PSYB57 (Cognitive Psychology)
Lecture 1 (Intro, history of cognitive psychology)
Cognitive psychology: study of processes and products of human mind. Attention to processes
Absorbing(sensation): taking in information in the present moment
Processing (perception, computations, integrations): interpret sensory information
Responding (decisions and action): output
Stimulus/input -> Process -> Response/output
Method of inquiry
Introspection (structuralism): take something complex like emotion and break it up into individual parts. Decompose
complex things. Introspection means looking into oneself. Self analyze mental processes. Ex - self analyze ones anger
and outcomes
Valuable: surveys
Cons: asking someone has its limitations, aren't alw ays aw are, end product and not process, cannot verify
Freudian theory
Unconscious mind: mental processes going on that w e aren't aw are of but still effect us
Freudian slip
Dreams: dreams are safe place for unconscious mind to act out. Window to unconscious
Personality theory
Id, superego, ego: helps guide behavior
Defense mechanisms: reduce anxiety of unconscious mind
Origins of psychiatric illness: unbalances in unconscious mind causes schizophrenia, depression etc.
Limitations: they suffer from falsifiability. Hard to prove true. No evidence.
Behaviorism: Stimulus/input -> Response/Output. Cannot see the mind therefore not study it. All behavior described by
conditioning. Action and reaction time importance to making inference about cognition.
Classical conditioning: Pavlovian conditioning
Operant conditioning: w hy people do w hat they do
Limitation: cannot explain creativity, learning language, false memory. Not limit science to only observables. Ie: cannot
see gravity but can see effects, same w ith mind
Cognitivism: cognitive resources are limited and important to functioning w ell in the w orld
Cognitive Revolution: rejection of idea psychology is only study of behavior. We need to make inferences and educated
guess on how mind w orks. Use behavior to make educated guesses.
Information processing perspective: Input(sensory) -> Processes(computation) -> Output(motor commands)
Computer can be used to compare w ith mind
Artificial neural netw orks
Theory of Computation: crunch lots of numbers to see if it mimics that of human mind to model thinking processes
Complex models of cognition: considering serial and parallel processing(stroop test)
Differences in cognition: w hy differences in cognition
Within-subject differences in cognitive functioning: single individual and comparing mental ability betw een different
skills. w hy good in somethings and not others
Betw een-subject differences in cognitive functioning: w hy certain people are good at something and not others
Cognitive ability change throughout lifetime. Cognition is malleable
Localize w orkings of the mind (neuroscience)
Edw in Smith papyrus: functions of brain link to mind
Where is the mind
Cardiac hypothesis(outdated): mind comes from the heart
1/5 of oxygen inhaled goes to brain
Brain hypothesis: brain gives rise to the mind (dominant w ay of thinking)
Descartes
Rationalism: if logical can reason through how body w orks
Monism: mind and brain are one
Dualism: (Descartes started) did not believe mind and soul w ere the same thing
Pineal gland: only part of brain that does not exist on both side is special. Size of pea and one of them. Pineal gland
is w here soul interacts w ith brain to produce behavior.
Different parts of brain has different purposes.
Brain is a hierarchy. Certain parts of brain charge of behavior and other parts follow . Front part in charge. Not all areas
created equal and frontal lobes important for calling shots.
Brain has cognitive netw orks w ith w hich different parts talk to each other.
Broca's area: portion of left frontal lobe. Dementia. Unable to vocalize but do everything else. Ability to speak fluently w as
gone.
Wernicke's area: portion of left temporal lobe. Can speak but show ed impairment in understanding. Patient's w ith stroke.
Patient H.M: serious seizures. Took out medial temporal lobes and that's w here seizures came from, but could no longer
create new memories. But remember old things and learn new things, but cannot remember. Hippocampus related to making
new members.
Corpus callosum: connection betw een left and right side of brain(w omen have more). If seizure started one side of brain
cannot spread to other side if the connection is cut. Left and right side of the brain do different things.
Penfield passed small current to different parts of brain to see how that site is relevant and see w hat different areas do.
Parietal part of brain visual hallucinations
Occipital part of brain also causes visual hallucinations.
Temporal part of brain causes visual/auditory hallucinations and w hole memories
Orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) impact on emotion. personality.
Studying patient's w ith injury does not tell how their brains w orked beforehand. Other techniques filled the gap
CT & structural MRI: image tissue structure
PET scanning: image brain activity
fMRI: image brain activity linking blood flow and neural activity
If part of brain w orking harder requires more blood flow
Lecture 2 (Cognitive models and experimental design)
Cognitive psychology understanding how w e behave and interact w ith the w orld to see how thinking w orks.
Carefully designed experiment -> Mental processes involved in the task -> Behavioral dependent variables
Experiments are designed to evaluate cognitive models. How w e make decisions, problem solve, retrieve memories etc. Nice
to show w here it w ill occur in the brain.
