CHAPTER 6 MACROECONOMIC PROBLEMS LEARNING OUTCOMES At the end of this chapter, you should be able to: Define and measure inflation. Differentiate the three types of inflation. Explain the effects of and measures available to control inflation. Define and measure unemployment. Differentiate the types of unemployment and measures available to control unemployment. Discuss the effects of unemployment. Interpret the relationship between inflation and unemployment. Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 All Rights Reserved 1–3 INFLATION Defined as a persistent and sustained increase in the general price level. Implies that there is an increase in the cost of living that causes lower purchasing power. There is an inverse relationship between inflation and the value of money. A rise in the general price means a drop in the value of money. Measures of inflation: – Inflation is measured by using the Consumer Price Index (CPI). Calculation INFLATION RATE = CPI 2016 – CPI 2015 CPI 2015 Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 x 100% All Rights Reserved 1–4 INFLATION (cont.) – A weighted CPI measures changes in the average prices of a ‘market basket’ of goods and services purchased by a typical urban household, taking into account the importance of certain goods and services relative to others. – Basket of goods and services includes foods, shelter, clothing, medical, furniture and transportation. – An increase in the CPI reflects inflation in the economy. Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 All Rights Reserved 1–5 INFLATION (cont.) Types and Causes of Inflation (i) Demand-pull inflation (shift in demand side) This type of inflation is caused by excess demand in fully employed economy. Demand-pull inflation occurs when aggregate demand (AD) exceeds the aggregate supply (AS). As AD = C + I + G + (X - M), any increase of these variables will cause aggregate demand to rise. Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 All Rights Reserved 1–6 INFLATION (cont.) When the economy is at full employment level, an increase in aggregate demand will cause an increase in general price level. Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 All Rights Reserved 1–7 INFLATION (cont.) In Figure 14.2, 0YF is the full employment aggregate output which is determined at the point of intersection of the aggregate demand curve, AD1 and aggregate supply curve, AS. An increase in the aggregate demand from AD0 to AD1 shows an increase in the price level from P0 to P1. As AD1 shift to AD2 (in full employment stage), price increases to P2. Real output has reached the maximum limit, but prices rise rapidly. Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 All Rights Reserved 1–8 INFLATION (cont.) (ii) Cost Push Inflation (shift in supply side) Caused by a decrease in aggregate supply due to an increase in cost of production for each unit of output produced. For instance, when price of raw materials or wages increase, the cost of production will also increase causing aggregate supply to decrease and the price of goods and services to increase. The shift in the aggregate supply curve may result from various factors: Cost Push Inflation Wage Push Inflation Import Push Inflation Exhaustion of natural resources Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 Fall in exchange rate Tax-push inflation Profit Push Inflation All Rights Reserved 1–9 INFLATION (cont.) Wage-push inflation • Due to wage increases which will lead to increase in the cost of production and the output price. Import-push inflation • Due to increase in he prices of imported raw materials or finished goods. Profit-push inflation • Occurs when firms gain more power and are able to push up prices to make larger profits. • Happened when markets move toward monopoly or oligopoly power. • Occurs when firms stock up on goods and create an artificial shortage to increase the price of goods in order to obtain higher profits. Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 All Rights Reserved 1–10 INFLATION (cont.) Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 All Rights Reserved 1–11 INFLATION (cont.) In Figure 4.3, 0YF is the full employment aggregate output. It is determined at the point of intersection of the aggregate demand curve, AD and aggregate supply curve, AS0. When AS0 shift to AS1,the equilibrium aggregate output falls from 0YF to OY1, the general price level rises from P0 to P1. A further upward shift in the aggregate supply curve from AS1 to AS2 creates a further increases in price to P2. The increase in the general price level is called the cost push inflation. Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 All Rights Reserved 1–12 INFLATION (cont.) (iii) Monetary Inflation Monetary inflation is a sustained increase in the money supply of a country, resulting in price inflation. Money supply increases through an expansionary fiscal policy or expansionary monetary policy. Quantity Theory of Money shows a direct relationship between the growth of the money supply and inflation, MV = PT, where: – M is Money supply – V is Velocity of circulation – P is Price level – T is Transactions or output Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 All Rights Reserved 1–13 INFLATION (cont.) Effects of Inflation (i) Unequal income distribution and wealth (ii) Reduce investment and production (iii) The amount of saving will decrease (iv) Deficit in the balance of trade (v) Breakdown in functions of money Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 All Rights Reserved 1–14 INFLATION (cont.) Measures to Control Inflation (1) Contractionary Fiscal Policy (Budget Surplus: T > G) (i) Increase in Taxes An increase in tax will reduce the disposable income of individuals income and their consumption on goods and services. This is turn will lead to a fall in prices. (ii) Decrease in Taxes A reduction in government spending will directly affect aggregate demand. The government will cut the salary of its civil servant and postpone development projects to reduce the purchasing power of the public. Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 All Rights Reserved 1–15 INFLATION (cont.) Measures to Control Inflation (2) Contractionary Monetary Policy (i) Open Market Operations The central bank may sell government securities, shortterm bonds or treasury bills in the open market to the public to reduce bank deposits and credit creation of commercial banks. Money supply will reduce, hence reducing aggregate demand and price level. (ii) Raising Required Reserve Ratio In the event of inflation, the central bank will increase the required reserve ratio of all commercial banks. Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 All Rights Reserved 1–16 INFLATION (cont.) (iii) Raising the base lending rate/bank rate (Interest on loan) A rise in the bank rate will cause an increase in the cost of borrowing. Loans become costly to borrow and firms will reduce borrowing and spending. Aggregate will reduce and inflation rate will drop. (iv) Raising the interest rate (Interest on saving) Central bank would direct the commercial banks to raise their interest rate for deposits from public. The high interest rates will encourage more public to save and increase the saving level to decrease the aggregate demand and price level. Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 All Rights Reserved 1–17 INFLATION (cont.) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Income policy: to ensure wages do not rise faster than productivity. Price control and rationing: control directly on prices of certain goods. Price pegging either by fixing a floor price or ceiling price is implemented. Supply side policies: to increase the production of essential consumer goods give tax incentives, grant and encourage research and development Exchange rate policies: reduce quantities or the price of imports. Increase in savings: introduce compulsory provident fund or provident fund-cum-pension schemes to increase savings in controlling inflation. Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 All Rights Reserved 1–18 UNEMPLOYMENT Unemployment occurs when people who are in the working age group, are able and willing to work, but are unable to find a suitable job. Defined as a situation in the economy, where there are people between the age 16 and 65 who are not working, but are actively seeking jobs. Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 All Rights Reserved 1–19 UNEMPLOYMENT (cont.) We can categorize the population into three different age groups: (i) Less than 16 years old (ii) 16–65 years old (iii) More than 65 years old The age between 16–65 years is considered as the total labour force. Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 All Rights Reserved 1–20 UNEMPLOYMENT (cont.) Population Below 16 years 16–65 years Labour force Employed 66 years and above Outside labour force Unemployed Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 All Rights Reserved 1–21 UNEMPLOYMENT (cont.) Labour Force All persons above the age of 16 and older who are employed or are actively seeking employment. The labour force consists of employed and unemployed persons. Is everyone above 16 years of age included in the labour force? – No, because students, housewives, pensioners and discouraged workers are consider as outside of labour force. Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 All Rights Reserved 1–22 UNEMPLOYMENT (cont.) Discouraged Worker A discouraged worker is an individual who wants to work, but who has been unsuccessful for a long period of time in finding a job and who has consequently given up on seeking jobs. A discouraged worker would like to work if the job prospects are good. Since the labour force is defined as people who are above 16 years of age and who are actively seeking employment, discouraged workers are excluded from the labour force. Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 All Rights Reserved 1–23 UNEMPLOYMENT (cont.) Types of Unemployment (1) Frictional Unemployment This is short term or temporary unemployment. Occurs when people enter the labour market to look for jobs or people leave their jobs, either voluntarily or from being sacked, and are unemployed for a period of time while they are looking for a new job. Includes new entrants such as school-leavers, fresh graduates and re-entrants, such as people who quit their jobs for a better position or higher wages, or former homemakers. Hence, there is a time lag during which a worker is unemployed when moving from one job to another. Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 All Rights Reserved 1–24 UNEMPLOYMENT (cont.) (2) Seasonal Unemployment Seasonal unemployment occurs when certain products cannot be produced during a certain season. Hence, many workers are temporarily laid off on a shortterm basis during certain times of the year. Example: construction workers who will be unemployed during rainy season, a fisherman who is unable to fish during the monsoon season or in winter, and tourist workers who are unemployed during off-peak periods in tourist spots. Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 All Rights Reserved 1–25 UNEMPLOYMENT (cont.) (3) Structural Unemployment This unemployment results from structural decline of industries, unable to compete or adapt to changing demand and new products, or changing method of production. A change in the pattern of demand results when tastes change, demographic profile change or introduction of new products or technology made the existing product obsolete, hence the skills of workers are no longer suitable with the jobs available. As major industries tend to be heavily concentrated in certain region, structural unemployment often leads to regional unemployment and the impact can be quite serious. Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 All Rights Reserved 1–26 UNEMPLOYMENT (cont.) (4) Cyclical Unemployment This unemployment is caused by a decrease in aggregate demand, due to a downswing of the business cycle. When an economy is under recession, aggregate demand falls and via the multiplier effect, national income falls further. Hence, consumption falls, production reduces, companies may close down and workers are laid off, resulting in cyclical unemployment. Cyclical unemployment is a serious form of unemployment because it usually creates more unemployment. Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 All Rights Reserved 1–27 UNEMPLOYMENT (cont.) (Increase Money Supply, Decrease Interest Rate) (a) Open market operation The central bank buys government securities, short term bonds or treasury bills in the open market from the public to increase money supply. Consumption and investment will increase, increasing aggregate demand and production and reducing unemployment. (b) Lowering the required reserve requirement When the reserve ratio is decreased, the credit creation and money supply will increase to stimulate aggregate spending and reduce unemployment. Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 All Rights Reserved 1–28 UNEMPLOYMENT (cont.) (c) Lowering the bank rate (interest on borrowing) The bank rate is also known as discount rate. A decline in the bank rate makes loans less costly to borrow and firms will increase investment by employing more workers. (d) Lowering interest rate (interest on saving) The central bank would direct the commercial banks to lower their interest rate for deposits as to encourage the public to spend. This would increase aggregate demand and production and hence, decrease cyclical unemployment. Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 All Rights Reserved 1–29 UNEMPLOYMENT (cont.) (2) Fiscal Policies (a) Increase government expenditure (G) Increase government expenditure (G) through creating more development projects will increase aggregate demand (AD) via the multiplier effect. Production will increase, hence reducing the cyclical unemployment. (b) Decrease in taxes (T) Decrease in taxes (T), such as a reduction in excise tax, service tax, sales tax, income tax or corporate tax, will increase the consumption on goods and services and also induce investment. Hence, aggregate demand will increase and production will increase. Thus, cyclical unemployment will reduce. Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 All Rights Reserved 1–30 UNEMPLOYMENT (cont.) (3) Direct Control Policies This refers to all direct measures other than monetary and fiscal policy taken by the government. (a) Providing training and technical education Set up training centres to retrain workers in new skills to improve occupational mobility. (b) Diversification and integration of economy in agricultural, manufacturing, construction, transportation, finance, insurance, services sectors To match seasonal industries which can share the labour force. Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 All Rights Reserved 1–31 UNEMPLOYMENT (cont.) (c) Better job information Set up job centres, better flow of job information through newspapers, radio or Internet. (d) Migration of labour Encourage workers to move to regions and industries where job are available. (e) Job creation in various sectors Encourage firms to move into areas where there are high levels of unemployment by giving tax incentives. Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 All Rights Reserved 1–32 UNEMPLOYMENT (cont.) Effects of Unemployment (i) Loss of job skills If unemployment persists for a long period, individuals will lose their job skills, causing a loss in human capital. It will also lead them to radical social and political activities by increasing crime rates. (ii) Permanent loss of output of goods and services An economy with high unemployment is not using all of their resources, especially labour available to it. The economy is operating below its production possibility frontier, reducing the economy’s efficiency and production. Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 All Rights Reserved 1–33 UNEMPLOYMENT (cont.) (iii) Loss in government revenue High unemployment means that the government will receive less taxation revenue but will have to pay more on unemployment benefits. (iv) Social problems Unemployment results in lower morale and human suffering. The family unit will be affected if the sole bread-winner were to lose his job. Social problems arise if the unemployed turn to drugs or crime. Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 All Rights Reserved 1–34 UNEMPLOYMENT (cont.) Short-run and Long-run Phillips Curve Trade Off Short run Phillips curve shows an inverse relationship between inflation and unemployment in the short run. Figure 14.9 shows if the government objective is to achieve full employment, they must be prepared to accept a certain high level of inflation. Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 All Rights Reserved 1–35 UNEMPLOYMENT (cont.) In the long run, the rate of inflation does not affect the natural rate of unemployment. The long-run Phillips curve is vertical at the natural rate of unemployment at 0U1. Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 All Rights Reserved 1–36 UNEMPLOYMENT (cont.) Natural rate of unemployment is the rate of unemployment that occurs when the economy is at full employment. It is composed of frictional and structural unemployment. It is affected by the changing demographic structure of the labour force, government social policies and rising structural unemployment. Fundamentals of Economics © Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. (008974-T), 2017 All Rights Reserved 1–37