Barron's AP Biology Review Flashcards | Quizlet

Barron's AP Biology Review Leave the first rating STUDY Flashcards Learn Write Spell Test PLAY Match Gravity Live BETA Created by aederington TEACHER Terms in this set (1125) matter anything that has mass and takes up space proton A subatomic particle that has a positive charge and that is found in the nucleus of an atom neutron A subatomic particle that has no charge and that is found in the nucleus of an atom electron A subatomic particle that has a negative charge ground state state of atom in which all the electrons are in the lowest available energy levels excited state state of atom in which one or more electrons moves to a higher energy level when atom absorbs energy isotope atoms of one element that vary only in the number of neutrons in the nucleus (but are still chemically identical because same number of electrons in same configuration) half-life known rate of radioactive decay of some radioisotopes radioisotopes radioactive isotopes radioactive iodine radioisotope used to diagnose and treat (iodine-131) thyroid gland diseases tracer radioisotopes incorporated into a molecule and used to trace its path in a metabolic pathway ionic bond bond resulting from transfer of electrons covalent bond bond result from sharing of electrons anion negative ion (e.g. Cl-) cation positive ion (e.g. Na+, K+, Ca++) molecule structure of atoms formed by covalent bonds nonpolar bond covalent bond when electrons shared equally between two identical atoms (e.g. H-H) diatomic molecule molecule formed by two atoms of the same element with a non-polar bond (e.g. O-O) polar bond covalent bond when electrons shared unequally between two different atoms (e.g. C-H) nonpolar molecule electrons balanced and symmetrical in a molecule (e.g. carbon dioxide) polar molecule electrons unbalanced in a molecule (e.g. water) hydrophilic "water-loving", soluble in water (e.g. polar molecules, ions, charged substances) hydrophobic "water-hating", insoluble in water instead lipids (e.g. nonpolar molecules) universal solvent water dissolves so many substances hydrogen bond bond formed by weak attraction between a hydrogen atom and another atom resulting from ionic or polar charges specific heat the amount of heat a substance must absorb to increase the temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1 degree C; high for water heat of vaporization the energy a substance must absorb in order to change from a liquid to a gas; high for water cohesion tension molecules of a substance attract one another; strong for water transpirational-pull water moves up from roots to leaves cohesion tension without expenditure of energy using transpiration capillary action force resulting from cohesion and adhesion surface tension type of cohesion enabling water to not break when touch surface lightly spring overturn cycling of nutrients in the lake when ice melts, becoming denser and sinking to circulate water and nutrients around the lake pH negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration; measure of acidity and alkalinity of a solution buffer substance that resists change in pH bicarbonate ion most important buffer in human blood isomer organic compounds that have same molecular formula but different structures structural isomer isomer that differs in arrangement of atoms cis-trans isomer isomer that differs only in spatial arrangement around flexible double bonds enantiomer isomer that is a mirror image (L for lefthanded and D for right-handed) carbohydrate organic compound formed by carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen where hydrogen is always twice the oxygen; used for fuel and building materials monosaccharide monomer of carbohydrates; C6H12O6 glucose monosaccharide that is the main sugar source fructose monosaccharide found in honey and fruits galactose monosaccharide found in milk disaccharide carbohydrate formed by joining two monosaccharides; C12H22O11 dehydration synthesis two monomers joined together with the release of one molecule of water condensation another name for dehydration synthesis maltose disaccharide formed by two glucose lactose disaccharide formed by one glucose and one galactose sucrose disaccharide formed by one glucose and one fructose hydrolysis breakdown of organic compound by adding water polysaccharide polymers of carbohydrates formed by many monosaccharides joined together by condensation reactions cellulose structural polysaccharide that makes up plant cell walls chitin structural polysaccharide that makes up fungal cell walls and the exoskeleton of arthropods starch storage polysaccharide for plants; two forms are amylose and amylopectin glycogen storage polysaccharide for animals; found in liver and skeletal muscle lipid hydrophobic organic compound fat lipid for energy storage formed by glycerol and three fatty acids that is solid at room temperature oil lipid for energy storage formed by glycerol and three fatty acids that is liquid at room temperature wax lipid that is an ester of a fatty acid and alcohol steroid lipid consisting of four fused rings glycerol three-carbon alcohol with each carbon containing a hydroxyl group fatty acid hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl group at one end saturated fatty acid fatty acid with only single bonds; solid at room temperature, come from animals, unhealthier unsaturated fatty acid fatty acid with at least one double bond; liquid at room temperature, come from plants, healthier phospholipid modified lipids consisting of only two fatty acids and one phosphate group attached to glycerol backbone; make up cell membrane protein complex, unbranched macromolecules that carry out many functions made of amino acids of sulfur, phosphorus, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen polymer molecule consisting of many units called monomers polypeptide polymer of amino acids; not same as protein amino acid monomer of proteins peptide bond bond that joins amino acids in polypeptides carboxyl group carbon double-bonded to oxygen and bonded to hydroxyl amine group nitrogen bonded to two hydrogens variable (R) group attached to carbon backbone that is variable for amino acids dipeptide molecule consisting of two amino acids connected by one peptide bond formed by dehydration synthesis conformation unique shape of a protein that determines its function primary structure unique linear sequence of amino acids secondary structure hydrogen bonding within polypeptide molecule tertiary structure intricate three-dimensional shape or conformation of protein that is superimposed on its secondary structure quaternary structure proteins that consist of multiple polypeptide chains alpha helix the spiral shape of a protein's secondary structure (e.g. keratin) beta-pleated sheet the bended or folded form of a secondary structure (e.g. silk and spider webs) fibrous protein proteins that exhibit either alpha helix or beta-pleated sheet keratin fibrous protein of mainly alpha helix that makes up human hair specificity precise form of tertiary structure that determines function denaturation adverse conditions that alter the weak intermolecular forces that causes the protein to lose its characteristic shape and function chaperonin protein that assists in folding other proteins prion misfolded protein that when accumulated in brain, cause disease X-ray crystallography used to determine the 3D structure of many other proteins bioinformatics uses computation and math modeling to predict three-dimensional structure of resulting protein molecule nucleic acid polymer of nucleotides that encodes hereditary information ribonucleic acid single-stranded nucleic acid containing ribose and uracil deoxyribonucleic acid double-stranded nucleic acid containing deoxyribose and thymine nucleotide monomer consisting of phosphate, fivecarbon sugar, and nitrogenous bases nitrogenous base identifies a nucleotide; e.g. adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine, uracil functional group components of organic molecule involved in chemical reaction theory of theory that mitochondria and endosymbiosis chloroplasts were once free-living prokaryotes that merged with larger prokaryotes to form eukaryotes eukaryotic cell cell with nucleus and membrane-bound organelles prokaryotic cell cell without nucleus or membranebound organelles cytosol semifluid substance in which subcellular components are suspended nucleoid region non-membrane-bound region where chromosome is located in prokaryotes nucleolus tangle of chromatin and unfinished ribosomal precursors inside nucleus that produces ribosomal RNA and the large and small subunits of ribosomes ribosome non-membrane-bound structures that produce protein; free (intracellular proteins) or attached (exported proteins) peroxisome perform specialized function that converts hydrogen peroxide into water and detoxifies alcohol in liver cells catalase enzyme that converts hydrogen peroxide (waste product of respiration) to water with the release of oxygen atoms endomembrane system intracellular system that regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions in cells nucleus double-membrane-bound control center of cell; contains chromosomes wrapped with special proteins chromatin network chromosomes wrapped with special proteins nuclear envelope selectively permeable membrane that separates the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm pore hole in nuclear envelope that allows transport of large molecules e.g. mRNA rough endoplasmic endoplasmic reticulum studded with reticulum ribosomes and produces proteins smooth endoplasmic endoplasmic reticulum that assists in the reticulum synthesis of steroid hormones, stores calcium ions for muscle cells, and detoxifies drugs and poisons from the body endoplasmic reticulum membranous system of channels and flattened sacs that traverse the cytoplasm Golgi apparatus organelle of flattened stacked membranous sacs that process and packaged substances from the rough endoplasmic reticulum and secretes the substances to other parts of the cell lysosome sac of hydrolytic enzymes that performs intracellular digestion hydrolytic enzyme enzyme that digests intracellular digestion breaks down molecule inside the celel autophagy continuous renewal by breaking down and recycling cell parts apoptosis programmed destruction of cells by own hydrolytic enzymes cristae inner series of membranes inside a mitochondria mitochondrion double-membrane-bound site of cellular respiration with its own DNA contractile vacuole structure in freshwater protists to pump out excess water food vacuole vacuole formed when solid material enters cell thylakoid inner membrane system of chloroplasts cytoplasmic streaming flow of the cytoplasm directed by cytoskeleton cytoskeleton complex mesh of protein filaments that extends throughout the cytoplasm microtubules hollow tubes made of the protein tubulin (mainly for movement) cilium shorter movement structure consisting of 9 pairs of microtubules organized around 2 singlet microtubules flagellum longer movement structure consisting of 9 pairs of microtubules organized around 2 singlet microtubules spindle fiber help separate chromosomes during cell division that consists of microtubules organized into 9 triplets microfilament filaments assembled from actin filament to help support shape of cell actin filament actin proteins that make up microfilaments psuedopod microfilament-directed movement for amoebas centriole organize spindle fibers and give rise to spindle apparatus centrosome two centrioles oriented at right angles at each other microtubule organizing plant cell synonym of centrosome center cell wall cell structure not found in animal cells that functions for structural purposes primary cell wall cell wall immediately outside the plasma membrane secondary cell wall cell wall underneath the primary cell wall middle lamella thin gluey layer formed between cell walls of two new plant cells after division cell membrane border of the cell between cytoplasm and environment selectively permeable applies to how membranes regulate the steady traffic that enters and leaves the cell fluid mosaic model coined by SJ Singer in 1972 that describes how lipids and proteins in membrane keep moving phospholipid bilayer phospholipids have heads out and tails in to form the cell membrane