Should be specified w hat mental processes interested and connection betw een ideas and how they operate. Steps and
connection clear. Clearly specified
Reasonable to hypothesize. Realistic elements
simplest model w e could create to describe the process. Few er pieces in model alw ays preferred. Parsimonious
Must be falsifiable
Does our know ledge of brain link w ith model. Link to neuroscience. Biologically plausible
Long term memory is everything w e can call from at a subsequent time
Central executive boss of brain
Visuo-spatial sketchpad: visual memory
Phonological loop: language and sound pieces. internal dialogue
Create habits and routines model
Sensory Perceptual systems: how w e see things
Trigger Data Base: motor memories, how to interact w ith objects
Contention scheduling: things w e have engaged w ith more frequently most likely to engage w ith now
Supervisory Attentional System: mental brakes. Keeps contention scheduling in check and stop from behavior that is
inappropriate.
Utilization behavior exhibited by patients w ith frontal lobe injury. Does not have supervisory attentional system.
How to design thoughtful models
takes time
understand mental process(es) w e are examining, articulating clear operational definition (define variable in science, to
see definitions match throughout), many trials to get rid of outliers, play w ith variables (higher or low er demands)
collection of papers lead to understanding
if test is too easy its called ceiling effect
if accuracy same betw een tw o trials then they equally difficult
both accuracy and reaction time should be used to determine effectiveness. Speed accuracy trade-off. Faster then
more mistakes
Remembering letters forw ards and backw ards show capacity of w orking memory and intelligence.
Response inhibition: stop behavior before it occurs. Ability to w ithhold motor response
Tested using Continuous Performance Task (CPT): Not press button in 'C' and "M"
Hit: Means correct w hen supposed to
Error of Omission: Mind w andering and not pressing button as supposed to
Correct rejection: w ithhold response w hen supposed to
Error of commission: engage autopilot and do something w hen not supposed to
Guiding principles that should mold how to construct tests
Construct validity: construct something w e are trying to measure. Test targets w hat w e expect it to target
Convergent validity: different tests exhibits the same result
Divergent validity: result should not be similar to others that dont test the same thing
Consistent scoring: transparent method for scoring accuracy
Appropriate range of difficulty(sensitivity): need easier, middle and harder challenges.
Multiple versions for repeatability: see how performances change. Comparable difficulty, surface structure change but
deep structure (keep the core problems)
Articulating typical patterns of performance across groups of interest (norms)
Cognitive neuroscience: tries to identify w here in the brain processes occurs
Differences in brain activity can be used to make inferences to difficulty, intelligence
Uses of cognitive neuroimaging
Medical Uses
Basic research uses
Structural analyses
Functional analyses
MRI(Magnetic Resonance Imaging)
DTI test for multiple schrosis (degeneration of connection of brain)
EEG: electrodes detect brain electricity/ Helps how timing
fMRI: blood flow and neural activity(neurovascular coupling). BOLD signal is how much blood is coming in. Good to show
w here event occurs but not w hen
PET scan used to track blood flow
CAT scan is radiation based scan
Brain injury may make better in certain tasks
TMS to temporarily turn off brain area in healthy individuals. Only reaches outside areas
Lecture 3 (Perception and Object Recognition)
Sensation to Perception: how w e absorb info and make sense of it
Sensation: turn energy into neural signal
Perception: decoding of neural signal. Processed by brain
Segmentation: separating one object from another
Gestalt principles of perceptual organization: proximity, similarity, closure, good continuation, common movement, good
form
Cues to infer distance
Binocular disparity: tw o eyes slightly different, prevents blind spot
Familiar size
Linear perspective (and the vanishing point): for ex road gets thinner as w e look father aw ay
Motion parallax: w hen moving things in distance don't seem to move w hile things closer moves much faster
Bottom-up processing: stuff from environment comes in, w e think about it and use it
Gibson's theory of direct perception: environment supplies all w e need for perception. Sufficient context enough to make
most perceptual decisions. Ex: if standing behind podium and cannot see legs still infer there are legs. How do w e
recognize things w hich are same but look different
Template theory: solves issue w ith gibson's theory. Detailed memory representation of how everything looks like in every
different angle. Issue: space in brain, economy issue
Feature analysis theories: w e identify combination of features instead of recognizing objects as a w hole
Pandemonium model: Image Demon -> Feature Demons -> Cognitive Demons -> Decision Demons
Pattern recognition model: use parallel distributed processing to model feature analysis. Ie after looking at first few
letters of the w ord w e can predict and narrow dow n choices of w ords (for letters)
Recognition of components(RBC): objects consist of 3D pieces called geons. Way geons come together help identify one
object from another. Not good for human faces, animals(for objects)
Top-dow n processing: know ledge and expectations shape the w orld. Ex- color, stereotype. Not bad saves lot of w ork
Constructive perception: perceiver builds a perception of a stimulus informed by cognitive processes. Ex- even by
looking at half blocked stop sign w e can infer, or w e can infer w e can find knife most likely in kitchen so unknow n object
might be knife
Studied using w ord recognition. Show w ord and ask w hat is last letter, it is done faster if it is real w ord vs random. if
real w ord then parallel.
