Faculty of Engineering- Mattaria
Mechanical Power Engineering Department
A STUDY ON REPLACING DIESEL ENGINES
WITH HYBRID ELECTRIC MOTORS
Supervised by
Dr. HANI MONEB
Mechanical Power Dept.
Faculty of Engineering
Helwan University
Cairo- 2017
Faculty of Engineering- Mattaria
Mechanical Power Engineering Department
A STUDY ON REPLACING DIESEL ENGINES
WITH HYBRID ELECTRIC MOTORS
Supervised by
Dr. HANI MONEB
Mechanical Power Dept.
Faculty of Engineering
Helwan University
Prepared by:
Sara Salah Metwaly
Nada Essam Ali
Mahmoud Wahid Ahmed
Ahmed Kamal Abd Elaal
Ziad Mohammed Hassan
Raed Tarek Habib
Assem Magdy Farouk
Ali Essam Abd Elwahab
Mohammed Mahmoud El-Shafey
Cairo- 2017
Abstract
Have you pulled your car up to the gas pump lately and been
shocked by the high price of gasoline? Maybe you thought about
trading that SUV for something that gets better mileage. Or
maybe you are worried that your car is contributing to the
greenhouse effect. Or maybe you just want to have the coolest car
on the block.
Currently, there is a solution for all these problems; it’s the hybrid
electric vehicle. The vehicle is lighter and roomier than a purely
electric vehicle, because there is less need to carry as many as
heavy batteries. The internal combustion engine in hybrid electric
is much smaller and lighter and more efficient than the diesel
engine in a conventional vehicle. In fact, most automobile
manufacturers have announced plans to manufacture their own
hybrid versions.
How does a hybrid car work? What goes on under the hood to
give you 20 or 30 more kilometers per gallon than the standard
automobile? And does it pollute less just because it gets better gas
mileage. In this book we will study how this amazing technology
works, and the possibility of replacing the diesel engines by these
hybrid electric motors.
I
Acknowledgment
The team would like to thank Prof. Dr. Eng. HANI MONEB for
his great advice and valuable guidance.
II
Table of Contents
1
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Replacement of Diesel Engines with
Hybrid Electric Motors ...................................................................................... 1
2
3
4
1.1
Diesel Engines ..................................................................................... 1
1.2
Hybrid Electric Motors........................................................................ 2
1.3
The Possibility of Replacing the Diesel Engines with Hybrid Motors3
Chapter 2: Electric Motors ......................................................................... 5
2.1
Introduction ......................................................................................... 5
2.2
Definition and Functions of Electric Motor ........................................ 6
2.3
Types of Electric Motors ..................................................................... 6
2.3.1
AC Electric Motors ...................................................................... 7
2.3.2
DC Electric Motors .................................................................... 10
Chapter 3: The advantages and drawbacks of alternatives ...................... 14
3.1
Electric .............................................................................................. 14
3.2
Hybrid Electric .................................................................................. 15
3.3
Hydraulic Hybrid............................................................................... 17
3.4
Natural Gas ........................................................................................ 18
3.4.1
Compressed ................................................................................ 19
3.4.2
Liquefied .................................................................................... 19
3.4.3
Biodiesel .................................................................................... 21
3.4.4
Propane ...................................................................................... 21
Chapter 4: Capital and running of diesel engine replacement ................. 23
4.1
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 23
4.2
COSTS .............................................................................................. 24
III
4.2.1
5
6
7
Purchase Cost ............................................................................. 24
4.3
Short-Term Maintenance and Operating ........................................... 25
4.4
Long-Term Maintenance Costs ......................................................... 25
4.5
Fuel Economy ................................................................................... 26
Chapter 5: Worldwide Experience ........................................................... 29
5.1
Australia ............................................................................................ 29
5.2
Europe ............................................................................................... 30
5.3
USA ................................................................................................... 32
5.4
China ................................................................................................. 34
Chapter 6:Environmental Aspects of Electric Vehicles........................... 36
6.1
Air Pollution and Carbon Emissions ................................................. 36
6.2
Environmental Impact of Manufacturing .......................................... 38
Chapter 7: charging-hybrid-vehicles........................................................ 40
7.1
Hybrid cars ........................................................................................ 40
7.2
Plug-in hybrids .................................................................................. 41
7.3
All-electric (EV) ................................................................................ 41
7.4
Charging ............................................................................................ 41
7.4.1
Level 1 ....................................................................................... 42
7.4.2
Level 2 ....................................................................................... 42
7.4.3
Level 3 ....................................................................................... 43
7.5
Charge from home, sweet home ........................................................ 43
IV
Table of figures
Figure 2-1 electric motors .................................................................................. 6
Figure 2-2 production of rotating magnetic field ............................................... 9
Figure 2-3 permanent magnet DC motor ......................................................... 12
Figure 2-4 brushless DC motor ........................................................................ 13
Figure 3-1 ......................................................................................................... 14
Figure 5-1 sales of EVS in Europe .................................................................. 31
Figure 5-2 chines NEV investment in the 10th and 11th 5-year plans ............ 35
Figure 6-1 comparison of worldwide emission factors.................................... 37
Figure 7-1 ......................................................................................................... 40
Figure 7-2 ......................................................................................................... 42
Figure 7-3 ......................................................................................................... 44
V
1 Chapter 1: Introduction to the Replacement
of Diesel Engines with Hybrid Electric Motors
In order to understand the purpose of this replacement, we need first to
understand some important concepts
1.1 Diesel Engines
The term “diesel” derives from the name of the German engineer, Dr.
Rudolph Diesel, who is widely credited for the development of compression
ignition (CI) engines. Modern compression-ignition engines (diesel engines)
have evolved from the 3:1 compression ratio engine that Rudolph Diesel built
in 1890 to compression ratios up to 20:1 with high-pressure fuel injection
systems, outputting up to 10,000 hp. (CI) engines are merited with high engine
efficiency (up to 45%) because of (1) higher compression ratios, (2) no
throttling, (3) lower running speed than SI engines, therefore less friction
losses, and (4) lean air/fuel mixture. At most load ranges, CI engines are more
fuel efficient than SI engines.
However, these engines are heavier than spark ignition engines because of the
need to support higher internal pressures in the cylinders. They are also noisier
because of the spontaneous ignition of the charge. CI engines are generally
found on heavy-duty trucks, construction vehicles/equipment, stationary
power generators, trains, and large ships because of the higher power output
required.
1
The concerns of greenhouse gases demand improvement of vehicle mileage
and reduction of pollutant emissions. Diesel engines have high fuel economy
and thus the highest CO2 reduction potential among all other thermal engines
due to their superior thermal efficiency. However, particulate matter (PM) and
nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions from diesel engines are comparatively higher
than those emitted from modern SI gasoline engines. PM consists of tiny
particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas or liquid. Increased levels of fine
particles in the air are linked to health hazards such as heart disease, altered
lung function, and lung cancer. Therefore, reduction of diesel emitted
pollutants, especially PM and NOx, without an increase of the specific fuel
consumption is a challenging problem requiring immediate action. This
chapter provides the fundamental background on the physical processes
occurring in typical diesel engines.