amphipathic has both a hydrophobic and hydrophilic region integral protein proteins that completely span the membrane and have nonpolar regions peripheral protein proteins loosely bound to the surface of the membrane cholesterol steroid embedded in the interior of the bilayer to stabilize the membrane glycolipid carbohydrate covalently bonded to lipid, serve as signaling molecules glycoprotein carbohydrate covalently bonded to carbohydrate, serve as signaling molecules desmosome a structure by which two adjacent cells are attached, formed from protein plaques in the cell membranes linked by filaments adenylate cyclase enzyme that converts ATP to cyclic AMP tight junction a firm seal between two adjacent animal cells created by protein adherence transport movement of substances into and out of a cell passive transport transport that does not require energy diffusion random movement of molecules of other particles from a higher concentration to a lower concentration osmosis diffusion of water across a membrane simple diffusion diffusion that does not involve protein channels but rather directly across the membrane - hydrophobic, small facilitated diffusion diffusion that involves protein channels hydrophilic, large, charged hydrophilic protein protein channel that passively transports channel specific substances across the membrane countercurrent flow of adjacent fluids in opposite exchange directions that maximizes the rate of simple diffusion (esp. fish gills) solvent substance that does the dissolving solute substance that dissolves hypertonic having greater concentration of solute than another solution hypotonic having lesser concentration of solute than another solution isotonic two solutions containing equal concentration of solutes osmotic potential tendency of water to move across a permeable membrane into a solution water potential results from two factors - solute concentration and solute pressure turgid swollen plant cell in hypotonic solution turgor pressure water flows into a cell and exerts pressure onto cell wall plasmolysis plant cell cytoplasm shrinks in hypertonic solution aquaporin special water channel protein found in certain cells that facilitate the diffusion of massive amounts of water across a cell membrane gated channel protein channels that open and close in response to variables of a cell active transport movement of molecules against a gradient that requires energy, usually in the form of ATP pump active transport protein that pumps particles across membrane carrier (protein) active transport protein that carries particles across membrane sodium-potassium pumps sodium and potassium ions pump across a nerve cell membrane to return the nerve to its resting state (3 Na+ out cells and 2 K+ into cells) exocytosis active transport that releases vesicle contents (e.g. neurotransmitters into synapse) pinocytosis "cell drinking", uptake of large, dissolved particles phagocytosis engulfing of large particles or small cells by pseudopods receptor-mediated endocytosis that enables a cell to endocytosis endocytose very specific substances ligand any molecule that binds specifically to a receptor site of another molecule coated vesicle vesicle formed when receptors with ligand turn inward to membrane bulk flow overall movement of fluid in one direction in a norganism source where something originates sink where something is used quorum sensing form of bacterial communication that allows bacteria to monitor population density and use that information to control gene expression bioluminescence conversion of energy stored in certain organic molecules to light luciferase enzyme that triggers the expression of luciferin to produce light for bioluminescence luciferin protein that produces light for bioluminescence gap junction direct contact communication that permits the passage of materials directly from the cytoplasm of one cell to the cytoplasm of an adjacent cell; often with neurons and cardiac cells plasmodesma analog of gap junction in plant cells; an open channel in the cell walls of plant cells allowing for connections between the cytoplasm of adjacent cells growth factor local signal from nearby cells that give instructions to grow and divide synaptic signaling signaling when a neuron releases neurotransmitters into a synapse to stimulate an adjacent neuron to fire or a muscle to contract reception ligand from outside target cell binds with a receptor either on the surface of or inside the target cell transduction (signal) the signal is converted to a form that can bring about a specific cellular response response a specific cellular reaction occurs, either by regulation of transcription or by cytoplasmic action cell membrane receptors that span the entire thickness receptors of the membrane and are therefore in contact with both the extracellular environment and the cytoplasm hydrophilic signaling ligand that binds to extracellular part of molecule cell membrane receptor to change the shape on the cytoplasmic side second messenger a molecule that carries a signal from the cell membrane receptor throughout the cytoplasm cyclic AMP a common intracellular signaling molecule made from ATP ion-channel receptor allosteric cell membrane receptor that opens and shuts a gate in a membrane to allow an influx of ions (e.g. Na+) G-protein coupled cell membrane receptor that binds on a receptor ligand on the extracellular and activates G protein which activates adenylyl cyclase to produce cAMP first messenger ligand as opposed to second messenger G protein signaling protein that when activated, bonds to GTP to activate adenylyl cyclase adenylyl cyclase enzyme that converts ATP into cAMP receptor tyrosine cell membrane receptor with enzymatic kinase activity that aggregates with each other to activate specific relay proteins by phosphorylation to tyrosines intracellular receptor receptor that is located inside of the cell and binds to small, nonpolar ligands that passed through the cell membrane nitric oxide gas with chemical formula NO that is like hormones; can be used with acetylcholine to stimulate more cells bisphenol A chemical present in many plastics that mimics estrogen and causes fetal developmental problems signal transduction multistep process in which a small pathway number of extracellular signal molecules is amplified to and produces a major cellular response cascade effect a small number of extracellular signal molecules produce a major cellular response caspase class of enzymes that carry out apoptosis mitosis dividing of the nucleus process that produces two genetically identical daughter cells and preserves the diploid chromosome number meiosis dividing of the nucleus process in sexually reproducing organisms that results in haploid cells clone geneticaly identical daughter cell sister chromatid one of two exact copies in a replicated chromosome centromere specialized region that holds the two chromatids together kinetochore disc-shaped protein on the centromere that attaches the chromatid to the mitotic spindle during cell division cell cycle complex sequence of growth and division in cells G0 phase phase during which cells arrested and not proceeding to divide until stimulus interphase period of cell cycle between cell divisions G1 phase period of intense growth and biochemical activity S phase synthesis or replication of DNA G2 phase when cell continues to grow and make preparations for cell division prophase mitotic phase during which chromosomes condense, nuclear membrane breaks, and spindle begins to form metaphase mitotic phase during which chromosomes line up in a single line metaphase plate single line located on the equator where chromosomes are positioned during metaphase anaphase mitotic phase during which spindle pulls sister chromatids apart telophase mitotic spindle during which nucleus begins to reform condensed chromosome cytokinesis dividing of the cytoplasm cleavage furrow microfilament structure that helps to separate cells during cytokinesis contact (or density- normal cells grow and divide until dependent) inhibition overcrowded anchorage cell must divide while attached to dependence surfaces or extracellular membrane gamete sex cell haploid half the genetic material as normal diploid two sets of chromosome for each gene meiosis I meiotic section during which homologous chromosomes separate reduction division term applied to meiosis I because daughter cells haploid synaptonemal complex complex between each chromosome and its homologue synapsis each chromosome lines up with its homologue tetrad two pairs of homologous chromosomes that participate in prophase I bivalent alternative name for tetrad crossing-over process by which nonsister chromatids exchange genetic material, resulting in recombination chiasma regions on chromosome where homologous bits of DNA are switching place; physical bridge built around the point of crossing-over meiosis II meiotic section similar to mitosis prophase I pairing of homologues to form tetrads, nucleus breaks, etc. metaphase I tetrads line up at metaphase plate double file how the tetrads line up during metaphase I anaphase I spindle fibers separate homologous chromosomes telophase I homologous pairs of chromosomes form new nuclei with haploid number independent each homologous chromosome chooses assortment of which gamete chromosomes recombinant chromosome that contains genes chromosome inherited from both parents due to crossing-over random fertilization one sperm and one ovum are randomly chosen cell cycle control control system that regulates the rate at system which cells divide checkpoint built-in stop signals that halt the cell unless they are overridden by go-ahead signals restriction point checkpoint during G1 that determines whether cell will complete cell division or exit the cycle to become a nondividing cell arrested in G0 cyclin protein whose levels cyclically rise and fall in dividing cells, synthesized during S and G2 but broken down after M kinase protein that activates other proteins by phosphorylation cyclin-dependent kinase critical to the cell cycle that is kinase activated only when bound to a cyclin cyclin-Cdk complex cyclin-dependent kinase (use abbrev Cdk) binds to a cyclin MPF maturation promoting factor, cyclin-Cdk complex that triggers cell's passage from G2 to metaphase that helps chromosome condensation and spindle formation during prophase energy the ability to do work or cause change enzyme biological catalyst first law of energy cannot be created or destroyed, thermodynamics only transformed from one form to another (thermo) law of conservation of energy cannot be created or destroyed, energy only transformed from one form to another (energy) second law of during energy conversions, entropy thermodynamics increases (i.e. the Universe becomes more disordered) Gibbs free energy how much free energy available to do work exergonic energy released during reaction; power endergonic endergonic energy absorbed during reaction; supported by exergonic metabolism sum total of all the chemical reactions that take place in cells catabolism reactions that break down molecules anabolism reactions that build up molecules pathway series of metabolic reactions that serves a specific cellular function energy of activation the amount of energy needed to begin a reaction transition state reactive condition of the substrate after sufficient energy has been absorbed to initiate the reaction globular protein protein that isi spherical induced-fit model as the substrate enters the active site, it induces the enzyme to alter its shape slightly so the substrate fits better enzyme-substrate complex substrate bound to enzyme cofactor inorganic (e.g. mineral) that helps enzymes coenzyme organic (e.g. vitamin) that helps enzyme competitive inhibition compounds resembling the substrate molecules compete for the same active site on the enzyme competitive inhibitor compounds that mimic substrate molecules and reduce the amount of product by preventing or limiting the substrate from binding to the enzyme allosteric change in enzyme shape alters its efficiency noncompetitive molecules that bind to a site distinct inhibitor from the active site of the enzyme to cause the enzyme to change shape that inhibits the enzyme from catalyzing the substrate to product reaction (n) allosteric regulator molecules that