Pattern recognition systems: w hen w e see people. Test by scrambled faces. Better at remember intact faces. Process
faces as a w hole. For scrambled faces focus on parts. Facial immersion effect is that w e have difficulty recognizing
upside dow n faces, up right typical faces are special and easy to remember. Upright face effect does not hold in objects
show ing faces are special.
Feature analysis system hypothesis: recognize by features that make them up. By parts
Configurational system hypothesis: recognize things as a w hole. Ex: faces
Right eye processed by left part of brain and vise versa. Things that are up is processed by low er part of brain and vise
versa.
Visual input captured by retina is mapped onto visual cortex in the occipital lobe called retinotopic mapping. Injury to
retinotopic map results in visual deficit corresponding to the location on that map.
Cortical blindness: eye w orks fine but due to brain issue cannot see.
If born w ithout ability to see then that lobe does nothing or re-programmed. Tactile version of reading get mapped to the
occipital lobe then. Only happens if born w ithout vision. Visual areas cannot un-specialize if born w ithout vision.
Happens in parallel
What looking at: Ventral stream: Occipital to Temporal helps identify stuff
Where is object: Dorsal stream: Occipital to Parietal w here things are and how to interact
Faces special. Part of ventral stream fusiform face area lights up
Lights up w hen expert level visual discrimination. People can do so for cars, birds etc
Perception as necessary but not sufficient for proper object recognition. Ability to recognize object is different than
perception. It is process on top of perception.
Associative visual agnosia: not being able to recognize objects even though they saw it. Pathw ay betw een sight and
w hat they know blocked. Difficulty bridging w hat they see and w hat they know . But can identify w hen using hearing,
touch, smell etc. Other pathw ays become enhanced.
Prosopagnosia: cannot identify face even though see it. Reply on other queues.
If they car expert then struggle labelling car as w ell
Grand illusion of perception: w e think that w e take in far more completely and accurately than w e actually do. We make
educated guesses.
Feature integration theory: features are processed separately and in parallel by appropriate areas
Selective attention test: if w e are not looking for something then w e miss it
We need attention to perceive object correctly
If w hat w e hear and see are in conflict. Brain trusts sight
Week 4 (Attention)
Far more in the w orld than w e can be aw are of. There is a filtering process of w hat w e can give attention to (this is the
bottleneck). Only some things come to out consciousness. Whatever is important goes to processing. Whatever gets passed
is something w e can practice and may go into long term memory. Aren't aw are of w hat gets cut.
Dichotic listening task
Each ear different sound. Present info each ear, and see w hat info they can pull.
Can only focus on one ear w ell.
If tested on left ear then very little info received from right ear.
This is used to show filter theory. Processed in parallel to filter. Processed in serial in processing.
Limitations: sw itch betw een ears to preserve meaning, and they think its coming from one ear. Ex: cocktail party w e
hear things relevant to us
Attenuation theory: revised filter theory.
Everything comes through sensory inputs
Then gets semantically analyzed. Identifying meaning of w ords, pics etc. Instead of completely ignoring w e dampen info
and call on them as needed.
Then decisions are made etc.
Inhibition of return: If delay increases the time to sw itch attention increases.
Invalid arrow slow est, valid arrow fastest.
Neutral time is slow est if w e use eyes because w e focus on human face.
Automatic attention: is something w e cannot control, environment makes us pay attention. Focusing on loud sounds etc. Ex;
someone randomly clap
Controlled attention: w hat w e chose to may attention to. Ability to control our behavior.
Supervisory attentional system: to put brakes on something w e are doing.
Stroop task: show s us trying to use controlled attention. Ramping up w hat is needed and dialing dow n w hat is not.
Search
Pop-out search: identify unique something that pops out. Ex: red symbol among green symbols
Conjunction Search: multiple pieces same but not quite. Ex: finding w aldo.
Conjunction searches more difficult
Feature Integration Theory: need conscious attention to bind features together in the environment.
Impairment of attention then struggle to bind things together.
Balint' syndrome: damage to dorsal stream in both hemisphere. Devastation of attention. Simultagnosia is ability to see multiple
things at a time. Patients w ith this syndrome can only see one object at a time.
Allusary conjunction: conjunction betw een features that are not real. Patients w ith Balint's syndrome makes lots of them.
While regular people make less.
Attentional blink: moment w e are not taking any new information.
happens w hen w e present lots of info in limited time.
accuracy and reaction time different w hen probe show s depending on first target. Lag of 3 people are not aw are of the
w ord. Show s attention has a refresh rate. For brief moment w e seem blind to new information. Brain processed
meaning of the w ord unconsciously but brain has not processed it.
Frontal lobe control of attention. Patients w ith damage to this has lots more sensory input and therefore have difficulty
staying focused.
Task sw itching: sw itching betw een tasks
w hen sw itching there is a sw itch cost. Extra amount of time to take to get into the mind set of the new topic. The more
complex task the more the sw itch cost.
Change in time show s unloading of w hat no longer doing and loading w hat w e are now doing.
