MEENAN PRESENTS
THE AP GOVERNMENT
STUDY GUIDE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Unit 1: Constitutional Underpinnings………………………...3
Constitution…………………………………………….………….…..….4
Federalism……………………………………………………...…….….17
Unit 2: Civil Liberties & Civil Rights………………...…........28
Civil Liberties………………………………………………………….....29
Civil Rights………………………………………………..………….…..37
Unit 3: Political Beliefs & Behavior…………………………..47
Public Opinion…………………………………………………….……...48
Political Participation…………………………………………………….53
Unit 4: Political Parties, Interest Groups, & Mass Media...60
Political Parties……………………………...………………………......61
Elections & Campaigns…………………………….……………..........70
Interest Groups…………………...………………………………..........80
Media……………………………………………………………….........85
Unit 5: Government Institutions……………………………...89
Congress………………………………………………………………....90
Presidency……………………………………………………………...103
Bureaucracy…………………………………………………………….115
Judiciary……………………………………………….………………..123
Unit 6: Public Policy…………………………………………..132
Domestic Policy………………………………………………...….…..133
Foreign & Military Policy…………………………………………..…..145
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UNIT 1:
CONSTITUTIONAL UNDERPINNINGS
MAIN TOPICS
THE CONSTITUTION
FEDERALISM
3
THE
CONSTITUTION
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CONSTITUTIONAL UNDERPINNINGS
THE CONSTITUTION
TYPES OF GOVERNMENT
TYPE
DESCRIPTION
MONARCHY
Power is vested in hereditary Kings and queens who govern in the
interest of al .
TOTALITARIANISM
Power resides in a leader who rules according to self-­interest.
The right to participate in government is conditioned on the
OLIGARCHY
possession of wealth, social status, military position, or
achievement.
DEMOCRACY
The rule of the many.
DIRECT DEMOCRACY Members of the society (polity) meet and make decisions with
majority rule.
REPRESENTATIVE
Members of the society vote for representatives who make
DEMOCRACY
decisions on the behalf.
(REPUBLIC/ INDIRECT DEMOCRACY)
-­Government: is the institution through which policy is made and enforced.
-­Public Policy: Anything the government decides to do.
PHILOSOPHICAL ORIGINS OF AMERICAN GOVERNMENT
PHILOSOPHER
DESCRIPTION
THOMAS HOBBES Humanity was natural y at war. We need government (Monarchy)
necessary to restrain huanity’s beastial tendencies. Life without
(1588-­1679)
government was a “state of nature”.
Natural law is the law of God. Under natural law people were born
JOHN LOCKE
free and equal. Law is acknowledged through human sense and
reason. He also argued for rights (Life, Liberty, Property) and
(1632-­1704)
obligated people to rebel against kings that did not respect the right of the governed.
(Social Contract Theory)
JEAN-­JACQUES
The social contract: it is the agreement of free and equal people to ROUSSEAU
abandon certain natural rights in order to find freedom in a single
(1712-­1778)
body politic committed to the general good.
MONTESQUIEU
Argued for the separation of powers in the government.
(1689-­1755)
-­The philosopher most likely to be on the AP test is John Locke. His words greatly
influenced Thomas Jefferson as he wrote the Declaration of Independence.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CONSTITUTIONAL UNDERPINNINGS
THE CONSTITUTION
ROOTS OF A NEW NATION
PHASE
DESCRIPTION
● In the early 17th century, colonists came to the New World for
economic opportunity and to escape religious persecution.
ENGLISH
● Most colonists agreed the king ruled by divine right. The
COLONIES
monarch gave colonists much more freedom (such as
self-­government, religious practices, economic organization)
FORM
than
subjects at home (because they were across the ocean and there were
no things like planes, phones, or internet). Things were ok for like 140
years.
● England increases taxes (sugar act, stamp act) and restricts settlement (proclamation
of 1783). They increased taxes to pay for the Seven Years War (French and Indian War was
a segment that
ENGLAND
took place in North America). They restricted settlements to
ENHANCES THE
prevent having to pay for future conflicts with Indian tribes and
European rivals.