bind to a site distinct from the active site of the enzyme to cause the enzyme to change shape that inhibits the enzyme from catalyzing the substrate to product reaction (a) feedback inhibition end product of lengthy metabolic pathway is the allosteric inhibitor for an enzyme that catalyzes an early step in the pathway cooperativity binding of one substrate molecule causes a change in the entire molecule to lock all subunits in an active position and amplifies the response adenosine triphosphate molecule that stores energy instantly available for every cellular activity glycolysis ten-step process that breaks down one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate to release 2 ATP reduction gain of electrons or hydrogen oxidation loss of electrons or hydrogen redox reaction reaction in which one substance reduced and the other is oxidized adenosine adenine plus ribose pyruvate three-carbon molecule formed by glycolysis phosphofructokinase enzyme that catalyzes the third step of glycolysis; high ATP levels alters conformation of enzyme outer compartment intermembrane space of the mitochondria matrix innermost region of the mitochondria Krebs cycle cyclical series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions that oxidizes pyruvate to carbon dioxide substrate level direct enzymatic transfer of a phosphate phosphorylation to e.g. ADP NAD+ (nicotinamide coenzyme carrying protons or electrons adenine dinucleotide) from glycolysis and Krebs cycle to the electron transport chain acetyl-CoA first reactant of the Krebs cycle formed by combining coenzyme A with pyruvate FAD (flavin adenine coenzyme carrying protons or electrons dinucleotide) from and Krebs cycle to the electron transport chain NAD dehydrogenase enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of hydrogen atoms from substrate e.g. glucose to NAD+ FAD dehydrogenase enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of hydrogen atoms from substrate e.g. glucose to FAD+ citric acid cycle common name for Kreb's cycle electron transport proton pump in the mitochondria that chain couples the endergonic pumping of protons with the exergonic chemiosmosis proton pump protein pump that pumps protons across the membrane proton gradient concentration gradient of proteins final electron acceptor oxygen is at the end of the ETC oxygen highly electronegative element, that is the final electron acceptor cytochrome protein on the ETC structurally similar to hemoglobin, present in all organisms so can trace back evolutionary relationships oxidative phosphorylation of ADP into ATP by the phosphorylation oxidation of the carrier molecules NADH and FADH2 energy-coupling mechanism that couples endergonic mechanism with exergonic reactions ATP synthase channels protein channels that allow protons to diffuse across membrane and phosphorylate ADP to ATP chemiosmosis harnessing concentration gradient to produce ATP anaerobic respiration anaerobic, catabolic process including glycolysis and alcohol/lactic acid fermentation botulinum bacterium that causes food poisoning facultative anaerobe tolerate the presence of oxygen but cannot use obligate aerobe require oxygen to survive obligate anaerobe die in oxygen-rich environmnent alcoholic fermentation certain cells convert pyruvate into ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide and oxidize NADH back to NAD+ (e.g. yeast) lactic acid fermentation certain cells (e.g. liver) convert pyruvate into lactate and oxidize NADH back to NAD+ photosynthesis process by which light energy is converted to chemical bond energy and carbon is fixed into organic compounds photosynthetic pigment pigment that absorbs light energy and uses it to provide energy to carry out photosynthesis chlorophyll a pigment that participates directly in the light reactions of photosynthesis; absorbs red, blue, and violet ranges chlorophyll b antenna pigment for photosynthesis; absorbs red, blue, and violet ranges carotenoid antenna pigment for photosynthesis; absorbs green, blue, and violet ranges xantophyll antenna pigment for photosynthesis that has a slight chemical variation from carotenoids phycobilin antenna pigment for photosynthesis; absorbs blue, green ranges action spectrum graph showing how independent variable is plotted against rate of photosynthesis magnesium single atom in middle of chlorophyll head granum stack of thylakoids, site of lightdependent reactions light-dependent first part of photosynthesis that uses reactions energy to produce ATP to power the light-independent reactions light-independent second part of photosynthesis that uses reactions ATP from the light-dependent reactions to produce sugar stroma chloroplast fluid outside grana where light-independent reactions occur photosystem light-harvesting complex in the thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts reaction center part of photosystem consisting of chlorophyll a and several hundreds antenna pigments photosystem I P700, excites electrons to replace those from the ETC photosystem II P680, source of electrons for the ETC noncyclic electrons enter two electron transport photophosphorylation chain and produces ATP and NADPH primary electron first molecule in PSII to capture acceptor electrons from photons photolysis splitting of water to provide electrons to replace those lost from chlorophyll a in P680 photophosphorylation ATP synthesis powered by light lumen space inside thylakoid membranes cyclic phosphorylation light-dependent reactions pathway to replenish the ATP levels by using only PSI Calvin cycle main component of light-independent reactions PGAL 3-carbon sugar that is the end product (phosphoglyceraldehyd of the Calvin cycle e) carbon fixation the incorporation of carbon from carbon dioxide into an organic compound by an autotrophic organism RuBP (ribulose starting molecule for the Calvin cycle biphosphate) RuBisCo (ribulose enzyme that catalyzes first step of biphosphate Calvin cycle when carbon fixed onto carboxylase) RuBP 3-PGA (3- 3-carbon molecule formed right after phosphoglycerate) RuBisCo fixes a carbon because 6carbon is unstable C3 plants plants whose first step of Calvin cycle produces three carbon 3-PGA photorespiration RuBisCo binds with oxygen instead of CO2 (no ATP or sugar produced) C4 plants plants with modified biochemical pathways to minimize water loss and maximize sugar production Gregor Mendel father of genetics; Austrian monk who bred garden peas to study patterns of inheritance particulate inheritance inherited characteristics are carried by discrete units elemente Mendel's idea for a gene gene sequence of DNA that codes for a protein and thus determines a trait probability likelihood that a particular event will happen law of dominance law stating that when two organisms homozygous for two opposing traits are crossed, the hybrid offspring will exhibit only the dominant trait homozygous carry identical alleles heterozygous carry different alleles hybrid offspring of a cross between two opposing homozygous dominant trait trait that shows in a hybrid recessive trait trait that is masked in a hybrid law of segregation law stating that during the formation of gametes, the two alleles carried by each parent separate monohybrid cross cross between two hybrids for a single trait phenotype appearance genotype genetic makeup testcross (or backcross) cross between an organism exhibiting the dominant trait and a homozygous recessive to determine the genotype of that organism law of independent law stating that during gamete assortment formation, the alleles of a gene for one trait segregate independently from the alleles of a gene for another trait dihybrid cross cross between two individuals hybrid for two or more traits segregate assort (in terms of chromosomes during meiosis) incomplete dominance heterozygous expresses a blend of both alleles codominance heterozygous expresses both alleles multiple alleles more than two allelic forms of a gene pleiotropy ability of one single gene to affect an organism in several ways cystic fibrosis autosomal recessive disorder caused by a defect in CFTR membrane protein; results in buildup of mucus in the lungs, digestive tract, etc.; common in Caucasians epistasis two genes control a trait, but one gene masks the expression of the other gene polygenic trait trait that results from a blending of several separate genes that vary along a continuum resulting in a bell curve genomic imprinting variation in phenotype depending on whether a trait is inherited from the mother or from the father; caused by silencing of a particular allele by methylation of DNA on autosomes; passed on to all cells on the body extranuclear genes genes located in mitochondria and chloroplasts; DNA is small, circular, and contains few genes multifactorial basis underlying genetic component with a significant environmental influence nurture and nature interaction of genetic predisposition and environment penetrance proportion of individuals in a group with a given genotype that actually shows the expected phenotype linked genes genes on the same chromosome; inherited together unless separated by crossing-over autosome not sex chromosome sex chromosome chromosome that determines sex; X or Y sex-linked trait trait carried on the X chromosome carrier (genetics) female carrying only one mutated Xlinked gene recombination a combining of genes or characters different from what they were in the parents due to crossing-over map unit distance within which recombination occurs 1 percent of the time recombination how often recombination occurs frequency between two linked genes linkage map map showing the order of genes on a chromosome based on recombination frequencies pedigree family tree that indicates the phenotype of one trait being studied for every member of a family somatic cell body cell genetic mosaic in a female embryo, some cells have one X activated others have the other X activated Barr body inactivated X chromosome condensed into a dark spot of chromatin seen at the outer edge of the nucleus of all somatic cells in females mutation change in the genome gene mutation change in the DNA sequence chromosome mutation change in structure or number of chromosomes karyotype procedure showing the size, number, and shape of chromosomes to reveal the presence of chromosomal mutations phenylketonuria autosomal recessive disease resulting in the inability to break down the amino acid phenylalanine Tay-Sachs disease autosomal recessive disease caused by the lack of the enzyme necessary to break down lipids needed for normal brain function; common in Ashkenazi Jews; results in seizure, blindness, death Huntington's disease autosomal dominant degenerate disease of the nervous system resulting in certain and early death; onset around middle age hemophilia sex-linked recessive disorder caused by the absence of one or more proteins necessary for normal blood clotting color blindness sex-linked recessive disorder that impairs ability to distinguish colors; commonly red-green color blindness Duchenne muscular sex-linked recessive disorder resulting in dystrophy progressive weakening of muscle control and loss of coordination sickle cell disease autosomal recessive disorder caused by a mutation in the gene for hemoglobin (glutamic acid to valine); results in deformed red blood cells; carriers are resistant to malaria Down syndrome caused by trisomy 21; results in characteristic facial features, mental retardation, prone to Alzheimer's and leukemia Turner's syndrome caused by a missing X chromosome in females; small stature, sterile Klinefelter's syndrome caused by extra X chromosome in males; sterile, abnormally small testes deletion (chromosomal) chromosomal mutation - chromosomal fragment lacking a centromere is lost during cell division inversion chromosomal mutation - chromosomal fragment reattaches to its original chromosome in the reverse orientation translocation chromosomal mutation - chromosomal (chromosome) fragment attaches to nonhomologous chromosome polyploidy organism has extra set(s) of chromosomes nondisjunction chromosomal mutation - homologous chromosomes fail to separate during meiosis aneuploidy abnormal number of chromosomes trisomy chromosome present in triplicate (e.g. trisomy 21) tetraploid four sets of chromosomes octoploid eight sets of chromosomes (e.g. strawberries) triploid