Attention requires more parts of the brain. Attention is more dominant of right side, w hile language on left side.
Hemispatial neglect: also called spatial neglect. Damage right side of brain impacting attention netw ork. Unable to pay
attention to anything on left side of space.
Line bisection task: to find middle of line. For person w ith damage middle on right side.
Visual search task: cross all lines on paper. Does all on the right not left.
They w ont often shave left side of face. Or eat left side of plate.
Internal cognition: Patients asked to imagine something. Only describes right side. When asked to rotate 45 degrees they
can describe w hat they have missed. Neglect effects internal mind as w ell.
Some information comes from left side that they are not aw are of. This helps speed processing.
PSYB57
Lecture 5 (Memory Systems)
it matters not only how w e store information but also how w e call upon it
Modal model of Memory
sensory memory w ith attention goes to w orking memory, encoded to long term memory and can be retrieved from long
term memory to w orking memory
Visual sensory memory (iconic memory)
w hole report technique: show bunch of info and ask to report as best as possible. Average person can hold onto 3-4
letters at best. Capacity of visual sensory memory is 3-4 things
Partial report technique: said more info coming in than w hole report. See all 12 letters and disappear off screen and then
a tone is played. Tone corresponds to w hich row to report. High tone means up row , low tone means bottom row .
People can report row s w ith 100% accuracy. Show s visual memory is much higher 12 or more.
Show s w e have lot of memory but w e cannot access it. All letters sensory memory. Attention takes few to w orking
memory as attention is limited. Attention has small capacity of about 4 letters. This is stored to long term, by the time
attention comes to get next set of letters then letters are forgotten.
People do best w hen the tone is played immediately. Waiting longer then accuracy dies.
Auditory Sensory memory (echonic memory)
Attention captures auditory info, uses mismatch negativity(brain w aves) using eeg to detect different w ords. Capacity
of auditory sensory memory is about 10 s. This is because the mismatch disappears from w orking memory. At 12 s its
chance. Better duration than visual. Visual memory <1s.
Mismatch negativity is the brain w aves that happen w hen tw o things mismatch
Working memory is moment to moment conscious memory. Also called short term memory. Info is processed here.
Central executive is w hatever w e are paying attention to. Know w hat is important and help pay attention to it.
Fluid memory: central executive has control on these
Visuospatial sketchpad: visual imagery, close eyes and see images in mind. Dream, w orkspace for visual memory
Phonological loop: auditory memory. Internal dialogue.
Episodic buffer: gatew ay to long term memory, episodes of life. Helps us create new episodes of life. Timestamp
memory.
Crystallized memory(archived know ledge/long term)
Visual semantics: how things look like
Epsiodic LTM: episodes of life
language
How to get info to mind effectively
Rote rehearsal: Say over and over again in mind. More rehersal, better memory. But lots of studies also said rehersal
time does not alw ays help. In its true form its not effective
Chunking: re-order info to make them more related to each other to help recall.
Levels of processing (LoP): different w ays to process info, need to relate info to self, create practice questions etc.
The deeper process info the stronger recall. We care about self most so if things related to self recall is strong. Link
w hat learning to w hat w e already know . Best w ay to process info.
cannot make decision w ithout relevant info in mind(w orking memory)
Working memory is linked to higher level functioning. Strong link betw een w orking memory and intelligence.
Working memory training called n back task
letter matching for n back. Increase difficulty.
If w e practice this over w eeks then w orking memory got better. Therefore intelligence got better overtime as w ell
If given long list, remember first things (primacy) and later better (recency). Intermediate terms are not remembered as w ell.
Smaller lists are better as then intermediate area is less.
Pow er law of learning: more practice the better you get. Every hour you study in beginning is w orth more than later on, it is
called diminishing return.
The more background in something the faster you learn.
Long term Memory
Declarative memory (explicit memory): w hat w e are conscious about and can talk about
Events (episodic memory):
Facts (semantic memory)
Nondeclarative memory (implicit memory): signs of learning but cannot think or talk about, and can just demonstrate
Seizures can come from median temporal lobe as in HM, so it w as removed from his brain but he could not make any new
declarative memory
Retrograde amnesia: lose memory from past, but only happens moments before the accident rest is preserved
Alzheimer's patients remember most past events the longest. Temporally graded: slow ly forget moments from time
HM can still use non-declarative memory. Learn new things subconsciously. Learn new things but not remember learning
them.
Cortical consolidation theory
Primary start of memory starts at hippocampus.
Over hours, days memory goes to cortex and other parts of brain. Goes outside of hippocampus to live long term
After enough time memories can live independent of hippocampus
HM could not remember new memories because his hippocampus w as damaged. But childhood memories are fine because
they are stored in other places.
Alzheimer's effects hippocampus first and then spread to other parts of brain.
Sleep helps consolidate memories because new info isnt coming in. And all the info received is being organized.
KC had trauma cant remember events but can remember facts. Stuff closest to us is easy to remember but for KC he could
remember very little from past and could not create new episodic memory. Semantic memory w as fine.