CONTROL ON
● England and the colonies would go back and forth for years
THE COLONIES
regarding this new control. England would back down on
(Starting in 1760’s)
some things and crack down on others. King George III
pushed for the Intolerable Acts (shutting down Boston Harbor until the tea was paid for
from the Boston Tea Party) and reinforcing the Quartering Act (forced colonists to give
food and shelter to redcoats).
● STAMP ACT CONGRESS: Representatives met in 1765 to
draft a document listing how their rights were violated (They
thought they deserved representation in parliament).
● SONS OF LIBERTY/ DAUGHTERS OF LIBERTY: Some
boycotts were successful in English citizens applying pressure
to parliament.
● COMMITTEES OF CORRESPONDENCE: Kept each other
THE
aware of developments with Britain (Do we real y appreciate cel phones?) COLONISTS’
● FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS: 56 delegates came
FIRST STEPS
together so they could iron out their differences with Britain.
TOWARDS
They drafted a Declaration of Rights and Resolves (which
included the right to petition and assembly, trial by peers, freedom from a INDEPENDENCE
standing army, and a selection of representative councils to levy taxes).
● BATTLES OF LEXINGTON & CONCORD: The redcoats are
coming, the redcoats are coming…to get our weapons. This
was in 1775 and was the start of the Revolutionary War.
● SECOND CONTINENTAL CONGRESS: Olive Branch
Petition (last chance britain). It also put George Washington in
charge of army (just in case they needed an army).
● DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: bye-­bye british control
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CONSTITUTIONAL UNDERPINNINGS
THE CONSTITUTION
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE
SECTIONS
DESCRIPTIONS
FIRST PARAGRAPH
God gives people the right to break away
from a government.
● Al men are created equal.
SECOND PARAGRAPH
● Life, liberty, and the pursuit of
happiness.
● It is ok to abolish a government
27 PARAGRAPHS
27 reason they hate King George.
LAST COUPLE PARAGRAPHS The United States of America declare that the colonies are
free and independent states.
-­Thomas Jefferson was the primary author along with the rest of the committee of five
which includes Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, Robert Livingston and Roger Sherman.
SUMMARY OF AMERICA’S GOVERNMENTS
GOVERNMENT
YEARS
DESCRIPTION
Unofficial government. It handled the
SECOND
creation the declaration of
CONTINENTAL
1775-­1781
independence, and the handling of the
CONGRESS
revolutionary war until an official
government was created.
This government came into effect with
about 2 years left of the Revolutionary
ARTICLES OF
1781-­1789
war. It was an official document written
CONFEDERATION
out much like today’s Constitution. It
did not last because it was viewed as
weak.
Was written at the Constitutional
THE
1789-­Today
Convention in 1787. Is cal ed a living
CONSTITUTION
document (because it can be changed) so it
has been around for over 200 years.
-­Some books make a big deal that the Second Continental Congress was our truly first
government because it raised an army (funded by donations by the states). Other books
point out that the Articles of Confederation is the first government. So... know them both
and be able to tel what they are looking for. If it is an FRQ I would write about how both
have been viewed as the first government.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CONSTITUTIONAL UNDERPINNINGS
THE CONSTITUTION
THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: GOVERNMENT SET-­UP
MAIN TOPIC
DESCRIPTION
The nation was considered a “
SOVEREIGNTY
firm league of friendship”.
Each State had ultimate authority within its territory.
PASSING LAWS
It took 9 out of 13 states to agree to pass a law.
AMENDMENTS
To amend the articles took al 13 States in agreement.
SELECTION/PAYMENT OF
Each State could pay and send up to 7 representatives or
DELEGATES
delegates but they only had one vote per State.
THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: STRENGTHS & WEAKNESSES
PROS/CONS
MAIN TOPIC
DESCRIPTION
MAKE PEACE
Ended the Revolutionary War (Treaty of Paris).
STRENGTHS
POST OFFICE
Got mail delivered (that was like the only form of
communication)
NEGOTIATE WITH
Acted as one nation for foreign disputes
INDIAN TRIBES
National government could not tax and only
TAX ISSUE
asked for money. (States said “no” often)
National government did coin money (not strong).
