in a Shell” first came out in 1989 and has a huge cult
following in and outside Japan. So popular was the manga that it became a Manga
series that was later adapted into animated films, video games, books and finally
an animated television series. The storyline follows crime-fighting cyborg
heroine, Major. Motoko Kusanagi, an officer of Public Security Section 9, a group
of special operatives who fight cybercrime, on various missions in futuristic
Japan.
The controversy with the live-action film began when Scarlett Johansson
was casted to play Major, the beloved cybercrime heroine. A character that many
fans interpreted to be Japanese. Scarlett Johansson, despite being a highly
talented and successful Hollywood actress, is of Caucasian descent. This led to
activists and fans protesting heavily on social media that this was another
example of Hollywood whitewashing.
The President of the Media Action Network for Asian Americans
(MANAA), Robert Chan, stated in a MANAA press statement released through
Facebook, “Apparently, in Hollywood, Japanese people can’t play Japanese people
anymore. There’s no reason why either Motoku or Hideo could not have been
portrayed by Japanese or Asian actors instead of Scarlett Johansson and Michael
Pitt. We don’t even get to see what they looked like in their original human
identities--a further white-wash.”1
In counterarguments to the whitewashing controversy surrounding
“Ghost in a Shell”, some argued that the Major. Motoko Kusanagi’s character is
not even Japanese, citing her large almond shaped eyes in the manga. Manga fans
shot down this argument by arguing that those large almonds shaped eyes are
ubiquitous facial attributes of manga characters. Manga fans firmly assert Major.
Motoko Kusanagi’s ethnicity as being Japanese, as she has a Japanese name and
the storyline takes place in futuristic Japan.
However, Mamoru Oshii, the director of the first anime adaptation,
addressed the controversy and argued that the Major is a woman with no set
race. His argument is that, “the name ‘Motoko Kusanagi’ and her current body are
not her original name and body, so there is no basis for saying that an Asian actress
must portray her.”2 Oshii further argued that currently there isn’t a Japanese or
Asian actor that has similar crowd-pull as Scarlett Johansson.
In response, Guy Aoki, founding president of Media Action Network for
Asian Americans (MANAA) said, “Many in Japan have been so brainwashed by
Western culture that they've developed an inferiority complex about their own.
1 Media Action Network for Asian Americans, Facebook, 31st March 2017 [Date accessed 28th May 2017
<https://www.facebook.com/manaaLA/posts/10158350944440580>]
2 Harris, Hunter. “Ghost in the Shell’s Original Director Mamoru Oshii Doesn’t See Scarlett Johansson’s Casting As
Whitewashing.” www.vulture.com, New York Media LLC, 24 Mar. 2017, www.vulture.com/2017/03/ghost-in-the-shellanime-whitewashing-scarlett-johansson.html. Accessed 28 May 2017.
They assume that in order for an American film to be successful, it has to star a
white actor.”3
In retrospect, looking at the hugely successful Marvel franchise, the
current Avengers line-up, made up of Robert Downey Jr. as Ironman, Chris
Hemsworth as Thor, Chris Evans as Captain America and even Scarlet Johansson
as The Black Widow, were not the A-list celebrities that they are now when they
were first cast as part of the Marvel franchise. So then, why can’t Hollywood take
a calculated risk by casting Asian American actors in lead roles as well? To better
examine this complex issue, we must first address one of its fundamental
components: understanding the effects of whitewashing.
The rationality behind the casting decision for the role of Major can vary
from one individual to another. Some may see this casting move as whitewashing
while others may see it merely as a marketing decision. Nevertheless, media
content needs to be critically examined and challenged because the ideologies
propagated by media representation represents the ideologies of the current
ruling class to help retain and maintain its current status quo.
“What really ought to be studied, say the critics, is the way these powerful
groups come to influence the most widespread media images in ways that
help them stay in power. From this perspective, agenda-setting and the
digital divide are not just phenomena that point to what people learn and
how differently they learn. They are a phenomena that help the powerful
class in society retain their power.” (Turow 2011)
Mass media is the medium that connects individuals to the larger social
world through the socialization process. As emphasized by Croteau and Hoynes,
“mass media serves as a powerful socializing agent. … Audiences learn and
internalize some of the values, beliefs, and norms presented in media products.”