Older adults says time move faster because of routine. Our lives as adults do not change as fast as it used to be. Bigger life
moments happen earlier in life.
Semantic dementia: episodic memory is fine but semantic memory is degraded. Loss of brain occurs in the temporal lobes.
Core parts of empirical journal article:
abstract, introduction, methods, results, discussion
Lecture 7 (Memory)
Priming: non-conscious process w hereby recently-processed information facilates the processing of subsequentlyencountered information. Warm up know ledge
Verbal Priming
Non-verbal Priming
Structurally possible: could be created. Made easier to process other structurally possible objects. It did not effect
processing for structurally impossible objects
Structurally impossible: could not be created in real life
Memory is not exact its a reconstruction. WE gather pieces from the event and patch things together. Episodic memory is also
reconstruction
Easy to implant false memory. Confidence != accuracy
Doing it w ith a list of w ords is called DRM pardigm.
Critical lures are w ords that are related to the list that w e did not hear
Good things w e did hear and did not hear but not good w ith critical lures
Performace good for first and last. Drop in middle. Very strong recency effect.
People are very confident they heard critical lures
False memory happen w ith critical lures because of priming. Lures are closely related so other w ords in the list are priming
for the lures
Suggesting something happened can alter memory
Emotions do not help solidify memory
True and false Memory
Activation:
Top-Dow n: We have know ledge and expectation of how the w orld w orks. influences false memories
Bottom-up: Thinking of doing something and think w e did it w hile in actuality w e did not
Monitoring: high level processing to decide if something happened or not
Criteria-based: Criteria based monitoring decisions. ex - muffin w as dry
Corroboration-based: Make inferences w hat happened based on w hat w e normally do. Ex- I did not eat cereal today
because I eat muffins
Why do w e forget: Forgetting is a good thing. More stuff w e have in memory the more w e have to search through
Decay (passive form of loss): memory decays w eaker over time. The w eaker it is the harder it is to remember. To
prevent decay w e have to think about it so it doesnt fade aw ay over time
Interference (active form of loss): new info w e take in dislodges info w e are trying to remember. Ex: losing track of
thought
Proactive interference: old info hinders recall of new info. Ex: harder to learn new phone number from your old phone
number
Retroactive interference: new info hinders recall of old info. More difficult to experimentally study. Ex: learning new
phone number makes it hard to recall old phone number
Type of distractions matter
Visual task and visual distraction bad performance. Visual task auditory distraction performance not effected
Auditory task and auditory distraction bad performance. Auditory task and visual distraction not effected
This is because visualtask uses sketchpad and audio uses loop.
Therefore all distractions are not the same
Interference w ill alw ays effect. Best method - spacing out time, sleep, strengthening memory for w hat is required
Sleep deprived then frontal lobe w eakened
manipulating proactive interference
Minimal memory: given same letter and asked if there is one letter in it
Low recency: four letters and asked if there is one letter in it
High recency: given four letters and asked if there is one letter in it, but the letter asked for w as in previous trial. High
accuracy but reaction time increases
Same tests in older results demonstrate same, but their reaction times are longer particularly high recency.
Older adults are slow er
Processing speed proposal: neural processing is slow er. Even simple reaction tasks slow er. In complex task they are
even slow er. Processing slow er in old adults and simultaneity because there is a lot of different info coming in.
Simple reaction time task. When green box pops up click button
inhibition proposal: interference happens easier w hen w e get older.
State dependent memory: w hen mental and physical states match betw een learning and testing then w e do better
Tip of the tongue phenomenon: being unable to retrieve a familiar w ord despite being able to recall similar w ords. Becoming
frustrated makes it more difficult. Older adults experience this more.
Three w ays to get to semantic system
Lexical phonological recognition. Ex- fit w ord
Object recognition system: recognize object
Lexical orthographic recognition: read a sentence, see in context
Express semantic
Lexical phronological output recognition: saying w ord
Lexical orthographic output processing: w riting w ord
Why does ToT phenomenon occur
Blocking: stuck in w rong answ er, failing in search process.
Partial activation: havent learned it w ell enough. Then memory trace too w eak to activate successfully
Happens w hen w e cram. Fix if w e learn over a period of time
Frontal lobes very active because it carries out search during Tot. Temporal lobes involved in memory this is w here it is
being searched. After search is over activation decreases but hippocampus activates to strength this memory.
Lecture 8 (Visual Imagery)
Image things in mind then remember things better
Mental imagery: ability to conjure images in mind
Imagery varies betw een people. Some people do it w ell, others less so.
Visual imagery promotes memory formation.
Forming images of concrete nouns improves recall, so does adding interaction
Method of losci: remember 15 item lists by imagining naviagting around home and imagining items
Dual coding hypothesis: visual imagery improve memory. Visual is special
Verbal: abstract, linguistic
Imagery: mental pictures. This is much stronger, more concrete. More abstract something is harder to imagine as it is not
consistent and uniform.