three sets of chromosomes (e.g. cancer cells) polyploid organism with extra sets of chromosomes Frederick Griffith discovered that bacteria have the ability to transform harmless cells into virulent ones by transferring some genetic factor from one bacteria cell to another bacterial transformation ability for bacteria to change harmless cells into virulent ones by transferring some genetic factor from one bacteria cell to another transformation Griffith's experiment on transformation experiment and strains of the bacteria that causes pneumonia Oswald Avery, discovered that the transforming factor MacLeod, McCarty is DNA Alfred Hershey and research supported the theory that DNA Martha Chase is the genetic material Rosalind Franklin took the X-ray crystallography photo of DNA that showed its double helix shape James Watson and proposed the double helix model for Francis Crick DNA with two antiparallel, complementary strands Matthew Meselson and proved that DNA replicates in a Franklin Stahl semiconservative fashion double helix shape of a twisted ladder antiparallel two strands of DNA run in opposite directions deoxyribose 5-carbon sugar forming the backbone for DNA adenine purine nitrogenous base that bonds by a double hydrogen bond to thymine guanine purine nitrogenous base that bonds by a triple hydrogen bond to cytosine cytosine pyrimidine nitrogenous base that bonds by a triple hydrogen bond to guanine thymine pyrimidine nitrogenous base that bonds by double hydrogen bond to adenine (DNA) histone proteins that are combined with DNA in chromosomes chromatin complex of DNA and histones nucleosome parts of a chromosome formed when DNA wraps twice around a pair of histones ribose 5-carbon sugar forming the backbone of RNA uracil pyrimidine nitrogenous base that bonds by a double hydrogen bond to adenine (RNA) semiconservative each strand serves as a template for the replication formation of a new complementary strand template one strand of DNA can "build" another strand using complementary base pairing origin of replication special site where replication begins replication bubble where DNA replication is actively occuring replication fork Y-shaped region where the new strands of DNA are elongating DNA polymerase catalyzes the antiparallel elongation of the new DNA strands RNA primer pre-existing chain made of RNA to which DNA nucleotides are added primase enzyme that makes the primer by joining together RNA nucleotides leading strand strand formed toward the replication fork in an unbroken, linear fashion lagging strand strand formed away from the replication fork into a segmented approach Okazaki fragments DNA fragments involved in the synthesis of the lagging strand, 100-200 nucleotides long, that is later all connected by ligase DNA ligase enzyme that joins Okasaki fragments into a continuous strand of DNA helicase enzyme that untwists the double helix single-strand binding protein that holds strands apart, acts as protein a scaffolding topoisomerase lessens the tension on the tightly wound helix by breaking, swiveling, and rejoining the DNA strands mismatch repair proofreading carried out by DNA polymerase that corrects errors in replication DNA nuclease excises damaged regions of DNA during replication telomere protective end of eukaryotic chromosome with repetitive nonsense nucleotide sequence to protect against loss of genes telomerase creates and maintains telomeres triplet code DNA read in groups of three nucleotides; each indirectly code for amino acid codon mRNA read in groups of three nucleotides; each code for amino acid anticodon tRNA three nucleotides complementary to mRNA codon transcription information in a DNA sequence copied into a complementary RNA sequence messenger RNA RNA involved in transcription and translation ribosomal RNA structural RNA involved in translation transfer RNA functional RNA carrying amino acids to mRNA at ribosome initiation (transcription) RNA polymerase recognizes and binds to DNA at the promoter region RNA polymerase pries the two strands of DNA apart and attaches RNA nucleotides according to base pairing rules promoter signals RNA polymerase where to begin transcription and which of the two strands to transcribe transcription factor protein that recognizes the TATA box and mediates the binding of RNA polymerase to the DNA TATA box key area within the promoter with repeating thymine and adenine nucleotides transcription initiation completed assembly of transcription complex factors and RNA polymerase bound to the promoter elongation RNA polymerase adds nucleotides to (transcription) the 3' end of a growing RNA chain transcription unit stretch of DNA transcribed into an mRNA molecule termination (transcription) final stage of transcription during which RNA polymerase finishes transcribing and the mRNA is cut free from the DNA template termination sequence signals RNA polymerase to end transcription; AAUAAA RNA processing mRNA altered by a series of enzymes before shipped out the nucleus to ribosome 5' cap helps mRNA bind to ribosome during translation; consists of modified guanine nucleotide poly-A tail protects RNA strand from degradation by hydrolytic enzymes and facilitates the release of mRNA from the nucleus into the cytoplasm; consists of a string of adenine nucleotides intron intervening, non-coding sequence that is removed from the mRNA splice remove introns from mRNA small nuclear proteins that splice introns from mRNA ribonucleoproteins splicesomes structure in eukaryotic nuclei that are where mRNA splicing takes place exon expressed sequence that is not spliced out from mRNA primary transcript mRNA before splicing final transcript mRNA after splicing alternative RNA splicing different RNA molecules produced from same primary transcript, depending on which RNA segments treated as exons and which as introns; controlled by regulatory proteins specific to cell type that bind to regulatory sequences on primary transcript translation process by which the codons of an mRNA sequence are changed into an amino acid sequence guanosine triphosphate provides the energy for translation aminoacyl-tRNA joins amino acids to the correct tRNA; synthetase one for each amino acid start codon signals where translation starts; AUG codes for methionine stop codon terminates translation; UAA, UAG, UGA wobble relaxation of base pairing rules for the third base due to redundancy of genetic code initiation (translation) mRNA attached to a subunit of ribosome; start codon must be position correctly for translation to begin elongation (translation) tRNA brings amino acids to ribosome and a polypeptide chain formed polyribosome cluster of ribosomes simultaneously translating a mRNA molecule termination (translation) polypeptide freed from ribosome when stop codon reached release factor factor that breaks the bond between the tRNA and the last amino acid of the polypeptide chain genetic code redundant, inambiguous table showing which amino acid each codon codes for mutagenic agent cause mutations (e.g. toxins, radiation) gene pool all the genes in a population point mutation simplest mutation at a single base pair in a single gene base-pair substitution change in just one base pair of a single gene insertion nucleotide added into DNA sequence deletion (gene) nucleotide taken away from DNA sequence frameshift mutation mutations that shift the reading frame of the DNA triplets because of insertions and deletions missense mutation a nucleotide-pair substitution that results in a codon that codes for a different amino acid nonsense mutation subsitution of wrong nucleotide into DNA that produces an early stop codon virus parasite that can live only inside another cell; infects a cell for reproduction; consists of DNA or RNA genome enclosed in protein coat capsid protein coat of virus viral envelope structure derived from membrane of host cells that cloaks the capsid and aids the virus in infecting host host range range of organisms that a virus can attack because requires specific receptors to attach bacteriophage virus that infects bacteria lytic cycle phage enters host cell, immediately replicates itself, and bursts the cell to release new phage viruses virulent phage phage that reproduces solely by lytic cycle lysogenic cycle phage virus incorporated into host bacterial DNA and carries on to offspring prophage viral genes inserted but dormant within the host genome lytic phase phase of lysogenic cycle in which environment trigger causes prophage to "reveal" itself and start reproducing temperature virus virus capable of lytic and lysogenic reproduction retrovirus virus that contain RNA instead of DNA and convert RNA to complementary DNA to insert into host genome reverse transcriptase synthesizes complementary DNA from RNA for insertion into host genome in retroviruses nucleoid region of bacteria that contains the bacterial chromosome transduction (bacteria) phage viruses cause genetic recombination because acquire bits of bacterial DNA from infecting so many cells generalized moves random pieces of bacterial DNA transduction as phage lyses cells restricted transduction prophage carries piece of adjacent bacterial DNA when lyses cell and inserts this into next host binary fission efficient asexual bacterial reproduction plasmid foreign, small, circular, self-replicating DNA molecule that inhabits a bacterium F plasmid first plasmid discovered; for fertility pilus cytoplasmic bridge that connects adjacent bacterial cells for conjugation to take place conjugation plasmid from one bacterium moves to another; primitive sexual reproduction R plasmid plasmid for antibiotic resistance operon set of genes and switches that control expression of those genes Jacob and Monod discovered the operon model in E. coli gene regulation process of controlling which genes expressed repressible operon always switched on unless repressor activated tryptophan operon repressible operon with a promoter and five structural genes that code for five enzymes to synthesize amino acid tryptophan corepressor activates the repressor repressor when activated, binds to the operator to prevent RNA polymerase from binding to the promoter operator region on operon that binds repressor to prevent RNA polymerase from binding to the promoter inducible operon always switched off unless repressor inactivated inducer binds to the repressor to inactivate it positive gene attachment of molecule (e.g. cAMP) to regulation promoter directly stimulates gene expression regulator gene gene that codes for a repressor; located away from operon and has own promoter scrapie fatal disease in sheep caused by prions mad cow disease fatal disease in cattle caused by prions Creutzfeldt-Jakob fatal disease in humans caused by prions disease tandem repeat back-to-back repetitive sequence within genes that cause genetic disorders or make up telomeres polymorphic region certain noncoding regions of DNA that are highly variable from one region to the next acetylation adding acetyl group to histone tails promotes loosening of chromatin structure and permits transcription methylation adding methyl groups to DNA silences DNA temporarily or for long periods of time (e.g. long-term X chromosome deactivation); causes genomic imprinting epigenetic inheritance reversible alternations to the genome that do not directly involve the nucleotide sequence but are caused by environmental factors degradation of mRNA mRNA broken down after translation with varying amount of time noncoding RNA transcribed from non-protein-coding DNA; regulate much of DNA Argonaute protein protein that binds to and assists noncoding RNA microRNA single-stranded RNA about 22 nucleotides long, forms a complex with proteins, targets specific mRNA molecules for degradation or blocking of translation (mi) small interfering RNA single-stranded RNA about 22 nucleotides long, forms a complex with proteins, targets specific mRNA molecules for degradation or blocking of translation (si) RNA interference blocking of gene expression by siRNA piwi-associated RNA guide PIWI proteins to complementary RNAs derived from transposable elements; protect germ line cells from attack by transposons recombinant DNA DNA taken from multiple sources and combined into single molecule transposon jumping genes that move around the genome recombinant DNA techniques used to create