So States would make their own money. States
MONEY ISSUES
also would make agreements with other nations
(This is usual y viewed as a national power).
There was no branch to enforce laws passed by
NO EXECUTIVE
Congress.
WEAKNESSES
NO JUDICIAL
States would fight about borders. Who wins?
State would ignore the Treaty of Paris by
DID NOT RESPECT
al owing citizens to postpone paying debts to
NATIONAL DECISIONS
Britain and not giving land back to loyal
supporters of Britain.
The national government tried to raise funds to
pay for a militia to put down a rebel ion in
SHAYS REBELLION
Massachusetts but failed. A militia paid by
private citizens stepped up.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CONSTITUTIONAL UNDERPINNINGS
THE CONSTITUTION
CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION: FRAMERS’ CHARACTERISTICS
GENERAL TOPIC
DESCRIPTION
PURPOSE OF
They were supposed to revise the Articles of Confederation, but
CONVENTION
they just made up a new government instead.
12/13 STATES ATTENDED Rhode Island did not show up.
George Washington was unanimously voted the presiding officer.
PRESIDING OFFICER
He was a beloved war hero. Everyone wanted him to become the
nation’s president.
Al of the framers (55 delegates) are cal ed the founding fathers.
FATHER OF THE
But James Madison is referred to as the Father of the Constitution.
CONSTITUTION
His buddy Thomas Jefferson, who was serving as ambassador in
France, sent him a lot of European books on government.
Benjamin Franklin: 81 years old with experience drafting the
Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the
OLDEST MEMBER
Treaty of Paris.
(Although the framers agreed not to talk about the document until it was finished they
always kept people with Franklin because he was drinker with a big mouth)
● Most were in their 20’s or 30’s
● ¾ had served in the Continental Congress
● Several helped draft their state constitutions
POLITICAL EXPERIENCE
● 8 Signed the Declaration of Independence
& BACKGROUND OF THE
● 21 fought in the Revolutionary War
DELEGATES
● 17 owned slaves (George Washington, George Mason, & John Rutledge)
● 31 went to col ege
● 34 Lawyers
● 7 Governors
CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION: COMPROMISES (SHORT VERSION)
COMPROMISE
DESCRIPTION
THE GREAT
Bicameral (2-­house) Legislature: The House of
COMPROMISE
Representatives (directly elected) would be based on
population. The Senate (chosen by state legislatures) would
(Connecticut Plan)
be equal for each state.
THE 3/5’S
5 slaves would count as 3 people when determining the
COMPROMISE
population of a state for congressional representation.
-­They also agreed that Congress could stop the importation of slaves for 20 years after the
Constitution was ratified. Also to have an extradition clause that addressed how states
would handle runaway slaves. Also agreed to having a single president.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CONSTITUTIONAL UNDERPINNINGS
THE CONSTITUTION
CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION: COMPROMISES (DETAILED VERSION)
ONE SIDE
THE OTHER
THE PROBLEM
THE COMPROMISE
WANTED
WANTED
New Jersey Plan:
Strengthening the
Articles, not
Virginia Plan:
replacing them.
Powerful central
THE GREAT COMPROMISE
government with Creating a
(CONNECTICUT PLAN):
3 branches.
one-­house
Bicameral Legislature:
legislature with
Two-­house
(2 house legislature)
one vote for each
legislature with
state and with
1) House of Representatives
one house
representatives
had members based on
elected directly
population (also directly
THE
chosen by state
by the people,
elected by the people).
REPRESENTATION
legislatures.
the other chose
OF THE STATES
2) The Senate would have
from persons
Giving Congress
IN CONGRESS
members equal for each state.
nominated by the the power to raise
state
revenue from
Dividing power between the
legislatures.
duties and imports nation and state governments,
and from postal
national power would be
A legislature with service fees.
supreme.
the power to
select the
Creating a
3 branches of government
executive and
Supreme Court
judiciary.
with members
appointed for life
by the executive
officers.