1.2 Hybrid Electric Motors
A hybrid electric vehicle which is driven by a motor powered with electric
power generated by an engine, where in the cylinder, piston, and subcombustion chamber of the engine have insulation structure so that heat
sufficient for evaporating fed fuel is held in the sub-combustion chamber. The
sub-combustion chamber having a central communicating orifice is formed on
the central portion of the piston head, a fuel collision table is formed in the
sub-combustion chamber, and a plurality of radial communicating orifices for
jetting flame from the sub-combustion chamber against the cylinder is
provided, the burning is easy even with using a low pressure fuel injection
mechanism, therefore a solenoid valve type injection pump with simple
structure is used, the burning is smooth with using alcohol fuel such as
methanol and ethanol, the fuel injection timing is adjusted dependently on load
to the optimal timing, the number of working cylinders is controlled so as to
2
match to the load, the control allows the engine to operate at the optimal fuel
consumption, therefore emission of hazardous substance contained in exhaust
gas is minimized. The engine of the present invention needs no cooling
mechanism, and also needs no heavy gear box and no clutch mechanism, the
weight of the whole vehicle is significantly reduced comparing with
conventional vehicles, the fuel consumption is reduced also in terms of the
light weight.
In the next chapter we will be explaining in details all about the hybrid motors
and how do they work.
1.3 The Possibility of Replacing the Diesel
Engines with Hybrid Motors
First, let us ask the important questions:
Are electric motors powerful enough? Absolutely, our motor is a 7-kW unit,
equivalent to 10 hp. But electric motors deliver high torque and more power to
the propeller shaft at low rpm. Power of 3.5 kW (or 70 amps at 48 V) drives
our vehicle at five knots. In calm conditions, 1 kW drives the vehicle at three
knots. The motor is not absolutely silent, but you won’t hear it if there is a
little breeze. One of the things we love to do is motor with 500 watts of power
to point up higher in a light breeze. You can hardly hear the motor, and it feels
more like driving than motoring.
Are they reliable? Electric motors are mature technology and are much
simpler than diesel engines. The number of things that can go wrong is much
smaller. generally they are more reliable. But between the batteries and the
motor is a control box, usually black, with all that implies in terms of how
easy it is to repair. You won’t find a replacement unit in your local chandlery
or be able to order it from West Marine. Your marina cannot fix it. It is not
difficult to replace, so carrying a spare, although not cheap, would be the
3
prudent approach if you are doing extensive coastal cruising in a remote area,
for example.
Are they maintenance free? Well, they don’t need to be winterized. They don’t
need their oil changed. They may need new electrical brushes every few years
depending on use and on design of the motor (some are brushless). If you
include AGM batteries you won’t have the problems of maintaining flooded
cell batteries. The maintenance advantages are significant, but below we will
talk about the importance of back-up charging from an onboard generator.
And although they are smaller and more lightly used, they are internal
combustion engines and they need standard maintenance.
How much does it cost? For the motor and the batteries installed, probably
around $10-12,000, which is considerably less than a comparable diesel
installation. If you add a generator, you are probably close to the cost of a
diesel motor. But there is the advantage of flexibility with different operational
modes, and there will be better fuel economy.
Eventually, we came to the conclusion that replacing diesel engines with
hybrid electric motors is very possible, and in the near future the diesel
engines will disappear from the industry field.
In the next chapters we will be discussing in details all about diesel engines,
hybrid motors and the advantages and drawbacks of each of them, and also
will be explaining the replacement concept and its applications in the
worldwide history.
4
2 Chapter 2: Electric Motors
2.1 Introduction
As the global economy strives towards clean energy in the face of climate
change, the automotive industry is researching into improving the efficiency
of automobiles. Electric vehicles
Electric Vehicle (EV) are an answer to the crisis the world is about to face in
the near future .But the question that is being constantly asked is, How can the
driving range of electric vehicles be increased?
The answer to this question lies in the success of the research for an efficient
and power packed energy source like a magic battery or success with fuel
cells, efficient regenerative braking systems etc. In conventional braking
system, kinetic and potential energy of a vehicle is converted into thermal
energy (heat) through the action of friction. Studies show that in urban driving
about one-third to one-half of the energy required for operation of a vehicle is
consumed in braking. With regenerative braking, this kinetic energy can be
converted back into electrical energy that can be stored in batteries for reuse to
propel the vehicle during the drivingcycle. Therefore, regenerative braking has
the potential to conserve energy which will improve fuel economy while
reducing emissions that contribute to air pollution.
The heart of every electric vehicle is its electric motor. Electric motors come
in all sizes, shapes, and types and are the most efficient mechanical devices on
the planet. Unlike an internal combustion engine, an electric motor emits zero
pollutants. Technically, there are three moving parts in an
5
electric motor.
2.2 Definition and Functions of Electric
Motor
An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy. The reverse of this would be the conversion of mechanical
energy into electrical energy and is done by an electric generator.
2.3 Types of Electric Motors
Figure 2-1electric motors
6
2.3.1 AC Electric Motors
it’s time to meet the motor you encounter most often in your everyday
life—the AC electric motor. The great majority of our
homes, offices, and factories are fed by alternating current (AC).
Because it can easily be transformed from high voltage for
transmission into low voltage for use, more AC motors are in use than
all the other motor types put together. Before looking at AC motors and
their properties, let’s look at transformers
2.3.1.1 Single-Phase AC Induction Motors
Recall the universal DC motor discussed earlier. When you connect it to a
single-phase AC source, you have little difference in its motor. action because
changing the polarity of the line voltage reverses both the current in
the armature and the direction of the flux, and the motor starts up normally
and continues to rotate in the same direction
Single phase power system is widely used as compared to three phase system
for domestic purpose, commercial purpose and to some extent in industrial
purpose. As the single-phase system is more economical and the power
requirement in most of the houses, shops, offices are small, which can be
easily met by single phase system. The single-phase motors are simple in
construction, cheap in cost, reliable and easy to repair and maintain. Due to all
these advantages the single-phase motor finds its application in vacuum
7
cleaner, fans, washing machine, centrifugal pump, blowers, washing machine,
small toys etc.
The single-phase ac motors are further classified as:
1. Single phase induction motors or asynchronous motors
2. Single phase synchronous motors.
3. Commutator motors.
2.3.1.2 Polyphase AC Induction Motors
Polyphase means more than one phase. AC is the prevailing mode of electrical
distribution.
Single-phase 208V to neutral from a three-phase transformer on the pole is the
most prevalent form found in your home and office. The phase voltage that
comes from the
pole is 240V. These are widely available in nearly every city in the
industrialized world.
As in a DC motor, power and torque are also a function of current in an
induction motor. Because the current is equal to the voltage divided by the
motor reactance, at any given voltage, current is a function of stator,rotor, and
8
magnetizing reactance's that change as a function of frequency.
Figure 2-2 production of rotating magnetic field
The stator of the motor consists of overlapping winding offset by an electrical
angle of 120°. When the primary winding or the stator is connected to a 3
9
phase AC source, it establishes a rotating magnetic field which rotates at the
synchronous speed.