recombinant techniques DNA in biotechnology biotechnology (genetic branch of science that uses recombinant engineering) DNA techniques for practical purposes gene therapy replace a nonfunctioning gene in a person's cells with a functioning gene vector means of inserting a gene into a cell competent (bacteria) bacterium able to take up a plasmid gene cloning as bacteria reproduce, gene copied (biotechnology) restriction enzyme enzymes extracted from bacteria that cut DNA at specific recognition sequences recognition sequence sequence on DNA where restriction enzymes cut sticky end single-stranded end of DNA formed by staggered restriction enzyme cut restriction fragment fragment that results from the cuts made by restriction enzymes EcoRI restriction enzyme discovered in E. coli G/AATTC BamHI restriction enzyme discovered in B. amyloliquefaciens G/GATCC HindIII restriction enzyme discovered in H. influenzae - A/AGCTT gel electrophoresis recombinant DNA technique used to separate large molecules of DNA agarose gel a gel matrix used for electrophoresis cathode negative terminal in gel electrophoresis; DNA molecules travel away anode positive terminal in gel electrophoresis; DNA molecules travel towards DNA sequencing biotechnology technique that determines order of nucleotides in a gene DNA probe radioactively labeled single strand of nucleic acid molecule used to tag a specific sequence in a DNA sample polymerase chain cell-free, automated technique by which reaction a piece of DNA can be rapidly copied or amplified Taq polymerase heat-stable form of DNA polymerase extracted from thermophile bacteria restriction fragment differences in restriction fragment length polymorphism pattern in noncoding regions of DNA DNA fingerprint restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis of someone's DNA paternity suit determine if a particular man is the father of a particular child using restriction fragment length polymorphism CRISPR clustered regularly interspersed short palindromic repeats; genetic engineering tool made of RNA that can be guided by the enzyme Cas9 to modify a target stretch of DNA DNA chip chip that holds personal information about someone's genetic makeup, including mutations that have a predisposition to cancer taxonomy naming and classification of species binomial nomenclature two-part name for every organism Linnaean classification hierarchial classification of species into broader groups of organisms (kingdom > species) taxon broad group of organisms, ranging from kingdom to species kingdom the uppermost level of Linnaean classification, reflects very basic differences phylum subdivision of kingdom, group of classes class subdivision of phylum, group of orders order subdivision of class, group of families family subdivision of order, group of genera genus subdivision of family, group of species species lowermost level of Linnaean classification; group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring phylogeny evolutionary history three-domain system modern classification system based on DNA analysis that accurately reflects phylogenetic relationships and groups organisms into three main domains Domain Bacteria domain of prokaryotic organisms with cell wall of peptidoglycan Domain Archaea domain of prokaryotic organisms with cell wall without peptidoglycan Domain Eukarya domain of eukaryotic organisms Kingdom Monera old term used to group together all prokaryotes (Bacteria and Archaea) decomposer ecological niche of recycling dead organic matter pathogen disease-causing organism peptidoglycan polymer of amino acids and sugars that forms bacterial cell walls extremophile organism that lives in an extreme environment methanogen obtains energy by producing methane from hydrogen halophile thrive in environments with high salt concentration thermophile thrive in very high temperatures systematics modern-day taxonomy that considers biological diversity in an evolutionary and ancestral context Kingdom Protista eukaryotic kingdom that includes organisms that don't fit within the other kingdoms heterotroph organism that obtains energy from the foods it consumes autotroph organism that obtains energy from the foods it synthesizes protozoa animal-like protist; heterotroph that moves independently amoeba protozoa that moves by psuedopods paramecium protozoa that moves by cilia euglena protozoa that moves by flagella; primarily autotrophic with red eyespot and chlorophyll for photosynthesis but can be heterotrophic and still protozoa amoebic dysentery disease caused by the species Entamoeba histolytica malaria fatal, tropical disease caused by Plasmodium protozoa and is transferred by mosquito bites Kingdom Fungi kingdom of eukaryotes that are heterotrophic and have a cell wall of chitin absorptive nutrition fungal method of consumption in which the fungus secretes hydrolytic enzymes outside the body where extracellular digestion occurs, then the building blocks of the nutrients are absorbed into the body of the fungus by diffusion Kingdom Plantae kingdom of eukaryotes that are autotrophic and have cell walls of cellulose athlete's foot fungal infection usually in the skin of the toes and soles tracheophyte plant with vascular tissue bryophyte plant without vascular tissue Kingdom Animalia kingdom of multicellular eukaryotes that lack cell walls and are heterotrophs monophyletic all lineages can be traced back to one common ancestor multicellular consisting of multiple cells; came about 1.5 bya radial symmetry a body plan in which the parts of an animal's body are organized in a circle around a central axis; found in Cnidaria and Echinodermata bilateral symmetry body plan in which only a single line of symmetry can divide the body into two equal halves; found in worms, mollusks, arthropods, and chordates cell basic unit of all forms of life tissue group of similar cells that perform a particular function organ group of tissues that work together to perform related functions triploblastic consisting of three germ layers during embryonic development ectoderm outermost germ layer that becomes the skin and nervous system endoderm innermost germ layer that becomes the digestive system mesoderm middle germ layer that becomes the blood and bones diploblastic consisting of two germ layer during embryonic development mesoglea middle glue connecting ectoderm and endoderm in diploblasts longitudinal axis line of symmetry running through bilateral symmetry animals anterior front end posterior rear end cephalization development of a head end Phylum Porifera phylum of animals without true tissue Phylum Cnidaria phylum of animals with true, simple tissue but only 2 germ layers Phylum Platyhelminthes phylum of animals with organs but no organ systems Phylum Annelida phylum of animals with organ systems Phylum Arthropoda phylum of animals with organ systems phylogenetic tree diagrammatic reconstruction of organism's phylogony (p) cladogram diagrammatic reconstruction of organism's phylogony (c) maximum parsimony principle used to narrow down possibilities when constructing cladogram, states that one should follow the simplest explanation that coincides with the facts ingroup organism of interest when constructing cladogram outgroup organism as a point of reference when constructing cladogram node point where two lineages diverge on cladogram shared ancestral character that all organisms in a lineage character share clade lineage that includes organisms and their common ancestor shared derived new trait of a clade that distinguishes it character from other clades evolution change in allelic frequencies in a population funny duck kanav!!!!!! Ha! Ha! Ha! sedimentary rock layer layer that contains sedimentary rock of different ages and can contain fossils relative age measurement of age of rocks and fossils based on the location in the sedimentary rock layers absolute age precise measurement of age of rocks and fossils radiometric dating use decay of radioactive isotopes and half-life to measure absolute age paleomagnetic dating use the shifts and reverses of Earth's magnetic poles to measure absolute age cyanobacteria oxygen-generating, photosynthetic bacteria that provided free oxygen for the oceans and atmosphere during early Earth stromatolite rocklike structure formed by cyanobacteria Cambrian explosion relatively short period 535-525 mya characterized by the sudden appearance of many modern animal phyla fossil record collection of all the fossils through the ages; reveals ancestral and extinct species Eohippus an early ancestor to the modern horse Equus transitional form between Eohippus and modern horses Archaeopteryx an intermediate fossil that shows both reptile and bird characteristics comparative anatomy study of different structures across species homologous structure structures that have common structure so reflect a common ancestry analogous structure structures that have common function so reflect an adaptation to similar environment vestigial structure structure that is no longer needed but reflects how structures and behaviors have evolved comparative study of common biochemical pathways biochemistry among species cytochrome c electron carrier protein in electron transport chain of cellular respiration and photosynthesis, present in all aerobic organisms so its amino acid sequence can be used to determine phylogenetic relationships comparative study of similar stages in embryonic embryology development among species biogeography study of past and present geographic distribution of organisms plate tectonics continents and oceans rest on giant plates of Earth's crust floating on top of the mantle mantle hot, middle layer of the Earth continental drift slow, continuous movement of plates caused by convection currents in the mantle Pangaea supercontinent formed from all land mass in the world around 250 mya marsupial one of a family of mammals that nurse their offspring in a pouch eutherian true placental mammal Aristotle theorized that all life-forms can be arranged in order of complexity with humans at the top and that species do not evolve Carolus Linnaeus developed classification system Georges Cuvier studied fossils and realized that each stratum of Earth is characterized by different fossils catastrophism theory that a series of events in the past occurred suddenly and were caused by mechanisms different from those operating in the present James Hutton geologists who came up with gradualism and that Earth was very old and had changed much gradualism (geology) theory that Earth has been molded by slow, gradual change and by the same forces as in the present Charles Lyell geologist who stated that geological change results from slow, continuous actions Jean-Baptiste Lamarck developed an earlier theory of evolution about acquired characteristics and use/disuse inheritance of acquired organisms can pass on traits that they characteristics acquired over their lifetime to offspring use and disuse organisms develop or remove structures in response to their environment Alfred Russel Wallace theorized a similar idea about natural selection around the same time as Darwin Charles Darwin naturalist and author who came up with the mechanism behind evolution theory of natural Darwin's major theory stating that selection 1) Populations tend to overpopulate and exceed resources. 2) Overpopulation results in a struggle for existence. 3) Variation exists in a population, and there is an unequal fitness for individuals. 4) The best-fit individuals survive and pass traits to offspring. 