People in the
People in the
North were like
South wanted to
THE 3/5’S COMPROMISE:
slaves can’t vote
COUNTING
count slaves as
so they should not Five slaves would count as 3
SLAVES WHEN
people when
be used in
people when determining
DETERMINING
determining how determining the
population of a state for
REPRESENTATION many seats their number of seats
congressional representation.
IN CONGRESS
state got in the
the state gets in
(This gave the South 47% of the
House of
the House of
House of Representatives)
Representatives Representatives.
-­They also agreed that Congress could stop the importation of slaves for 20 years after the
Constitution was ratified. Also to have an extradition clause that addressed how states
would handle runaway slaves. Also compromised on having a single president.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CONSTITUTIONAL UNDERPINNINGS
THE CONSTITUTION
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF THE CONSTITUTION
BASIC PRINCIPLE
DESCRIPTION
Power is separated between 3 branches:
SEPARATION OF POWERS -­Legislative Branch: creates laws
-­Executive Branch: enforce (executes) laws
-­Judicial Branch: interprets laws
CHECKS AND BALANCES Each branch can check the power of the other branches
(Example: President can veto a bil passed by Congress)
FEDERALISM
The division of government between the national
government and the state governments.
POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY Authority comes from the people.
LIMITED GOVERNMENT
The government can only do some things.
The constitution even tel s the government things it can not do.
JUDICIAL REVIEW
The Supreme Court can declare government acts
unconstitutional (this is also an example of checks and balances).
-­Al books stress the importance of the top three. The others only appear in some books.
KNOW THE TOP THREE!
-­Judicial Review is not written in the Constitution but the Supreme Court said it is in the
structure in Marbury v Madison 1803.
CHECKS & BALANCES (DETAILED EXAMPLES OF THIS PRINCIPLE)
LEGISLATIVE
EXECUTIVE BRANCH
JUDICIAL BRANCH
BRANCH
CHECKS THE EXECUTIVE BY:
-­impeaching president
CHECKS THE LEGISLATIVE BY:
CHECKS THE LEGISLATIVE BY:
-­refusing to confirm nominees
-­veto legislation
-­rule federal laws are unconstitutional
-­refusing to approve treaties
-­cal congress into special session
-­rule state laws are unconstitutional
-­override presidential veto by a
-­implement (or fail to) laws passed
2/3s vote of both houses
by Congress
CHECKS THE EXECUTIVE BY:
-­declare executive actions are
CHECKS THE JUDICIAL BY:
CHECKS THE JUDICIAL BY:
unconstitutional
-­change number & jurisdiction of
-­appoint federal judges
-­chief justice presides over
federal courts
-­refuse to implement decisions
impeachment trial
-­impeach federal judges
-­propose amendments
Learn these now. There wil tons of questions on the AP test concerning checks and
balances. Plus you have to know al this information for our unit that covers government
institutions.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CONSTITUTIONAL UNDERPINNINGS
THE CONSTITUTION
ARTICLES WITHIN THE CONSTITUTION
ARTICLE
MAIN TOPIC
IMPORTANT ITEMS
-­establishing justice
-­insuring domestic tranquility
PREAMBLE
Purpose of Government
-­providing for the common defense
-­promoting the general welfare
-­securing the blessings of liberty
-­enumerated powers
ARTICLE I
The Legislative Branch
-­necessary and proper clause
(implied powers)
ARTICLE II
The Executive Branch
-­presidential qualifications
-­presidential roles (jobs)
-­created the Supreme Court
ARTICLE III
The Judicial Branch
-­empowered Congress to create inferior
courts
-­ful faith and credit clause
ARTICLE IV
Relations among States
-­extradition
-­privileges & immunities clause
ARTICLE V
Amendment Process
-­two ways to propose
-­two ways to ratify
-­supremacy clause (national supremacy)
ARTICLE VI
National Supremacy
-­although states do have power
(reserved powers)
ARTICLE VII
Ratification Process
Nine (out of 13) state conventions
approving Constitution needed
-­The AP test expects you to know which Article you can find specific items.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CONSTITUTIONAL UNDERPINNINGS
THE CONSTITUTION
RIGHTS FOUND IN THE ORIGINAL CONSTITUTION
MAIN TOPIC
DESCRIPTION
NO SUSPENDING
Habeas Corpus is when a person under arrest is brought
HABEAS CORPUS before a judge (chance to show unlawful detention). The Constitution
says it can only be suspended during wartime.