2.3.2 DC Electric Motors
An electric motor is a mechanical device that converts electrical energy into
motion, and that can be further adapted to do useful work such as pulling,
pushing, lifting, stirring,
or oscillating. It is an ideal application of the fundamental properties of
magnetism and
electricity. Before looking at DC motors and their properties, let’s review
some fundamentals.
Types DC Motors:
The most common DC motors available are:
•Shunt Wound
•Series Wound
•Compound Wound motors.
•Permanent magnet
• Brushless
• Universal
2.3.2.1 Shunt DC Motors
The second most well-known of the DC motors is the shunt DC motor, so
named because its field winding is connected in parallel with the armature
Because it doesn’t have to handle the high motor armature currents, a shunt
motor field coil is typically wound with many turns of fine gauge wire and has
a much higher resistance than the armature
10
2.3.2.2 Series DC Motors
The most well-known of the DC motors, and the one which comes to mind for
traction applications (like propelling EVs), is the series DC motor. It’s so
named because its field winding is connected in series with the armature.
Because the same current.
2.3.2.3 Compound DC Motors
A compound DC motor is a combination of the series and shunt DC motors.
The way its windings are connected, and whether they are connected to boost
(assist) or buck (oppose) one another in action, determine its type. Its basic
characterization comes from whether current flowing into the motor first
encounters a series field coil-short-shunt compound motor or a parallel shunt
field coil-long-shunt compound motor as shown in Figure 6-3. The beauty of
the compound motor is its ability to bring the best of both the series and the
shunt DC motors to the user.
2.3.2.4 Permanent Magnet DC Motors
When you were first introduced to the DC motor topic, permanent magnets
were used as an example because of their simplicity. Permanent magnet
motors are, in fact, being increasingly used today because new technology—
various alloys of Alnico magnet material, ferrite-ceramic magnets, rare-earth
element magnets, etc. enables them to be made smaller and lighter in weight
than equivalent wound field coil motors of the same horsepower rating. Rareearth element magnets surpass the strength of Alnico magnets significantly (by
10–20 times), and have been used with great success in other areas such as
computer disc drives, thereby helping drive down the production costs While
commutator and brushes are still required, you save the complexity 1 and
expense of fabricating a field winding, and gain in efficiency because no
current is needed for the field.
11
Figure 2-3 permanent magnet DC motor
2.3.2.5 Brushless DC Motors
With no brushes to replace or commutator parts to maintain, brushless motors
promise to be the most long-lived and maintenance-free of all motors. You can
now customtailor the motor’s characteristics with electronics (because
electronics now represent half the motor), and the distinction between DC
motor types blurs. In fact, as seen in
Figure 6-5, the brushless motor more closely resembles an AC motor (which
you’ll meet
in the next section) in construction. Assume that brushless DC motors
resemble their permanent magnet DC motor cousins in characteristics— shunt
motor plus high starting torque plus linear speed/torque—with the added
kicker of even higher efficiency due
to no commutator or brushes
12
Figure 2-4 brushless DC motor
13
3 Chapter 3: The advantages and drawbacks of
alternatives
3.1 Electric
Electric drive systems are powered by an electric motor or generator, with
power stored onboard in battery packs. They consume no fossil fuels for
propulsion or operation.
Freightliner Custom Chassis Corp. (FCCC) a Daimler Trucks NA company,
Gaffney, S.C., has begun full production of an all-electric, light-freight
delivery truck chassis—the first in the industry. The chassis is currently
undergoing testing with major U.S. pickup and delivery fleets (see Figure 1).
“In partnership with Enova, we have developed an all-electric chassis to meet
the environmental, economic, and performance needs of our commercial
vehicle customers,” said FCCC President Bob Harbin. This is the only walk-in
van chassis in the industry to be completely electrically powered, Harbin said.
Figure 3-1
An all-electric chassis, co-developed with Enova Systems and using Tesla
lithium-ion batteries, powers FCCC’s E-Cell walk-in van. The E-Cell is the
only domestically engineered all-electric chassis, and the industry’s first in
North America. Image courtesy of Enova Systems, Torrance, Calif.
14
Enova, Torrance, Calif., contributes “enabling technologies” in alternativeenergy propulsion systems for light- and heavy-duty vehicles. The project
involved the engineering and integration of Enova’s 120-kilowatt (kW) allelectric drive system technology into FCCC’s new MT-45 chassis.
The electric chassis’ power storage—including its HVAC system—uses Tesla
Motors lithium-ion batteries. FCCC is the first company within the industry to
use Tesla batteries for commercial applications, said Mike Staran, president
and CEO of Enova Systems. The drive system’s 120 kW battery packs have a
maximum100-mile driving range on a single charge. The battery pack charges
from fully depleted
to fully charged in six to eight hours.
The batteries also capture and store energy during the regenerative braking
phase of the vehicle’s operation. The regenerative braking system saves
energy by recycling and storing it, instead of losing it to heat, which can then
be reused to propel the vehicle.
Because the range of an electric vehicle is limited by weight, design, and the
type of battery used, EVs are particularly well-suited to short-distance, highuse applications—those that demand frequent starts and stops, such as lightduty delivery vehicles.
3.2 Hybrid Electric
Eaton Corporation, Cleveland, develops and manufactures hybrid electric
power systems for freight vehicles, which boost fuel economy and reduce
particulate emissions in trucks as well as buses and service vehicles, according
to Eaton’s James Parks, manager of global communications fleets (see Figure
2).
“By definition, a hybrid vehicle uses two or more distinct power sources to
move,” Parks said. “Our hybrid system combines a truck’s traditional internal
15
combustion engine with an electric motor and batteries to move the vehicle
forward. Then, through regenerative braking, the system recharges itself.”
On average, hybrid electric power systems can reduce fuel consumption by 35
percent—in some applications, the reduction can be even higher. The
applications that realize the best fuel efficiencies using this hybrid power
system are commercial vehicles that stop and start frequently or that idle at
work sites to run accessories or tools, Parks added.
Figure 3-2
Hybrid electric power systems combine a truck’s traditional internal
combustion engine with an electric motor and batteries to move the vehicle
forward. They can reduce fuel consumption by 35 percent. Image courtesy of
Eaton Corp., Cleveland.
Eaton’s patented hybrid electric power system uses a parallel configuration
that maintains the vehicle’s conventional drive train layout and uses patented
controls to blend engine torque with electric torque to move the vehicle.
16
The system recovers power normally lost during braking and stores the energy
in batteries. It can provide engine-off power, take off and work-site capability
for those needing hydraulic operations and an auxiliary electric power source
from the vehicle.
“To build the system, we couple the vehicle’s engine with our own Ultra
Shift® automated manual transmission and clutch,” Parks said. “Between the
output side of the clutch and the transmission, we integrate an electric
motor/generator that is connected to a power inverter and lithium-ion batteries
and controlled with our own electronic control module.”