(Croteau and Hoynes, 2013) So it is safe to say that through this process
individuals “learn and internalize the values, the beliefs and norms of our culture
and, in so doing, develop a sense of self.” (Croteau and Hoynes, 2013) The problem
with whitewashing is that it disrupts this socialization process because it not
only boxes people into stereotypical roles but it also erases their presence or
Kilday, Gregg. "Ghost in the Shell': How a Complex Concept, "Whitewashing" and Critics Kept Crowds Away."
http://www.hollywoodreporter.com. The Hollywood Reporter, 2 Apr. 2017. Web. 8 June 2017.
3
contributions from mass media creating a generation of viewers to feel
undesirable, unwanted or unattractive.
Furthermore, the lack of positive representation and only stereotypical
roles as media representation distorts the perception of ethnic groups; it distorts
their perception of society, their perception of themselves and their perception
of their place in society. Imagine for example, a young Asian American girl
struggling and being unable to identify with the white female superheroes found
in American comic books and finally identifying with characters in “Ghost in the
Shell”. Then later in adulthood she discovers that the ethnicity of her beloved
characters that she identified with throughout childhood has been erased and
replaced by another ethnicity in film. It discourages one from achieving or being
beyond from what they can see represented in media. Without relevant and
relatable media representation, stepping out of the box of stereotypes is an
absolute challenge.
So why is there a continued prevalence of whitewashing in Hollywood. It
cannot be denied that racism is still very much prevalent in Hollywood. As
Chengu argued, “for more than a century American film has been one of the most
important apparatus used for perpetuating American white supremacy and
justifying American military adventures.” It is to promote and reinforce the
ideology that the world can only be saved by those of the ruling class. However,
what if we take a step back from race politics and analyze another aspect of this
complex puzzle piece of whitewashing. The film industry perceives movie
making as a commodity.
“People in the industry typically take it for granted that film is a business
and sometimes find it surprising that there might be any discussion of this
characteristic. […] Yet the profit motive and the commodity nature of the
Hollywood model have implications for the kind of films that are produced
(and not produced), who makes them, how they are distributed and
where/when they are viewed. While many who study film, and some within
the industry, consider film an art form, it still seems important to point out
that Hollywood films cannot be understood outside the context in which
they are actually produced and distributed, that is, within an industrial,
capitalist structure.” (Wasko 2011)
An old Hollywood cliché jokingly proclaims that the only color Hollywood
executives see is green. So another argument in defense behind the decision to
cast Scarlett Johansson was because of her established star-power ability to pull
in movie crowds. Furthermore, as argued by Wasko, securing financing for a film
has become more difficult due to the recent economic meltdown thus finding
alternative-financing resources becomes trickier to raise especially if the lead
role was played a less prominent actor. It is a risk not many producers are
willing to gamble. Hollywood director Ridley Scott explains whitewashing in
Hollywood, after he was accused of it in 2014.
“I can’t mount a film (Exodus) of this budget, where I have to rely on tax
rebates in Spain, and say that my lead actor is Mohammad so-and-so from
such-and-such. I’m just not going to get it financed. So the question doesn’t
even come up”. (Chengu 2016)
Furthermore, as noted by film critic Leonard Martin, “There’s no such
thing as a surefire hit in Hollywood. But a franchise is as close to surefire as it gets”
(quoted in Hoffman and Rose 2005) (Wasko 2011) While there is no magic
formula to guarantee a box-office success, Hollywood wagers more on the
possibility of sequels and franchises because the bulk of revenue comes from
franchising and merchandising. In fact, in the film industry, tickets sales
represent a very small percentage of revenue. To give a better idea of this, the
Harry Potter franchise has earned a whopping $25 billion in franchising and
merchandising for the Warner Brothers Empire with only a third of the revenue
coming from tickets sales.4 Paramount was probably hoping to replicate the
same franchising success Warner Brothers had with Harry Potter by turning
“Ghost in a Shell” into a cyberpunk franchise as it had already proven to be
successful in a different medium.
So how did a franchise that was so successful flop at the American boxoffice? To reiterate, there is no surefire formula; however, did the digital
backlash from social media affect the potential success of Ghost in the Shell? Kyle
Davies, the domestic distribution chief for Paramount certainly thinks so, "We
had hopes for better results domestically. I think the conversation regarding
Wells, Nick, and Mike Fahey. "Harry Potter and the $25 billion franchise." www.cnbc.com. NBC Universal, 13 Oct. 2016.