5) Evolution occurs as advantageous traits accumulate in a population descent with Darwin's principle that each living modification species has descended, with changes, from other species over time On the Origin of Darwin's book about natural selection Species and descent with modification Thomas Malthus published treatise on population growth, war, disease, and famine fitness ability for organism to survive and reproduce living offspring selective advantage advantage given by environmental pressures stabilizing selection selection that eliminates extreme phenotypes and favors intermediate disruptive selection selection that favors extreme phenotypes and eliminates intermediate balanced division of one population into two polymorphism distinct phenotypes, caused by disruptive selection, may lead to speciation directional selection selection that favors one extreme and eliminates the other extreme and intermediate; replaces the most dominant phenotype with another in the genepool industrial melanism darkening of populations of organisms over time in response to industrial pollution peppered moths classic example of directional selection in which a white population turned to black due to directional selection for black moths to blend in with the polluted environment antibiotic chemical that kills bacteria antibiotic resistance resistance to antibiotics caused by mutation and carried by plasmids; can evolve quickly in bacterial populations sexual selection selection based on variation in secondary sexual characteristics related to competing for and attracting mates sexual dimorphism differences in appearance between males and females artificial selection human breeding of plants and animals by seeking individuals with desired traits as breeding stock morph variety of organism in balanced polymorphism due to disruptive selection cline graded, regional variation in the phenotype of an organism north-south cline cline that exists because of differences in phenotype in northern and southern environments sexual reproduction reproduction involving cells from two parents uniting to form the first cell of a new organism; increases genetic diversity asexual reproduction reproduction involving a single parent; very efficient and rapid outbreeding mating of organisms within one species that are not closely related; increases genetic variation inbreeding mating of organisms within one species that are closely related; weakens gene pool diploidy the 2n condition that maintains and hides a huge pool of alleles that may be presently harmful but advantageous in the future heterozygote hybrid individual selected for because advantage greater reproductive success against homozygotes; preserves multiple alleles in population frequency-dependent minority phenotypes are selected for selection (minority and frequency increases; frequency of advantage) more common phenotypes decreases; often acts in a cycle evolutionary neutral traits that seem to have no selective traits advantage blood type type of blood determined by antigens on red blood cells genetic drift change in the gene pool due to chance; fluctuation in frequency of alleles from one generation to another bottleneck effect genetic drift occurring after a natural disaster which reduces population size and genetic variation; certain alleles may be overrepresented or underrepresented compared with original population founder effect genetic drift occurring when a small population breaks away from a larger one to colonize a new area; small population gene pool likely not representative of the large population polydactyly condition of having extra fingers and toes; common in Pennsylvanian Amish due to the founder effect gene flow movement of alleles into or out of a population as a result of migration of individuals/gametes Hardy and Weinberg scientists who came up with namesake equation and equilibrium for evolution genetic equilibrium allelic frequencies not changing, so no evolution. Factors include 1) Large popl 2) Isolated 3) No mutation 4) Random mating 5) Natl selection Hardy-Weinberg equation that enables us to calculate equation frequencies of alleles in a population in genetic equilibrium p letter for dominant allele q letter for recessive allele p+q=1 equation stating frequencies of dominant and recessive allele p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1 equation stating percentages of homozygous dom, heterozygous, and homozygous rec reproductive isolation one group of genes becomes isolated from another to begin a separate evolutionary history speciation formation of new species caused by reproductive isolation and evolutionary differences over time allopatric speciation speciation caused by geographic isolation geographic isolation isolation caused by separation by mountains, canyons, rivers, lakes, glaciers, altitude, or longitude sympatric speciation speciation not caused by geographic isolation polyploidy (evol) the number of chromosomes of individuals determines if interbreeding is possible (only if chromosome number the same) habitat isolation isolation that occurs when two organisms live in the same area but encounter each other rarely behavioral isolation isolation resulting from behavioral patterns, like mating dances temporal isolation isolation resulting from breeding during different times prezygotic barrier barrier that prevents mating (e.g. difference in genital structure) postzygotic barrier barrier that prevent production of fertile offspring after mating divergent evolution population becomes isolated from the rest of the species and when exposed to new selective pressures, evolves adaptations to diverge from common ancestor (types include allopatric/sympatric speciation) convergent evolution two unrelated species evolve similar adaptations due to similar environmental pressures parallel evolution two related species have made similar evolutionary adaptations after divergence from common ancestor coevolution reciprocal evolutionary set of adaptations of two interacting species monarch butterfly butterfly that lays its eggs in the milkweed plant milkweed plant plant that is home to monarch larvae and produces poisons adaptive radiation emergence of numerous species from a common ancestor introduced into an environment in order to fill specialized ecological niches Darwin's finches birds studied by "Darwin's" that evolved from single ancestral species and by adaptive radiation, evolved into 14 species Galapagos islands islands on the equator in the Pacific near Ecuador where Darwin collected his most important observations transitional form fossil that serves as an intermediate between ancestral and modern species gradualism theory that organisms descend from common ancestor gradually over a long period of time in a linear or branching fashion; theory not supported anymore punctuated equilibrium favored theory of evolution stating that new species appear suddenly after long periods of stasis, can be explained by allopatric speciation (relying on geographical events) Gould and Eldridge scientists who proposed punctuated equilibrium evolutionary biology that studies how major changes developmental biology in body form and function come about due to changes in regulatory genes homeotic gene master regulatory gene that controls spatial organization of body parts during embryonic development Hox gene homeotic gene providing positional information in developing embryp upregulate increase expression of downregulate decrease expression of heterochrony evolutionary change in the rate or timing of development of body parts axolotl adult aquatic salamander that retains gills into adulthood Oparin and Haldane scientists to first hypothesize that organic molecules could form under conditions of early Earth Miller and Urey tested Oparin-Haldane hypothesis and found that energy source could convert molecules in early atmosphere to organic molecules esp. amino acid Sidney Fox produced membrane-bound, cell-like structures called proteinoid microspheres from organic molecules heterotroph hypothesis hypothesis stating that first cells on Earth were anaerobic heterotrophic prokaryotes that simply absorbed organic molecules from the surrounding primordial soup RNA World concept hypothesizing that the small, single-stranded RNA was the first genetic substance on Earth ribozyme type of RNA that catalyzes reactions like enzymes do while still retaining genetic material exaptation traits that evolve by natural selection in one context but are then co-opted for another purpose root structure of plant that absorbs water/nutrients from the soil root hair structure on root that increases surface area for maximum uptake vascular tissue tissue of xylem and phloem that moves fluid great distances stoma opening on underside of leaf to exchange photosynthetic gases cutin waxy coating on the leaves to prevent excess water loss gametanglia protective jacket of cells that prevents gametes and zygotes from drying out sporopollenin tough polymer resistant to environmental damage found in walls of spore and pollen seed structure that can grow a new plant in gymnosperms and angiosperms pollen small grains that act as means of fertilization using dispersion lignin complex polymer that hardens cell walls of some vascular tissues in plants esp. xylem mychorrhizae type of fungus that live in plant roots that form a symbiotic relationship with plants - mychorrhizae enhance uptake of nutrients and water, mychorrhizae get carbohydrates from plant guard cell modified epidermal cell that control the opening of the stomates using osmotic pressure flaccid plant cell that has lost water translocation (plants) process by which phloem travels throughout the plant, requires input of energy to load sugar into phloem phloem vascular tissue that transports sugar throughout the plant xylem vascular tissue that transports water and minerals throughout the plant without using energy root pressure pressure that results from water flowing into the stele from the soil a a result of the high mineral content in the cells guttation droplets of water appearing on tips of leaves due to root pressure auxin plant hormone that is responsible for phototropisms, apical dominance, and root development cytokinin plant hormone that stimulates cell division and delays senescence; sprayed on flowers for freshness gibberellin plant hormone promoting stem and leaf elongation and "bolting" (rapid growth of floral stalk) abscisic acid plant hormone that promotes seed dormancy, enables drougtht to survive drought, and close stomata for water conservation ethylene gas plant hormone that promotes ripening tropism growth of a plant toward or away from a stimulus thigmotropism tropism based on touch geotropism tropism based on gravity; results from (gravitotropism) auxins and stalothiths phototropism tropism based on light; results from auxin accumulation on the side of the plant away from the light positive tropism growth of a plant toward a stimulus negative tropism growth of a plant away from a stimulus statolith specialized plastid containing dense starch grains photoperiod relative lengths of day and night that a plant uses to detect the time of year based on environmental stimuli circadian rhythm biological clock set to a 24-hour day photoperiodism physiological response to the photoperiod long-day plants plants that will only flower when light longer than certain number of hours short-day plants plants that will only flower when light shorter than a certain number of hours day-neutral plants plants that will flower regardless to the length of day phytochrome photoreceptor responsible for keeping the track of the length of day and night red-light absorbing phytochrome form in which it is phytochrome synthesized and is maintained in the dark infrared light absorbing phytochrome form maintained during phytochrome the day hydra type of Cnidarian; small tubular solitary freshwater hydrozoan polyp gastrovascular cavity one-opening cavity in Cnidarians in which digestion occurs gastrodermis lining of the gastrovascular cavity extracellular digestion digestion that takes place by secretory digestive enzymes outside cells and inside cavities or environment earthworm a member of Annelida; terrestrial worm that burrows into and helps aerate soil crop digestive organ where food is stored in Annelida gizzard digestive organ that grinds up food with help of sand and soil in Annelida typhlosole large fold in the upper surface of the intestine to increase surface area for maximum absorption in Annelida grasshopper member of Arthropoda; terrestrial planteating insect with hind legs adapted for leaping digestion breaking down large food molecules into smaller usable molecules absorption diffusion of smaller, broken down molecules into body's cells vitamin organic molecules that function as coenzymes; necessary in diet mineral inorganic molecules that function as cofactors; necessary in diet smooth muscle muscle whose actions are involuntary and most often necessary for life processes; nonstriated peristalsis process of moving food along digestive tract by smooth muscle tongue taste organ that helps to move food around