Diesel/Electric. Florence, Ky.-based Power Engine Systems LLC, a developer
of hybrid drive train technology, debuted the company’s proprietary
diesel/electric engine system for the over-the-road transportation industry at
the Mid-America Trucking Show.
The hybrid technology reduces fuel consumption—and hence
CO2 production—by as much as 65 percent under normal conditions of use
and without reducing performance, according to the company.
The system can be retrofitted and uses off-the-shelf components.
No advanced battery technology is employed in the epower engine system.
Instead, standard lead acid batteries are used.
3.3 Hydraulic Hybrid
Eaton also produces hydraulic hybrid power trains. The company’s patented
Hydraulic Launch Assist™ or HLA® hydraulic hybrid system has two main
parts—regeneration and acceleration, Eaton’s Parks said.
For acceleration, the fluid in the high-pressure accumulator is released to drive
the pump/motor as a motor. The motor then propels the vehicle by
transmitting torque to the driveshaft.
17
During regeneration, the vehicle’s kinetic energy that is normally lost during
braking is captured and used to drive the pump/motor as a pump. The pump
action transfers hydraulic fluid from a low-pressure reservoir to a highpressure accumulator, he explained. As the fluid pumps into the accumulator it
compresses nitrogen gas and pressurizes the system. The regenerative braking
captures about 70 percent of the kinetic energy produced during braking.
“Accumulatively, customers using our hybrid systems globally have reduced
their fuel consumption by 6 million gallons and harmful emissions by 60,000
metric tons over more than 150 million miles,” Parks said.
3.4 Natural Gas
Natural gas is emerging as a domestically available and economical alternative
to diesel fuel. There isn't much we don't know about natural gas already. Its
use in commercial vehicles goes all the way back to Italy just after World War
II, when natural gas was commandeered to power buses.
Natural gas, comprised mostly of methane, is one of the cleanest
burning fossil fuels, according to the Center for American Progress. It says
natural gas produces less than half as much carbon pollution as coal for
electricity and up to 25 percent less than oil for transportation.
But methane has some drawbacks. One is its low energy content. It takes
about 100 cubic feet of methane to deliver the same amount of horsepower as
a gallon of gasoline. Consequently, natural gas must be compressed (CNG) or
liquefied (LNG), and it requires heavy, high-pressure fuel tanks.
LNG and CNG are replacements for petro-diesel and are suitable to fuel
heavy-freight vehicles, as well as cars, the center states.
18
3.4.1 Compressed
To provide adequate driving range, CNG must be stored onboard a vehicle in
tanks at high pressure—up to 3,600 pounds per square inch, according to the
U.S. Dept. of Energy (DOE). A CNG-powered vehicle gets about the same
fuel economy as a conventional gasoline vehicle on a gasoline gallon
equivalent (GGE) basis, according to the DOE. (A GGE is the amount of
alternative fuel that contains the same amount of energy as a gallon of
gasoline. A GGE equals about 5.7 lbs. of CNG.)
3.4.2 Liquefied
One way to extend the driving range of a natural gas-powered vehicle is to
liquefy the natural gas (LNG). Chilling methane to -260 degrees F reduces its
volume by a factor of 630-to-1, allowing more fuel to be stored in a smaller
tank. During this process, when the natural gas is cooled below its boiling
point, certain concentrations of hydrocarbons, water, carbon dioxide, oxygen,
and some sulfur compounds are either reduced or removed.
LNG is also less than half the weight of water, so it will float if spilled on
water. At atmospheric pressure, LNG occupies only 1/600 the volume of
natural gas in vapor form. A GGE equals about 1.5 gallons of LNG, the DOE
says.
Because it must be kept at such cold temperatures, LNG is stored in doublewall, vacuum-insulated pressure vessels. LNG fuel systems typically are used
only in heavy-duty vehicles.
But a super cold cryogenic fuel tank cannot keep the methane liquid cold
indefinitely. As the fuel warms up, it begins to vaporize and must either be
vented or used.
LNG costs more than CNG because of the costs of the chilling equipment.
19
As a motor fuel, LNG has the highest octane rating—130—of any of the other
alternatives, which means it can handle compression ratios of up to 15-to-1.
Landfill Gas. Waste Management, based in Houston, is evaluating and
developing a range of technologies that could create fuel, such as LNG, for
fleet and other vehicles from landfill gas.
The company is not only a leading provider of waste services that include
collection, transfer, recycling, and resource recovery and disposal, it is also the
largest residential recycler and a leading developer, operator, and owner of
waste-to-energy and landfill gas-to-energy facilities in North America,
according to Wes Muir, director of corporate communications for Waste
Management.
Waste Management has the world’s largest fleet of heavy-duty natural gas
refuse and recycling trucks—853: 351 compressed natural gas and 491
liquefied natural gas, Muir added.
“Our company is committed to extracting the maximum value from the
materials it manages by converting materials’ waste into beneficial reuse
products such as renewable energy, transportation fuels, and chemicals,” Muir
said.
Natural gas proponents are led by T. Boone Pickens, head of the largest U.S.
natural gas supplier, Clean Energy. Not surprisingly, he wants all 8 million
trucks on U.S. roads to say goodbye to diesel and embrace the product he
sells.
Each day, Pickens says, the world produces 85 million barrels of oil. The U.S.
uses a quarter of that total, while having only 4% of the population. "That is
not sustainable," he says. "We cannot continue to use that much oil."
20
3.4.3 Biodiesel
Common compression-ignition internal combustion engines are traditionally
fueled by diesel derived from petroleum oil. Biodiesel can completely or
partially replace diesel fuel. It is an organically based product and is
renewable.
Biodiesel is relatively easily produced from plant and animal oils, fats, and
greases and often is a byproduct of food processing. (see “Biodiesel—ready
to rumble; Engine-ready, less toxic than table salt, more biodegradable
than sugar.”)
Compared to diesel fuel, biodiesel is cleaner-burning, made from natural,
renewable sources such as vegetable oils; and produces lower carbon
emissions than diesel, according to the National Biodiesel Board.
“Biodiesel can be operated in any compression-ignition (diesel) engine with
little or no modification to the engine or the fuel system,” the bBoard said in
the article.
“Biodiesel is the first and only alternative fuel to have a complete evaluation
of emission results and potential health effects submitted to the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA under the Clean Air Act Section
211(b),” according to the board.
The results show that pure biodiesel (B100) has 67 percent fewer total
unburned hydrocarbons; 48 less carbon monoxide; and 47 percent less
particulate matter than diesel fuel.
3.4.4 Propane
Propane, also known as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), is another alternative
to petrol. Like natural gas, propane is a gaseous fuel, so it is a vapor at room
temperature and must be contained in a special high-pressure fuel cylinder.
21
About 60 percent of the propane that is produced comes from natural gas
wells; the rest is a byproduct of crude oil refining.
“Propane offers an environmentally friendly alternative to diesel and gasoline,
increases energy security, and provides significant economic savings,” said
Brian Feehan, vice president of the Propane Education & Research Council at
an Alternative Fuels & Vehicles National Conference & Expo in May 2010.