Need to create conceptual pegs w hich are concrete images in mind to imagine events, making it easier to remember.
Relate it to self in a visual w ay.
Relational-organizational hypothesis: imagery isnt special. What matters is if w e create more connections in memory.
Finke: how much is visual imagery different from perception
Implicit encoding: learning w ithout learning and putting into long term memory. Use visual imagery to retrieve info that w e
never tried to learn. Ex - imagine w alking around house and count w indow s
Perceptual equivalence: w ay w e see w orld is exactly how w e conjure image in mind. Activating idea/imagery
beforehand can help finding task faster. Hurtful if not imaging correct thing.
Spatial equivalence: traversing distance in mind takes longer both in mind and real life. Tested by studying arbitrary map
and reaction time how long it takes to go from one place to another in memory.
Perceptual heuristics: shortcuts. Ex: one city in BC and 1 in Alberta w hich is more w est. We just think BC is more w est
Image is rabbit or duck. If told w hat this image is then our view of the image is tainted. We just think the object instead of
the image.
Transformational equivalence: the longer it takes to move object in real life the more time it takes to move in mind as w ell.
Got it by studying mental rotation.
one idea require mental rotation
other idea w e do not require mental rotation as long as w e recognize geons or the parts that make it up w e can
recognize.
Structural equivalence: complex images take longer to conjure up in mind. When w e imagine images in mind w e imagine
pieces that make up a w hole.
critiques of mental imagery research
w e have tacit know ledge (gut feeling) of w hat is being studied. Therefore w e behave in a w ay that make experimenters
happy. Subjects being coarsed
experimenter expectancy effects results
picture in mind is not like picture in w orld. So easy to distort memory that w hat w e see and w hat w e imagine is different
mental imagery is not special route
propositional theory: propositions are connections in memory. Memory consists of propositions and more propositions
mean w e remember something better.
stronger propositions accessed more easily and faster
Thinking about things in mind makes us do things better. Ex: this can be used in sports.
Imagining left side moving can help in stroke rehabilitation. Have to use motor imagery and this engages nonconscious
processes. The only difference it is than physical moving is just the physical moving.
Lecture 9 (Language)
Common in all languages
Displacement: talk about something in its absence
Arbitrariness: idea can be represented by multiple sounds/w ords
Productivity: generate new sentences w e have not heard before
Learnability: humans can learn any language that exists
Animals struggle w ith productivity of language.
Core components of language
Phonology: study of sound as it relates to language. Phonemes is a sounds in language. 30 or so phonemes in english.
Since w e understand rules in language its top dow n processing as w e can predict. Phonemes is smallest unit of sound
in language.
Morphology: Smallest units of sounds that have meaning and smallest units called morphemes.
Free morpheme vs bound morpheme: free morpheme can stand on its sow n. Ex- unbreakable has multiple morphemes
such as un, break. Bound morphemes cannot ex college.
Functional morphemes vs content morphemes: functional morphemes used to preserve grammar. Functional morpheme
example: and. Content morphemes example: shoes.
Semantics: study of meaning in language. Effect of context. Depending on situation w e interpret w ords differently using
assumptions.
Syntax: means grammar. How to put together ideas that is consistent w ith language.
Garden path sentences: w e rely on prediction therefore w hen sentences are not structured properly, it cannot be
decoded properly.
Pragmatics: sometimes w hat w e say is not w hat w e mean. Hardest thing to learn in other languages. Right hemisphere
of brain is used in this.
Indirect speech: speech going somew here else but directed at a person.
Metaphors
Sarcasm
Speaking slow ly to someone w ithout mastery of language helps because it helps them parse better.
Children start talking in nouns or verbs. Content morpheme.
Learning by auditory(listening), visual
Dual route model of learning
learned w ords go to lexicon w hich is mental dictionary of w ords. This is memoriziatioin based
the other is phonological processing w here w e just try to sound it out.
Dyslexia is trouble decoding w hat w e are seeing and its corresponding sound.
3 to 7% people have dyslexia
Born w ith dyslexia and poor schooling does not help
its heritable
Occurs w ith other neurodevelopmental disorders and males > females
Phonological theory: those w ith dyslexia have issues w ith phonemes.
Issues w ith pitch determination, cannot see tw o sounds different, mismatch negativity. Tested by playing sounds and
dyslexic patients cant tell difference betw een tw o frequency tones (15 Hz). No issue w ith timing.
Played tw o sounds and manipulated time betw een sounds. When time short then the sounds perceived are different but
dyslexic patients take longer.
Someone w ith dyslixia can be helped by strengthening phonological processing. Training by telling differce betw een
sounds and changing time then dyslixic patients read better.
Does not explain w hy right side of brain more active in dyslixic patients.
Magnocellular theory
Around audio, visual areas there are abnormalities (primary theory)
During neurodevelopment neurons dont go to the layers they are supposed to go, and some neurons go too far, causing
clump if dysfunctional neurons, this is called ectopias.
Tw o patients w ith dyslixia are different because they have different amounts of ectopias.