mouth teeth cut, tear, and grind food (different structures) that break food down mechanically omnivore organisms that eats both producers and consumers incisor teeth for cutting canine teeth for tearing molar teeth for grinding salivary amylase enzyme that begins the chemical breakdown of starch in the mouth salivary glands glands that release saliva (digestive juice with enzymes, mucus, and electrolytes) epiglottis flap of cartilage that directs food into esophagus and away from trachea pharynx throat stomach digestive organ that churns food mechanically and secretes gastric juice that begins the digestion of proteins gastric juice the digestive fluid secreted by the stomach gastric pit pit that makes up stomach lining chief cell stomach cell that secretes pepsinogen pepsinogen inactive form of pepsin that is activated by acid pepsin enzyme in stomach that digests proteins parietal cell stomach cell that secretes hydrochloric acid to keep pH low for digestion and pepsin activation and to kill microorganisms rennin enzyme in mammalian stomachs that aids in digestion of protein in milk lower esophageal sphincter that keeps food in the stomach sphincter from backing up into the esophagus and burning it pyloric sphincter sphincter at the bottom of the stomach that keeps food in the stomach long eough for digestion ulcer open sore or lesion in the mucous membrane of the esophagus, stomach, or duodenum often caused by excessive acid Helicobacter pylori bacterium that can often cause ulcers duodenum upper part of the intensine where digestion completes bile emulsifies fats, creating greater surface area for digestive enzymes liver organ that makes bile to break down fats; also filters poisons and drugs out of the blood; produces urea gallbladder organ that stores and secretes bile emulsifier a substance that keeps two incompatible substances, such as oil and water, mixed together peptidase class of enzyme that breaks down proteins into amino acidss trypsin enzyme from pancreas that breaks down proteins in small intestine (t) chymotrypsin enzyme from pancreas that breaks down proteins in small intestine (c) nuclease enzyme class that hydrolyzes nucleic acids lipase enzyme class from pancreas that breaks down fats villi microscopic, fingerlike projections that absorb nutrients from digested food in small intestine lacteal small vessel of the lymphatic system in villi that absorbs fatty acids and glycerol lymphatic system organ system consisting of the network of vessels through which lymph drains from the tissues into the blood microvilli cytoplasmic appendages coming from each epithelial cell of a villus that further increases nutrient absorption small intestine digestive organ where most digestion and absorption occurs large intestine (colon) digestive organ that removes of undigested waste, removes excess water, and produces vitamins egestion removal of undigested waste vitamin production process by which bacteria in the large intestine produce coenzymes, like ___ K constipation condition in which too much water reabsorbed from large intestine diarrhea condition in which too little water reabsorbed from large intestine rectum end of the gastrointestinal tract where feces is stored feces undigestable waste anus opening at the end of the digestive tract where feces is excreted gastrin hormone from stomach wall that stimulates sustained production of gastric juice secretin hormone from duodenum wall that stimulates pancreas to release bicarbonate to neutralize acid in duodenum cholecystokinin hormone from duodenum wall that stimulates pancreas to release pancreatic enzymes (peptidase, nuclease, lipase, etc.) and gallbladder to release bile into small intestine sponge common name for Porifera external respiratory surface on which respiration directly surface occurs with environment (at skin) hemoglobin protein that carries oxygen in blood crustacean any mainly aquatic arthropod usually having a segmented body and chitinous exoskeleton internal respiratory surface on which gas exchange takes surface place inside organism spiracle the external opening of the trachea in arthropods tracheal tube system of tubes that air travels through in arthropods hemocoel sinus in arthropod where blood and gas empty out hemocyanin protein similar to hemoglobin that uses copper instead of iron nasal cavity entrance for air where it is moistened, warmed, and filtered larynx voice box trachea windpipe, connects larynx to bronchi bronchus large tubes that each branch into a lung bronchiole tiny branches from bronchi and other bronchioles alveolus microscopic air sacs at the end of bronchioles where diffusion of respiratory gases occurs diaphragm muscle that contracts to increase volume of chest cavity to draw air in and relaxes to decrease volume to expel air medulla oblongata structure in brain that controls breathing and sets the rhythm by monitoring pH levels (indicative of CO2 levels) carbonic acid acid formed when carbon dioxide dissolves in blood oxyhemoglobin molecule formed when hemoglobin combines with four oxygen molecules fetal hemoglobin hemoglobin in fetuses that has a greater affinity for hemoglobin than adult hemoglobin plasma liquid portion of the blood containing clotting factors, hormones, antibodies, gases, nutrients, and wastes and maintains osmotic potential carbonic acid- system that continuously converts bicarbonate ion system dissolved carbon dioxide between carbonic acid and bicarbonate ion (basic) to maintain pH of blood open circulatory system circulatory system where blood leaves vessels to sinuses (e.g. arthropods) closed circulatory circulatory system where blood always system contained within vessels (e.g. annelids) erythrocyte red blood cell that carries (oxy)hemoglobin, lacks nucleus, formed in bone marrow and recycled in liver leukocyte white blood cell that die fighting infection or produce antibodies, formed in bone marrow thrombocyte platelet cell fragment, formed in bone marrow from megakaryocytes; clot blood megakaryocyte precursor cell to thrombocytes/platelets stem cell cell that has the potential to differentiate into other cells multipotent stem cell adult stem cells that keep dividing to replenish supply of short-lived cells, e.g. erythrocytes clotting factor factors released from platelets and damaged tissue to begin blood clotting anticlotting factor factor normally circulating in plasma that prevents formation of clot thrombus blood clot thromboplastin major clotting factor that reacts with calcium ions prothombrin protein released by thromboplastin and calcium ions plasma protein inactivated protein circulating in plasma thombrin plasma protein activated by prothombrin fibrinogen protein released by thrombrin fibrin plasma protein activated by thombrin that creates a blood clot artery blood vessel made of thick, elastic, smooth muscle that carries blood away from the heart under enormous pressures arteriole branch of artery to capillaries vein blood vessel made of thin walls (with valves to prevent backflow) that carries blood back to the heart under very little pressure so requires movement from skeletal muscle venule merger of capillaries that merge into vein capillary thinnest blood vessel that allows for diffusion of nutrients and wastes between cells and blood (walls are onecell thick for diffusion) atrium heart chamber that receives blood from the body cells ventricle heart chamber that pumps blood out of the heart cardiac muscle striated, involuntary muscle making up the heart sinoatrial node node in right atrium that sets the timing of the contractions of the heart through the atrioventricular node, bundle of His, and Purkinje fibers pacemaker colloquial name for sinoatrial node electrocardiogram record of the electrical activity of the heart using electrical impulses from pacemaker activity blood pressure the pressure that is exerted by the blood against the walls of blood vessels systole ventricles contract; higher blood pressure diastole ventricles relax; lower blood pressure coronary circulation circulation through the cardiac muscle to give nutrients/pick up wastes from muscle cells renal circulation circulation through the kidneys for filtering hepatic circulation circulation through the liver for processing pulmonary circulation circulation through the lungs for oxygenation systemic circulation circulation through most of the body ectotherm animal that gains most body heat from environment; low metabolic rate so heat generation does not have an effect endotherm animal that uses metabolic processes (e.g. cellular respiration) to produce body heat at a constant temperature poikilotherm animal that has a body temperature that varies with the environment homeotherm animal that has a constant body temperature despite fluctuations in environmental temperature torpor extreme mental and physical sluggishness estivation state of reduced metabolism that occurs in animals living in conditions of intense heat hibernation the deep sleeplike torpor that an animal enters for most of the winter countercurrent heat countercurrent exchange used to help exchange warm or coll extremities osmoregulation management of the body's water and solute concentration flame cell excretory structure of Platyhelminthes nephridium excretory structure of Annelida (metanephridium) Malphigian tubule excretory structure of Arthropoda nephron functional unit of the kidney excretion removal of metabolic wastes carbon dioxide, water wastes from cellular respiration nitrogenous waste waste from protein metabolism ammonia highly toxic and soluble nitrogenous waste excreted by marine organisms urea not very toxic, excreted by earthworms and humans, formed in liver uric acid pastelike substance not soluble or toxic, excreted by insects, reptiles, birds for minimal water loss renal artery artery to the kidney renal vein vein away from the kidney hyposmotic dilute hyperosmotic concentrated glomerulus cluster of capillaries from renal artery that is next to the nephron Bowman's capsule cuplike structure around glomerulus where filtration occurs renal tubule tube that travels through the nephron filtration blood pressure forces fluid from the glomerulus into the Bowman's capsule, filtering it - passive, nonselective podocyte specialized cells of Bowman's capsule that increase rate of filtration slit pore pore in Bowman's capsule that helps with filtration proximal convoluted twisted-up tube close to glomerulus that tubule functions in secretion and reabsorption, secretes ammonia to neutralize acidic filtrate secretion active, selective uptake of certain drugs and toxic molecules that did not get filtered into Bowman's capsule distal convoluted twisted-up tube far from glomerulus that tubule functions in secretion and reabsorption, aldosterone here reabsorption most of the water and solutes that initially entered renal tubule during filtration are transported back into capillaries into body peritubular capillary capillary that collects reabsorbed material from nephron loop of Henle structure that moves salts from the filtrate to accumulate them in the medulla to build a steep gradient around the loop (longer loop, greater reabsorption) ureter tube from kidney to bladder urinary bladder stores urine till excretion urethra tube that excretes urine aldosterone hormone produced, stored, and released by adrenal glands in response to decreased blood pressure/volume; acts on distal tubule to reabsorb sodium ions and water antidiuretic hormone hormone produced by hypothalamus (ADH) and stored and released by posterior pituitary in response to dehydration which causes blood osmolarity to increases; increases permeability of collecting duct to water through renal aquaporin to reabsorb water renal aquaporin transmembrane protein that functions as water channel in the collecting tube renin hormone released by kidney that activates angiotensin to stimulate adrenal cortex to release aldosterone diuretic drug that reduces blood volume by increasing amount of water in urine angiotensin-converting drug that prevents formation of enzyme inhibitor angiotensin II and thereby, aldosterone skeletal muscle large, multinucleate, striated muscle that work in pairs muscle fiber individual cylindrical muscle cell sarcolemma modified plasma membrane that surrounds muscle fibers and can propagate an action potential sarcoplasmic