22
4 Chapter 4: Capital and running of diesel
engine replacement
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Fuel costs are a significant portion of transit agency budgets. Hybrid buses
offer an attractive option and have the potential to reduce operating costs for
agencies significantly. Hybrid technology has been available in the transit
market for some time. As of 2009, there are more than 1,200 hybrid buses in
regular service in North America in more than 40 transit agencies (Transport
Canada 2011). The majority of these buses are regular 40 ft buses, although
some smaller (20 ft) shuttle buses and larger articulated (60 ft) buses are also
in service. The transit agency in New York, New York has approximately
1,000 hybrid vehicles as of 2009 (Maynard 2009) and Toronto, Canada has
approximately 33 percent (Transport Canada 2011). The main reasons
agencies consider hybrid transit vehicles are fuel savings and reduced
emissions. Hybrid electric buses offer an attractive option and have the
potential to reduce operating costs for transit agencies significantly. Wayne et
al. (2009) estimated that use of diesel-electric hybrid buses
in 15 percent of the US transit fleet could reduce fuel consumption by 50.7
million gallons of diesel annually. However, purchase of hybrid transit buses
requires a significant investment. In addition, early estimates of cost savings
may not have materialized to the extent transit agencies expected. Other costs,
such as the cost of replacing batteries and reduced maintenance, are also issues
that have not been substantiated with independent studies. To justify the
expenditure, agencies require more quantitative information about the likely
fuel economy, maintenance, and other costs for hybrid buses.
23
4.2 COSTS
The following sections discuss common costs that transit agencies consider in
long-term cost analyses for hybrid buses. Information was summarized from a
survey of existing literature, web resources, and the team’s experience with
evaluation of hybrid school buses and hybrid transit buses (Hallmark et al.
2010 and Hallmark et al. 2012). The term “cost” is used in the generic sense of
being a positive cost or negative cost (benefit). As a result, costs may be actual
costs or reductions in costs.
4.2.1 Purchase Cost
The difference in initial purchase price between a hybrid transit bus and
regular transit bus can be substantial. Based on 2011 values in the US, the
purchase cost of a regular 40 ft bus is $280,000 to $300,000 compared to a
hybrid bus that is between $450,000 and $550,000. Because of the difference,
agencies are anxious to recoup the cost differential through savings in fuel and
maintenance.
In some cases in the US, the purchase price of hybrid transit buses has been
offset by participation in programs such as the American Recovery and
Reinvestment Act (ARRA) or Clean Fuels grant programs (EESI 2012).
Funding packages to offset the purchase cost often make it much easier for
transit agencies to invest in the technology that can reduce the lifecycle costs
of hybrid buses. As an example, the CyRide agency in Ames purchased 12
hybrid buses through a Transit Investments for Greenhouse Gas and Energy
Reduction (TIGGER) grant sponsored by the U.S. Department of
Transportation.
24
4.3 Short-Term Maintenance and Operating
Costs Short-term maintenance costs have not been well quantified. Some
agencies have experienced up-front maintenance issues with hybrid buses.
NYCT reported initial issues with batteries and need for software
modifications (Chandler and Walkowicz 2006). The Ames transit system,
which purchased 12 hybrid transit buses in 2010, has reported the need for
various software adjustments to achieve better fuel economy, given initial fuel
economy was much lower than expected. In addition, adjustments to the brake
pedal had to be made (Hallmark et al. 2012). Transport Canada (2011) also
reported issues early on but indicated later that mean distance between failures
was similar to that of regular transit buses. Transport Canada found that after
eight months of hybrid transit bus operation in Montreal, no significant
additional maintenance issues occurred with hybrid buses. Although early
maintenance problems have been present, most of the initial maintenance is
covered by manufacturer warranties and is not likely to have additional costs
to the transit companies. One study was available that summarized operating
costs other than fuel economy. KCM evaluated operating
costs using a cost of $1.98 per gallon for diesel for 60 ft buses. For regular
transit buses, they found that fuel costs were 79 cents per mile and
maintenance costs were 46 cents per mile, for a total operating cost of $1.25
per mile. In comparison, diesel-electric hybrid buses had fuel costs of 62 cents
per mile with maintenance costs of 44 cents per mile for a total cost of $1.06
per mile (Chandler and Walkowicz 2006). Hence, the savings were 19 cents
per mile
4.4 Long-Term Maintenance Costs
Several long-term costs/benefits contribute to the lifecycle equation for a
hybrid bus versus a conventional bus. However, hybrid buses have not been on
the market long enough for these costs/benefits to be substantiated by
25
transportation agencies. Potential long-term costs/benefits include those
associated with reduced engine wear, replacing the battery pack, and increased
bus weight. Initial feasibility studies and marketing of hybrid school buses
indicated that the hybrid technology would result in less engine wear and
regenerative braking was estimated to result in less brake wear (IC Bus 2011,
Thomas Built 2011, and Pritchard et al. 2011). Transport Canada (2011)
reported a 50 to 100 percent improvement in brake life for hybrid transit
buses. However, replacement battery costs are expected to add to the lifecycle
cost of hybrid buses. IC Bus (2011) indicates that lithium-ion batteries have a
life of five to seven years, but the replacement costs are still somewhat
unknown. Battery technology/economics are evolving rapidly, so costs will
depend on this when it’s time to replace the battery pack. Finally, Iowa school
districts that piloted hybrid electric school buses were concerned that the
weight of the battery pack may increase wear on some parts, such as shock
absorbers and tires (Hallmark 2010), given the battery pack for hybrid school
buses added approximately 2,000 lbs to each bus. Data on this concern are not
available at this time.
4.5 Fuel Economy
Actual savings depend on usage and fuel costs, but improved fuel economy is
the main savings associated with use of hybrid transit buses. Early estimates of
fuel savings for hybrid buses over conventional buses were based on
laboratory studies that demonstrated significant fuel savings. Chassis
dynamometer tests were conducted for 10 low-floor hybrid buses and 14
conventional high-floor diesel transit buses run by New York City Transit
(NYCT) (Chandler and Walkowicz 2006). Buses were evaluated over three
driving cycles including the Central Business District (CBD), the New York
(NY) bus cycle, and the Manhattan cycle. The operating costs, efficiency,
emissions, and overall performance were also compared while both types of
buses were operating on similar routes. The researchers found
26
that fuel economy was 48 percent higher for the hybrid buses. A study by
Battelle (2002) tested emissions using a dynamometer for one diesel hybridelectric bus and two regular diesel buses (with and without catalyzed diesel
particulate filters/ DPFs). The researchers reported that fuel
economy for the hybrid bus was 54 percent higher than the two regular diesel
buses. In another study, two buses were tested using a dynamometer at the
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) ReFUEL facility in Golden,
Colorado (Chandler and Walkowicz 2006). One bus was a conventional diesel
and the other was a hybrid bus and both were tested over several drive cycles
including Manhattan, Orange County Transit A (OCTA), CBD, and King
County Metro (KCM) Transit in Seattle, Washington. Results indicate 30.3
percent lower fuel use for the KCM cycle, 48.3 percent lower for the CBD
cycle, 50.6 percent for the OCTA cycle, and 74.6 percent for the Manhattan
cycle. Fuel economy was reported as miles per gallon. In another study, Clark
et al. (1987) evaluated six transit buses with traditional diesel engines, two
powered by spark-ignited compressed natural gas (CNG), and one hybrid
transit bus in Mexico City using a mobile heavy-duty emissions testing lab.