Web. 28 May 2017.
4
casting impacted the reviews."5 This was in response to the online backlash and
protests that were so severe that even Scarlett Johansson had to publically
defend her decision to take on the role of the Major.
The prominent social media sites used to fight back against this recent
whitewashing controversy were Facebook, Twitter, Instagram and YouTube.
Through Facebook, protestors set up an online petition garnering over 100,000
signatures and lobbied for Paramount Pictures to “reconsider casting Scarlett
Johansson in Ghost in the Shell and select actors who are truer to the cast of the
original film”. 6 In addition, a disastrous marketing campaign by Paramount
Pictures generating memes of “Ghost in the Shell” through a meme-generator
('meme' is a virally-transmitted cultural symbol usually an image or social idea
through social media).
Instead it backfired when fans and
protestors used the generator to create
memes
mocking
the
movie
of
whitewashing and virally spreading it
through Twitter and Instagram. Featured
left, is an example of such a meme, the
caption “I am still waiting to see myself as
a hero” over the background image of an
Asian child, speaks volumes about the
effects whitewashing has on a child.
This collective action by fans and
protestors was successful because there
was not a wide digital divide for fans and
protestors of “Ghost in the Shell” to bridge. Furthermore, a public service
announcements (PSAs) uploaded online through YouTube elaborated the effects
whitewashing has on young Asian American girls viewed over 200,000 times.
5 Nathoo, Zulekha . "Casting controversy, reviews blamed for Ghost in the Shell failure at box office." CBC News. CBS
Corporation, 2 Apr. 2017. Web. 28 May 2017.
6 Solomon, Charles. "The Original 'Ghost in the Shell' Was a Watershed Film in Animation History." www.latimes.com. Los
Angeles Times, 28 Mar. 2017. Web. 28 May 2017.
In conclusion, as contemporary times have progressively changed, so
must Hollywood change its archaic agenda-setting views and set the exemplar
path for progression.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Croteau, D., & Hoynes, W. (2013). Media/society: Industries, images, and
audiences. London: Sage Publications.
2. Garikai, Chengu. “The History of Hollywood: Propaganda for White
Supremacy at Home and US Militarism Abroad.” www.counterpunch.com,
CounterPunch, 16 Mar. 2016, www.counterpunch.org/2016/03/16/thehistory-of-hollywood-propaganda-for-white-supremacy-at-home-and-usmilitarism-abroad/. Accessed 28 May 2017.
3. Harris, Hunter. “Ghost in the Shell’s Original Director Mamoru Oshii
Doesn’t
See
Scarlett
www.vulture.com,
New
Johansson’s
York
Casting
Media
LLC,
As
24
Whitewashing.”
Mar.
2017,
www.vulture.com/2017/03/ghost-in-the-shell-anime-whitewashingscarlett-johansson.html. Accessed 28 May 2017.
4. Kilday, Gregg. "Ghost in the Shell': How a Complex Concept,
"Whitewashing"
and
Critics
Kept
Crowds
Away."
Http://www.hollywoodreporter.com. The Hollywood Reporter, 2 Apr.
2017. Web. 8 June 2017.
5. Media Action Network for Asian Americans, Facebook, 31st March 2017
[Date accessed 28th May 2017]
6. <https://www.facebook.com/manaaLA/posts/10158350944440580>
7. Nathoo, Zulekha. "Casting controversy, reviews blamed for Ghost in the
Shell failure at box office." CBC News. CBS Corporation, 2 Apr. 2017. Web.
28 May 2017.
8. Solomon, Charles. "The Original 'Ghost in the Shell' Was a Watershed Film
in Animation History." www.latimes.com. Los Angeles Times, 28 Mar.
2017. Web. 28 May 2017.
9. Turow, J. (2011). Media today: An introduction to mass communication:
Taylor & Francis.
10. Wasko, J., Murdock, G., & Sousa, H. (Eds.). (2011). The Handbook of
Political Economy of Communications: Core Concerns and Issues. Oxford,
UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
11. Wells, Nick, and Mike Fahey. "Harry Potter and the $25 billion franchise."
www.cnbc.com. NBC Universal, 13 Oct. 2016. Web. 28 May 2017.