reticulum modified endoplasmic reticulum that contains sacs of calcium ions necessary for normal muscle contraction T system system of tubules that runs perpendicular to sarcoplasmic reticulum and connects it to the extracellular fluid sarcomere functional unit of the muscle fiber Z-line boundary of a sarcomere that gives striated appearance myofibril fiber that runs parallel to the cell consisting of thick (myosin) and thin (actin) filaments troponin, tropomyosin two proteins that make the sarcomere contract nueromuscular junction the synapse between the axon of a motor neuron and skeletal muscle acetylcholine neurotransmitter for skeletal muscle twitch brief contraction caused by single action potential summation effect larger contraction after second action potential tetanus smooth, sustained contraction caused by multiple action potentials, blending twitches fatigue muscle tires out after too much stimulation endocrine system organ system that secretes hormones for organismal control nervous system organ system that uses neurotransmitters for organismal control hormone chemical produced by endocrine system and moves through the blood to target that can be far from endocrine gland (can be short-lived or long-term response) endocrine gland ductless gland that secretes hormones into blood ecdysone hormone that controls metamorphosis tropic hormone hormone that stimulates other glands to release hormones pheromone chemical carrying a message between different individuals of the same species growth hormone hormone produced and released by the anterior pitiuitary to stimulate growth of bones luteinizing hormone hormone produced and released by the anterior pitiuitary to stimulate ovaries and testes thyroid-stimulating hormone produced and released by the hormone anterior pitiuitary to stimulate thyroid adrenocorticotropic hormone produced and released by the hormone anterior pitiuitary to stimulate adrenal cortex follicle-stimulating hormone produced and released by the hormone anterior pitiuitary to stimulate gonads to produce sperm and ova prolactin hormone produced and released by the anterior pitiuitary to stimulate mammary glands to produce milk oxytocin hormone produced by the hypothalamus and stored/released by the posterior pituitary to stimulate contractions of uterus and to stimulate mammary glands to produce milk thyroxin (T3 and T4) hormone produced and released by the thyroid to control metabolic rate calcitonin hormone produced and released by the thyroid to lower blood calcium levels by building bone parathormone hormone produced and released by the parathyroid to raise blood calcium levels by dissolving bone glucocortoid class of hormones produced and released by the adrenal cortex to raise blood sugar levels through gluconeogenesis mineralocorticoid class of hormones produced and released by the adrenal cortex to regulate osmotic potential epinephrine, two hormones produced and released norepinephrine by the adrenal medulla to initiate the "fight or flight" response insulin hormone produced and released by the beta cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas to lower blood glucose levels by absorbing blood glucose glucagon hormone produced and released by the alpha cells of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas to raise blood glucose levels by breaking down glycogen in liver thymosin hormone produced and released by the thymus to stimulate T lymphocytes melatonin hormone produced and released by the pineal for biorhythms estrogen hormone produced and released by the ovaries to stimulate uterine lining, promote development and maintenance of primary and secondary characteristics of females progesterone hormone produced and released by the ovaries to promote uterine lining growth androgen class of hormones produced and released by the testes to support sperm production and promote secondary sex characteristics hypothalamus bridge between the endocrine and nervous system gonadotropic-releasing hormone secreted by neurosecretory hormone cells of hypothalamus to stimulate anterior pituitary to secrete FSH and LH prolactin-releasing hormone released by the hypothalamus hormone to stimulate anterior pituitary to secrete prolactin feedback mechanism self-regulating mechanism that increases or decreases the level of a particular substance positive feedback feedback that enhances an already existing response to bring an event to an end negative feedback fedback to maintain homeostasis by keeping levels of chemicals constant thyrotropin-releasing hormone released by the hypothalamus hormone to stimulate the anterior pituitary to secrete thyroid-stimulating hormone steroid hormone hormone made from steroids that diffuse into cell and bind to intracellular receptor peptide hormone hormone made from protein that binds to extracellular receptor and triggers secondary messenger testosterone primary androgen secreted by the testes and binds to cells with testosterone receptor androgen insensitivity syndrome in which XY males lack syndrome testosterone receptors so lack many sexual characteristics glycogen enzyme that converts glycogen into phosphorylase glucose kinase cascade signal transduction pathway using kinase enzymes central nervous system part of nervous system consisting of brain and spinal cord peripheral nervous system sensory nervous system part of nervous system consisting of all nerves outside CNS part of PNS that conveys information from sensory receptors or nerve endings motor nervous system part of PNS that controls actions somatic nervous system part of motor nervous system that controls voluntary muscles, acetylcholine autonomic nervous part of motor nervous system that system controls involuntary muscles sympathetic nervous part of ANS that causes the fight or system flight response, norepinephrine parasympathetic part of ANS that causes the rest and nervous system digest response, acetylcholine neuron nerve cell dendrite sensory processes of a neuron that receives incoming messages from other cells axon long process of a neuron that transmits impulse to another cell myelin sheath fatty layer wrapped around axon Schwann cells cells that form the myelin sheath of axons sensory neuron neuron that receives initial stimulus from sensory organ motor neuron neuron that stimulates muscles or glands effector muscle or gland that carries out neuron impulse interneuron (association neuron that receives sensory information neuron) and relays it to the brain or to motor neurons reflex arc inborn, automatic, and protective response to sudden stimuli knee-jerk reflex simple reflex consisting of only two neurons (sensory + motor) when hammer strikes kneecap withdrawal reflex complex reflex consisting of three neurons e.g. when touch something hot spinal cord a long cord down the back that connects most nerves with the CNS membrane potential difference in electrical charge between negatively charged cytoplasm and positively charged extracellular fluid (~-70 mV) polarized state (resting neuron at membrane potential of about potential) -70 mV potassium leak channels that allow potassium to diffuse channels outside the neuron resting threshold boundary where action potentials can fire gated-ion channel channel that opens or closes in response to stimuli sodium ion-gated channel that allows sodium to enter channel neuron when -50 mV potassium ion-gated channel that allows potassium to leave channel neuron when +30 mV hypopolarize easier for the neuron to fire hyperpolarize harder for the neuron to fire action potential impulse that travels down the axon; reversal of membrane polarity wave of depolarization rapid movement of ions causing positively-charged cytoplasm refractory period brief period of repolarization during which neuron cannot respond to another stimulus saltatory conduction impulse leaps from nodes of Ranvier frequency (neuron) determines the strength of impulse terminal branch end of the axon presynaptic neuron neuron that is transmitting the impulse across synpase postsynaptic neuron neuron that is receiving the impulse across synapse vesicle a membrane bound sac that contains materials involved in transport of the cell neurotransmitter chemical used by a neuron to transmit an impulse across a synapse to another cell calcium-gated channel channel that allows calcium into the terminal branch when depolarized due to action potential esterase enzyme that destroys neurotransmitter serotonin a neurotransmitter; associated with improved mood and other positive emotions dopamine a neurotransmitter that regulates motor behavior, motivation, pleasure, and emotional arousal norepinephrine the primary neurotransmitter for sympathetic system cerebrum largest section of the brain that deals with learning, emotion, etc.; divided into left and right hemispheres cerebullum section of the brain dealing with coordination, movement, and balance brainstem section of the brain dealing with homeostatic functions and relaying sensory information cone modified neuron; photoreceptor in the retina that distinguishes different colors; embedded with visual pigment cornea tough, clear covering that protects the eye and allows light to pass through humor fluid that maintains the shape of the eyeball iris colored part of the eye that controls the size of the pupil and how much light enters the eye lens focuses light on the retina opsin a membrane protein bound to a lightabsorbing pigment molecule pupil small opening in the middle of the iris where light enters the eye reetina on the back of the eyeball; converts light to nerve impulses that are carried to the brain; consists of 5 layers of neurons retinal light-absorbing pigment in rods and cones rhodopsin a visual pigment consisting of retinal and opsin; upon absorbing light, retinal changes shape and separates from opsin rods modified neurons; photoreceptors in the retina that are extremely sensitive but distinguish only black and white, embedded with the visual pigment retinal nonspecific defense physical or chemical barrier that prevents pathogens from entering the body; not specific to particular pathogen lysozyme antimicrobial enzyme involved in nonspecific defense histamine triggers vasodilation, secreted by basophils and mast cells, responsible for cold symptoms phagocyte leukocyte that ingests invading fungal and bacterial microbes basophil circulating leukocyte that secretes histamine mast cell cell found in connective tissue that secretes histamine vasodilation enlargement of blood vessels vasoconstriction making blood vessels smaller prostaglandin a lipid released by damaged tissue cells that intensifies the effects of histamine (i.e. vasodilation) cytokine signaling molecule released by neutrophils and macrophages to promote blood flow fever activated macrophages raise body's temperature to increase metabolic activity and kill off invaders faster neutrophil phagocyte that engulfs microbes and quickly die macrophage engulf huge numbers of microbes over a long period of time and digest using lysozyme, superoxide anion, and nitric oxide chemotaxis process by which phagocytes migrate to infected site in response to chemicals monocyte precursor cell to macrophage pseudopod a temporary, foot-like extension of a cell, used for locomotion or engulfing food complement group of proteins that leads to the lysis of invading cells interferon proteins that block against cell-to-cell viral infections natural killer cell cell that attacks virus-infected or cancerous cells and cause it to lyse adaptive defense defense against a particular pathogen antigen marker for a cell, esp. pathogens recognition antigen receptors on B and T lymphocytes bind to specific antigens on antigen-presenting cells epitope accessible piece of antigen that elicits an immune response from B or T cell activation antigen receptors of B and T cells cause proliferation into effector and memory cells effector phase phase in which B cells produce humoral response and T cells a cell-mediated response T lymphocyte lymphocytes that mature in the thymus THIS SET IS OFTEN IN FOLDERS WITH... Barron's AP Biology Complete Glossary YOU OTH AP Biology 1/3 1,973 terms 509 terms MrSmitka Full AP Biology Review B D 77 e Darron_Gipson SAT Biology Barron's B 15 34 1,171 terms Rocketroark PLUS 355 terms sarahogata

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