Buses were tested over a driving cycle representative of Mexico City transit
bus operation, which was developed using global positioning system (GPS)
data from in-use transit buses. Depending on how fuel economy was
evaluated, the hybrid bus ranked fourth and first in fuel economy. Transport
Canada (2011) evaluated hybrid transit buses for several transit agencies in
Canada. In one laboratory study using the Manhattan Test Cycle, the authors
found a reduction in fuel consumption of 36 percent. In a test track study, the
authors found a 28 percent fuel reduction for hybrid transit buses compared to
regular buses when the buses were operated at an average speed of 10 km/h
with 10 stops per kilometer. As average speed increased, the differences in
fuel consumption were smaller. In a later test track study, the authors found
average fuel use reduction to be 28 percent. The researchers also reported that
the Toronto Transit Corporation, which has about 500 hybrid buses, was only
achieving a reduction of 10 percent for in-use fuel consumption. A study was
conducted by the Center for Transportation Research and Education (CTRE)
at Iowa State University (ISU) to study the fuel economy of 12 hybrid transit
buses. Seven control buses with similar characteristics were also evaluated.
27
Average fuel economy for hybrid buses was 11.8 percent higher than for
control buses (Hallmark et al. 2012). The study also showed that fuel economy
was correlated to number of passengers per route, average running speed,
average acceleration, average deceleration, percent of time spent in
acceleration, and season. Fuel economy estimates from various studies are
summarized in Table 1. To make the table consistent, differences in fuel
economy were normalized to show decrease in fuel consumption (rather than
improvement in fuel economy) given this information was presented both
ways in the various studies. As noted, fuel economy savings range from 10 to
74.6 percent. However, most of the studies showing significant fuel economy
were laboratory tests that do not always replicate actual on-road conditions.
Fuel economy varies and is correlated to a number of factors including number
of stops per unit distance, road grade, surrounding traffic volume and
conditions, environmental conditions, driving style, type of hybrid technology
(parallel versus series) (Liang et al. 2009), roadway type, and passenger load
(Frey et al. 2007). Given driving
style can have a significant impact on the fuel economy of hybrid buses, many
transit agencies provide training for their drivers.
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5 Chapter 5: Worldwide Experience
5.1 Australia
Public transport is considered to be poor in Australia due to insufficient reach
of public transportation services, high ticket costs, and safety concerns.
Therefore, driving is considered a necessity for Australians, and Australia has
one of the lowest rates of public transport use when compared to other
countries and a very high passenger vehicle ownership. so they decided to
head to electric vehicles (EV) as the running cost of an EV is low but the
initial take-up costs including the cost of charging infrastructure and the car
itself are potential holdups. There have been many electric vehicle trials
conducted throughout the world and a number of trials have been conducted or
are under way in Australia. Australia’s first EV trial was run in Perth, Western
Australia, with 11 locally converted Ford Focus vehicles and 23 fast-AC
charging bays (Level 2) and completed at the end of 2012. Determining the
optimal number and locations of EV charging stations in the area was the goal
of the trial, which also formed “part of a road mapping exercise for business
and government” and assisted in the development of relevant standards and
regulations. During the conversion, each car was “equipped with a 23 kWh
battery pack, a 27 kW DC motor, and a 1000 A motor controller”. During the
trial, they were used as fleet vehicles by the project partners with an objective
to demonstrate their potential use in everyday driving. A single-charge driving
range of 131 km was achieved, which is claimed to exceed 112 km driving
range of the Mitsubishi i-MiEV. The charging stations, based on the
international charging norm IEC 62196, were installed around the Perth
Central Business District (CBD) and they were capable of charging an EV in
about 3.5 h from empty to full. Besides charging stations installed around
Perth CBD, trial participants were also able to charge their EVs at their
29
residences and business places using charging infrastructure installed at those
locations. Some charging stations had high power outlets (32 A) and others
lower power outlets (10 or 15 A). The average charging time for an electric
vehicle over the 6-month period reported in was 2:06 h. On the higher
powered sockets, the cars were charged in 1:26 h on average, and 2:32 h on
the lower powered sockets. Over a 6-month period, the cars were driven
17.56 km per day per car on average, less than the daily distance average
(32 km) of a passenger vehicle in Western Australia. The usage corresponds to
an estimated annual energy usage of 1.13 MW/h. The maximum average daily
kilometer was 48.53 km and the maximum EV distance in a single journey
was 71 km, both of which are less than the maximum driving range of 131 km.
A concern with EVs is the short range they can travel without recharging. Yet,
usage patterns in this trial show that cars were indeed underutilized and not
used to their maximum range. The results of this study are important and the
initial EV market will be heavily biased towards the business fleet over the
next half decade.
5.2 Europe
Electrification of transport (electro mobility) is a priority in the Community Research
Programme. It also figures prominently in the European Economic Recovery Plan
presented in November 2008, within the framework of the Green Car Initiative. The
European Commission will support a Europe-wide electro mobility initiative, Green
eMotion, worth €41.8 million, in partnership with forty-two partners from industry,
utilities, electric car manufacturers, municipalities, universities and technology and
research institutions. The aim of the initiative is to exchange and develop know-how
and experience in selected regions within Europe as well as facilitate the market rollout of electric vehicles in Europe. Despite the good and reliable public transport in
most West European countries, the move towards EV is mostly justified by
economic, political, and environmental reasons. In Europe, the major incentive for
the increase of EVs and the strong support and investment by the government are
based on the following reasons:
•
Reduce dependency on oil with cheaper fuel.
30
•
•
More silent operation through smart grid.
Reduce direct carbon emission CO2 (global warming).
European EV market has increased due to government’s strong support to
resolve the up mentioned reasons. Figure .1 shows the sales of electrified
vehicles in most of the European countries in 2013. Several governments have
subsidized the high cost of EV compared to ICV. For example, France,
responding to public concern about rising fuel prices and climate change,
already backs the segment, offering drivers a rebate of 7000 Euros on the
purchase of a battery-powered vehicle and 4000 Euros for a hybrid electricgasoline model.
Figure 5-1 sales of EVS in Europe
Germany is investing heavily to establish itself as the world leader in EV
technology and steal a march on the likes of Japan, the USA, Korea, and
China. The German Government announced that it would double its existing
31
investment in the rollout of electric cars to two billion euros ($2.7 billion).
Chancellor Angela Merkel wants to have one million electric cars on German
roads by 2020, and six million by 2030. Across Europe, a greater variety of
hybrid (HEV), plug-in hybrid (PHEV), and battery electric vehicle (BEV)
models are being offered by manufacturers each month. Although government
support is waning, the increasing availability of vehicle charging infrastructure
that enables vehicles to charge at home, at the workplace, and in public places
is facilitating market growth.