Ectopias interfere in thalamus. More common in males may be linked w ith testosterone.
Dyslexic patients have issues in brain in audio, visual areas.
Dyslexia rates are higher in certain countries than others.
Language itself effects it. Italian low er dyslexia. Words in Italian pronounced how they look means they have shallow
orthographic. Words w hich are deep orthographic like English or Hebrew are more irregular and therefore more difficult
to pronounce such as pronouncing yacht.
This means less people in Italy are diagnosed because their language have shallow orthography.
Visual w ord form area: area used for decoding w ords, area not used by dyslexic people
PSYB57 (Cognitive Psychology)
Lecture 11 (Problem-Solving and expertise)
Problem solving: act of finding w ays to deal w ith problems
Problems w e solved in past and find relevance to solve new problems
Way w e structure a problem increases speed of solve. Insight also helps
Sometimes things w e may know can block our w ay of thinking and make problems more complex. Ex: altar w indow problem
Entrenched in w ay of thinking. Ex: counterfeit coin problem using 4 and 4
We make assumptions on parameters of problems that hinder our ability. Ex: nine-dot problem
Closer the hint is how w e are thinking about the problem is more helpful. Not all hints are the same
Functional fixedness: difficulty thinking of something in a different w ay.
Studied by comparing kids to adults, 5 year olds have no problem w hile 6 or higher have issues
Around 6 year olds they start going to school
We are hard w ired to be rigid
Negative transfer is extra time it takes to solve a problem
Strong but w rong tendency. Using complex strategy just because w e are familiar w ith it.
Some problem requires insight and so do not. Feeling of w armth is how close w e are getting to the answ er.
insight problems have less w armth and clicks suddenly
non-sight problem like math problems have a slow build up
Hint in the tw o string problem w orks better because it is more direct/concrete.
Promoting insightfulness
Progress monitoring theory: monitor progress. Am I solving the problem w hile attempting to solve problem. After a certain
point w e can see that our w ay of thinking is not getting us closer so w e start thinking in a different w ay
Representation change theory: represent problems in a different w ay
Insight and sleep: insight increases w ith sleep. Helps connect ideas w hich w e cannot consciously do
Mindfulness: other w ays to think about something
Rigid instructions cause rigid thinking
Einstellung effect: suggests that people may behave in mindless w ays more that they should. Reduce mindlessness by
saying something COULD be something and not saying something definite.
Supervisory attentional system (SAS): how w e learn something. Use this to stop thinking about something and try something
different. Left DKPFC is w here SAS is
Brain areas that develop first are the first to deteriorate
Components of problem-solving
understand the problem
devise a plan
execute the plan
examine the solution
Skill acquisition and expertise. Three primary stages
cognitive: learning steps of game
Associative: fine tuning and sharpening skills (bulk of time spent here)
autonomous: skill can be done easily and effortlessly in a high level (takes about 10000 hours of practice)
anyone can learn any skill but people inclined in something learn certain things faster than others
Pow er law of skill acquisition: the more w e practice something the better w e get
Once w e learn a skill it sticks. We might get rusty but w e dont forget
Study if chess makes people smarter
pattern learning: people of different skill levels w ere asked to tell if random pieces placed in a chess board w ere from an
actual game. as expertise increases remember more correct chess pieces for actual games. playing chess makes better
at chess but not in other domains
Theory of identical elements: w hy are transfers so hard? w e are very good at learning how to behave in a specific situation.
Trade off w e have difficulty applying the same w ay of thinking to other situations.
Memorization does not w ork for thinking. Learn concept not examples.
Way of thinking during training is how w e have to think during testing. We have to know how w e are being evaluated to
make this easier.
Lecture 12 (Intelligence)
Intelligence measured primarily in day to day life w ith visual and verbal processing.
Intelligence: mental ability to direct thinking, adapt to circumstances, and learn from their experiences
Why is it valuable to know someone's intelligence
tailor education based on their performance
tracking people over time and see if there are improvements
but can trigger self fulfilling prophecies and discrimination
Intelligence scores have normal distribution
145 IQ for genius
70 IQ intellectual impairment
2/3 of people betw een 85 to 115
Factor analysis: correlations betw een items w ithin a factor and betw een factor. Used this technique to see how many types
of intelligence there are
Spearman: 2 categories
general intelligence(g): ability to do w ell in everything. Explains variability in intelligence
specific intelligence(s)
verbal reasoning
quantitative reasoning
abstract visual reasoning: ex- paper folding
short-term memory: memory for sentences. memory for digits
Carroll
(g): recognized g
Broad: tells 8 different types of intelligence
Crystallized intelligence: know ledge about the w orld. School builds on this
Fluid Intelligence: w orking w ith crystallized know ledge. Ability to reason and pattern recognition. Mental function that
happens because other parts of memory is strong, therefore it is higher order mental functioning
Frontal lobe plays key role. Last area to mature.