5.3 USA
The adoption of plug-in electric vehicles in the United States is actively
supported by the American federal government, and several state and local
governments. In 2011 President Barack Obama set the goal for the U.S. to
become the first country to have one million electric vehicles on the road by
2015. This goal was established based on forecasts made by the U.S.
Department of Energy (DoE), using production capacity of PEV models
announced to enter the U.S. market through 2015. President Barack Obama
pledged US$2.4 billion in federal grants to support the development of nextgeneration electric vehicles and batteries. $1.5 billion in grants to U.S. based
manufacturers to produce highly efficient batteries and their components; up
to $500 million in grants to U.S. based manufacturers to produce other
components needed for electric vehicles, such as electric motors and other
components; and up to $400 million to demonstrate and evaluate plug-in
hybrids and other electric infrastructure concepts—like truck stop charging
station, electric rail, and training for technicians to build and repair electric
vehicles. On March 7, 2012, US launched the EV Everywhere Challenge as
part of the U.S. Department of Energy’s Clean Energy Grand Challenges, its
goal is advancing electric vehicle technologies to have the country, by 2022, to
32
produce a five-passenger electric vehicle that would provide both a payback
time of less than five years and the ability to be recharged quickly enough to
provide enough range for the typical American driver. In January 2013 the
Department of Energy (DoE) published the "EV Everywhere Grand Challenge
Blueprint," which set the technical targets of the PEV program to fall into four
areas: battery research and development; electric drive system research and
development; vehicle light weighting; and advanced climate control
technologies. The DoE set several specific goals, established in consultation
with stakeholders through a series of workshops held during the second half of
2012. The key goals to be met over the next five years to make plug-in electric
vehicles competitive with conventional fossil fuel vehicles are:
1-Cutting battery costs from their current US$500/kWh to
US$125/kWh
2-Eliminating almost 30% of vehicle weight through light
weighting
3-Reducing the cost of electric drive systems from US$30/kW to
US$8/kW
The DoE aim is to level the purchase plus operating (fuel) cost of
an all-electric vehicle with a 280 mi (450 km) range with the costs
of an internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicle of similar size. The
DoE expects than even before the latter goals are met, the 5-year
cost of ownership of most plug-in hybrid electric vehicles and of
all-electric vehicles with shorter ranges, such as 100 mi (160 km),
will be comparable to the same cost of ICE vehicles of similar size.
33
5.4 China
Since 2009, China has become the largest electric vehicle market in the world.
To address the energy security and urban air-pollution concerns that emerge
from rapid vehicle population growth, China has initiated the Thousands of
Vehicles, Tens of Cities (TVTC) Program to accelerate the new energy vehicle
(NEV) commercialization. Realizing such challenges as energy security, urban
air pollution, global warming, and economy structure adjustment, China has
chosen new energy vehicles (NEVs) as one of the solutions to these problems,
but their environmental impacts in China are complicated because Chinese
electricity is still generated primarily from coal. The TVTC Program focuses
on the demonstration of electric vehicles in public service vehicle fleets,
including buses, taxis, government vehicles, and special purpose vehicles. In
January 2009, 25 pilot cities were selected to apply this program and one
important reason to approve these cities is their overall human population and
vehicle stock numbers. By the end of 2010, these 25 cities together accounted
for 18% and 33% of the national total human population and vehicle stock,
respectively. Based on the approved local demonstration plans from 25 cities,
by the end of 2012 the NEV demonstration goals of these 25 cities could add
up to 52,623 vehicles in the public service vehicle fleet. The total funding
including both national and local governments and private sectors, exceeded
$1.5 billion which is much more than the previous years as shown in Fig. 2.
34
Figure 5-2 chines NEV investment in the 10th and 11th 5-year plans
35
6 Chapter 6:Environmental Aspects of
Electric Vehicles
6.1 Air Pollution and Carbon Emissions
One of the most significant benefits of EVs to the broader community is
certainly their positive impact on the environment and their potential to reduce
the greenhouse gas emissions in the transport sector as well as the amount of
imported fuels as they do not emit harmful tailpipe pollutants such as
particulates (soot), volatile organic compounds, hydrocarbons, carbon
monoxide, ozone, lead, and various oxides of nitrogen. The clean air benefit
may only be local because, depending on the source of the electricity used to
recharge the batteries, air pollutant emissions may be shifted to the location of
the generation plants. This is referred to as the long tailpipe of electric
vehicles. The amount of carbon dioxide emitted depends on the emission
intensity of the power sources used to charge the vehicle, the efficiency of the
said vehicle and the energy wasted in the charging process. For mains
electricity the emission intensity varies significantly per country and within a
particular country, and on the demand, the availability of renewable sources
and the efficiency of the fossil fuel-based generation used at a given time.
Figure .1 presents a comparison of EV-related emissions in 20 of the world’s
leading countries after considering emissions associated with those related to
electricity generation and vehicle manufacturing. As demonstrated in Fig. .1,
the carbon emissions associated with EVs in countries (such as India, South
Africa, and even Australia) with coal-based generation are no different to
average petrol vehicles. The rate of exhaust emissions from pure EVs
propelled by electric motors is considered to be 0 g CO2/km even though there
are indirect emissions associated with EVs when they are plugged into the
electricity grid. The exhaust emission rate of plug-in hybrid vehicles is below
50 g CO2/km. According to a European Parliament study, the vehicle-to-grid
and load management solutions could further make EVs part of an overall
36
energy strategy allowing for the more efficient use of the fluctuating energy.
In the European Union (EU), the number of new registrations of pure EVs has
increased mostly driven by Germany and France.
Figure 6-1 comparison of worldwide emission factors
37
6.2 Environmental Impact of Manufacturing
Electric cars are not completely environmentally friendly, and have impacts
arising from manufacturing the vehicle. Since battery packs are heavy,
manufacturers work to lighten the rest of the vehicle. As a result, electric car
components contain many lightweight materials that require a lot of energy to
produce and process, such as aluminum and carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers.
Electric motors and batteries add to the energy of electric-car manufacture.
Also, the magnets in the motors of many electric vehicles contain rare-earth
metals. In a study released in 2012, a group of researchers calculated that
global mining of two rare-earth metals, neodymium and dysprosium, would
need to increase 700% and 2600%, respectively, over the next 25 years to
keep pace with various green-tech plans. Substitute strategies introduce tradeoffs in efficiency and cost. The same group study noted that the materials used
in batteries are harmful to the environment. Mining and processing of metals
such as lithium, copper, and nickel uses energy and can release toxic
compounds. In regions with poor legislature, mineral exploitation can increase
risks further. The local population may be exposed to toxic substances through
air and groundwater contamination. A paper published in the Journal of
Industrial Ecology named "Comparative environmental life cycle assessment
of conventional and electric vehicles" begins by stating that it is important to
address concerns of problem-shifting. The study highlighted in particular the
toxicity of the electric car's manufacturing process compared to conventional
petrol/diesel cars, it also finds that electric cars do not make sense if the
electricity they consume is produced predominately by coal-fired power
plants. Both types of vehicle begin in much the same way. Raw materials are
extracted, refined, transported, and manufactured into various components that
are assembled into the car itself. Because electric cars store power in large
lithium-ion batteries, which are particularly material- and energy-intensive to
produce, their global warming emissions at this early stage usually exceed
those of conventional vehicles. Manufacturing a mid-sized EV with an 84mile range results in about 15 percent more emissions than manufacturing an
38
equivalent gasoline vehicle. For larger, longer-range EVs that travel more than
250 miles per charge, the manufacturing emissions can be as much as 68
percent higher. Eventually, over their lifetime, battery electric vehicles
produce far less global warming pollution than their gasoline counterparts—
and they’re getting cleaner.
39
7 Chapter 7: charging-hybrid-vehicles
Before you get carried away and overwhelmed with all the talk of batteries,
zero emissions, hybrid this and electric that, know this: There are really only
three types of green cars out there that you need concern yourself with. For
now.
Figure 7-1
7.1 Hybrid cars
Hybrid cars remain the closest thing to what you’re probably already driving.
They use both a gasoline engine and an electric motor to help offset fuel costs
and increase gas mileage. Because hybrid cars use gasoline as the primary
source of power, all you need to do is fill your tank up like you normally
would and off you go. Some examples of popular hybrid vehicles are the
Toyota Prius, Honda Insight and Volkswagen Jetta hybrid but there are more
coming to market all the time, so shop around.
40
7.2 Plug-in hybrids
Plug-in hybrids delve further down the electrical rabbit whole, so to speak,
when it comes to alternatively powering a car. They are the middle child of the
green car family. Plug-in Hybrids, like the Chevrolet Volt, operate in much the
same way as a hybrid by providing an all-electric driving range using a battery
pack. Once the battery has been depleted, the vehicle can slip back to being a
regular fuel-fed hybrid and recharge its batteries using the gasoline-powered
motor as a generator. The big difference here is that you can also plug it in and
recharge the electric motor instead of using the engine to charge it up.
Depending on your driving needs, if you can plan your trips and just drive on
electricity and then charge back up, you can go a very long time without
having to gas up.
7.3 All-electric (EV)
All-electric cars like the Nissan Leaf , Tesla Model S, Ford Focus Electric and
Chevy Spark EV run on, you guessed it, electricity and use electrons as their
solitary source of energy. They are known an Electric Vehicles, or EVs. The
more you drive an EV, the more the battery charge is depleted and there’s no
gas engine built in to rescue you if you run out the battery completely.
Because all-electrics EVs use no gas, they must be recharged either at your
home or at an EV charging station (more on charging options later). At
present, fully electric vehicles are primarily city cars due to their limited
range, which is typically 80 to 100 miles on a charge. Only the Tesla Model S
goes farther but as time goes on, expect the range of EVs to improve.
7.4 Charging
Easy as Level 1, 2, 3
41
Now that you’ve decided on a car — either plug-in or all-electric — you’re
gonna need to charge it up. There are really only three types of charging types
or “levels” supported right now by electric car manufacturers.
Figure 7-2
7.4.1 Level 1
Level 1 charging works like any standard three-pronged household outlet,
meaning you can plug your EV into the outlet in your garage and charge its
battery. Virtually every EV on the market supports this type of charging. The
bad part: it’s painstakingly slow. For example, a Nissan Leaf using a standard
120-volt charger will take roughly 18 to 20 hours.
7.4.2 Level 2
Level 2 charging is much faster and uses special equipment specific to EVs.
This is the type of charging you will want to use most often. To borrow again
another example from the Leaf, a full charge using a 240-volt Level 2 charger
ranges between 8 to 12 hours.
42
7.4.3 Level 3
Level 3 charging (DC Fast Charge or DC Combo) uses industrial-strength
chargers, which can bring battery levels up to 80 percent capacity in as little as
20 to 30 minutes by zapping your battery with 480-volts of electricity. Not all
EVs support this type of charging, and currently there are no commercialgrade electric cars on the market that are capable of charging faster than Level
3 although that may change in the future.
It’s important to remember that charging times will depend greatly on what the
current state of charge your battery is at. In addition, how often you need to
charge will invariably come down to how far you drive and what your
vehicle’s electric range is. Electric cars will be able to travel further due to
their larger batteries and need to be plugged in more often in order to recharge,
while plug-in hybrids will travel fewer miles on electricity and may require
less charging due to their gasoline-powered on-board generators.
Like all lithium-ion batteries found inside the majority of hybrid-electric
vehicles (including the Toyota Prius Plug-in, the Chevy Volt, the Nissan Leaf,
and the Ford Focus Electric), the ability for the battery to hold its charge
capacity will diminish over time. What this means is that in a 10-year period
the gradual loss could reach as much as 30 percent or more. Using a Level 3
charger too often can accelerate that loss in a shorter amount of time.
7.5 Charge from home, sweet home
As we have pointed out, there are a couple different ways of charging your
shiny new EV. What works best will really come down to you. But if you’re
serious about getting in on the EV scene, we strongly recommend getting a
Level 2 charger installed in your home. While it’s possible to get by on a
Level 1 charger (basically a wall outlet) or even using public charging
stations, it’s not as convenient as having a Level 2 fast charger nestled inside
43
your garage. Level 2 chargers run on 220/240 systems just like a household
appliance, so most any electrician can install it.
Figure 7-3
of course it’s not free, but thankfully the government is here again to help
offset the cost by providing a 30 percent tax credit off the total cost of
purchase and installation — up to $1,000. Typically, a Level 2 charging
station can cost anywhere between $1,500 and $2,000 to install, depending on
the manufacturer.
44
Summary
During the twentieth century, the privately-owned electric utility was
regulated as a natural monopoly. Under the natural monopoly paradigm, a
vertically-integrated electric utility provides generation, transmission,
and distribution services under the rubric of a single firm serving a
geographic service territory. While it is allowed to operate as a
monopolist, this firm also has certain responsibilities: it submits to price
regulation and assumes obligations to extend service to all customers
within its geographic service territory and to continue providing service,
once service has commenced.
With the advent of deregulation, it is assumed that markets will largely
displace price regulation, but little discussion focuses on the implications
of deregulation for utility service obligations in the electricity industry.
Today, electric utilities' extraordinary service obligations - often
collectively referred to as the duty to serve - face their largest challenge
ever. Can vigorous retail competition of the type public utility
deregulation envisions coexist with extraordinary obligations to serve
customers? If so, at what costs? Who will bear these costs? These
questions are central to an emerging law and economic analysis known as
the jurisprudence of networks, of paramount importance as regulators
and courts implement competition in traditional public utility industries,
including electricity, where the natural monopoly model is being
abandoned or reformed.
45
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Transit Diesel Hybrid-Electric Buses: Final Results. DOE/ NREL Transit
Bus Evaluation Project.
4- Chandler, K., and K. Walkowicz (December 2006). King County Metro
Transit Hybrid Articulated Buses: Final Evaluation Report. National
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46