Narrow : drills dow n into each from broad
Crystallized intelligence increases as time goes on, fluid intelligence peaks during 20 to 25
Fluid intelligence tested by looking at pattern matching. Relies on w orking memory and attention
Relationship betw een w orking memory and reasoning
N back task: remember letter show n n iterations back. Having lure has longest response time and low est accuracy
how w e manage lures relate to reasoning ability. better managing lure then higher score on ravens intelligence test
Lure is w hen w e saw character in last iteration
Attention control accepts fluid intelligence. Working memory muscle can be improved to improve fluid intelligence.
Relational Integration: process by w hich tw o or more relations are simultaneously considered and integrated. Last cognitive
function to fully mature.
test by raven's progressive matrices.
w orking memory and relational integration different.
Look at very front part of brain called RLPFC for relational integration. Children are w orse at relational integration than
adults, although adults and children have same reaction time.
Children are impulsive because they act w ithout thinking. Maybe children are bad at relational integration because of
impulse and can be seen by passive dissipation model.
RLPFC is slow er than impulsivity in adults as w ell. But RLPFC is still faster than children.
Solution give question, dont allow answ er for 10 seconds and then answ er. Accuracy sky rockets
Factors that may influence test performance
implicit or explicit social or cultural bias
stereotype threat:: stereotype may make performance higher or low er
self fulfilling prophecies: thinking bad at something makes w orse
socioeconomic status(SES):: if concerned about day to day less time focused on learning. Low SES means low
cognition(language, w orking memory, cognitive control, memory)
test by put earphones on. One ear disney movie in other ear distraction. Both low and high SES dont notice distraction,
but low er more aw are that distraction exists
Parent and Children making connections can increase attention. But if it is not practiced degrades overtime. If not mitigated
soon the gap w idens.
Video games can be used as a training tool. Instantaneous feedback is helpful. It should be easy and hard at the same time.
Expert video game players have better spatial aw areness. Pay attention to more stuff for longer.
Video games can make people better for real w orld scenarios as w ell.
Lecture 13 (Consciousness, Psychology of Gambling)
Consciousness is below our aw areness.
Grand illusion of perception: We seem to be aw are of everything in our surroundings but w e rely on educated guesses to fill
in the gaps.
Attentional resources are limited
Rely on top dow n w ay to construct our experience. Due to it w e miss several elements.
Distorted perceptual experience: We trust vision more than audio. McGurk effect show s how conflict is resolved in the
brain and w e dont even realize its happening.
Attentional blink: hole in conscious experience. Present info rapidly and ask if a w ord they are seeing is related to w ord they
have seen, in a small w indow of time w e are not aw are of w here w e take far less info.
Corpus callosum: connect different sides of brain.
Seizures can be elevated by cutting this. This w ay seizure is contained to one side.
Different sides of brain do different things tested by tachistoscopic presentation. Present info very fast. Info left side
processed on right side and vise versa. If show n so fast before eye movements left side and right side might process
different things. Left side of brain is more important for language.
Say and grab w ith right hand controlled by left side of brain.
Left hand is controlled by right side.
No need to cut the entire thing to help patients. Can cut specific regions of it causing partial split brain. Partial information
can cross over.
left brain interpreter important role of the left hemisphere is to bridge and explain cause and effect.
Split brain people function w ell. Limited by epilepsy still being an issue.
Right side of brain sees the w hole. Left side of the brain sees the parts that makes things up.
Coma is like sleep but they cannot w ake up and resume consciousness.
When people start recovering from coma they go to vegetative state. Here they can open and close eyes but they
cannot understand w hats going on around them. Brain is in a better state but did not resume aw areness. Longer in
vegetative state the harder it is to come out of it.
Improve from vegetative to minimal conscious. Here sometimes they are aw are of w hats going on. They cannot respond
so no eye movement or anything.
How to show someone aw are w ho cannot respond?
Hear, then recognize its speech, comprehend speech, then respond.
Perceptual processing is present in vegetative state. They turn on the same brain areas but at a lesser state w hen they
hear and see. But does not show aw areness because w e dont know if they recognize the face if they cannot respond.
We can get them to communicate by getting them to think of doing different activities. For example to say yes think of
playing tennis. EEG used for this.
Gambling is grow ing source of revenue.
1% of population is problem gambler. 2-3% probable gambler.
Distorted representation of money: w hen something does not feel like money. More distortion easier to spend it. ex- credit
cards, gift cards, tokens of slot machine.
Casinos amplify w in ex: machine makes sound, w all full of w inners and makes losses feel less ex: they give loyalty cards.
Wins are more memorable w hile losses are not.
People more afraid of crashes in planes than cars. This is because plane accidents come more readily in mind. Same
concept for w inners in lottery, it is availability heruistics.
Overestimate how much w e w on and dow nplay how much w e lost. Saying: good gambler but bad luck. Overestimate skill
and underestimate chance.
Near miss effect: people gamble more money after a near loss.
Cognitive regret: if I play one more time I can w in.
gambler's fallacy: thinking past results w ill have an outcome on future
people put more value on the numbers they pick than randomly generated number. Giving people control means they w ill
spend more.