NO EX POST
A law that gives a consequences for actions already
FACTO LAWS
committed.
NO BILL OF
A law that declares a person or group guilty and gives
ATTAINDERS
them consequences (no trial or anything).
NO RELIGIOUS
There is no religious qualification in order to run for office.
QUALIFICATIONS
ENTITLEMENT OF
PRIVILEGES &
States cannot discriminate against people from other
states.
IMMUNITIES
RIGHT TO JURY
For federal crimes, people have the right to a jury trial.
TRIAL
-­People were upset that there was not original y a bil of rights, but the rights listed above
were stated throughout the original constitution.
METHODS FOR AMENDING THE CONSTITUTION
PROPOSE/ RATIFY
WAY
DESCRIPTION
⅔ Vote of both houses of
It has been used for 27
Congress.
amendments.
PROPOSE
⅔ Vote of national
convention on request of
It has never been used.
⅔ of state legislatures.
Passage by ¾ of state
It has been used 26 times.
legislatures.
RATIFY
Passage by ¾ of of special It has been used 1 time.
state conventions.
-­Note that this amendment process reflects federalism (national government and state
government both have power.
-­The only amendment ratified by special state conventions was the 21st amendment
which repealed prohibition.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CONSTITUTIONAL UNDERPINNINGS
THE CONSTITUTION
RATIFICATION OF THE CONSTITUTION: WHEN IS IT IN EFFECT
MAIN TOPIC
DESCRIPTION
ACCORDING TO
THE
Article VII stated that the Constitution would be the
Supreme Law of the Land when 9 states ratified it at
CONSTITUTIONAL State Conventions.
CONVENTION
ACCORDING TO
The articles stated that al 13 states had to approve
THE ARTICLES OF changes to the government. Some scholars argue that the Constitution
was an il egal document until al States
CONFEDERATION agreed to ratify it in 1790.
RATIFICATION OF THE CONSTITUTION: BY THE NUMBERS
STATE
DATE
FOR
AGAINST
Delaware
December 1787
30
0
Pennsylvania
December 1787
46
23
New Jersey
December 1787
38
0
Georgia
January 1788
26
0
Connecticut
January 1788
128
40
Massachusetts
February 1788
187
168
Maryland
April 1788
63
11
South Carolina
May 1788
149
73
New Hampshire
June 1788
57
47
Virginia
June 1788
89
79
New York
July 1788
30
27
North Carolina
November 1789
194
77
Rhode Island
May 1790
34
32
-­Nine State did ratify the constitution but was it enough? New York and Virginia had yet to
ratify and they homed 40% of the nation.
-­Two groups or parties formed: The federalists (supporters) debated the anti­federalists (opponents).
-­Rhode Island ratified the Constitution one year after George Washington became the first
president of the United States.
-­The last states only ratified when the federalists promised to add a bil of rights (federalist
papers also influenced some).
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CONSTITUTIONAL UNDERPINNINGS
THE CONSTITUTION
FEDERALISTS VERSUS ANTI-­FEDERALISTS
OPINION ON THE
GROUP
RATIFICATION OF
KEY MEMBERS
THE CONSTITUTION
They supported it because
-­James Madison
FEDERALISTS
they saw a need for a strong -­Alexander Hamilton
central government.
-­John Jay
They opposed it because
they thought the
ANTI-­FEDERALISTS
-­Patrick Henry
government would be too
-­George Mason
strong and the people would
not have enough power.
-­The federalists wil end up winning the ratification battle. But the Anti-­federalists were a
key component in the new government amending the constitution to include the bil of
rights.
-­These two groups wil evolve into our nation’s first political parties which would disagree
about how much power the national government should posses.
THE FEDERALIST PAPERS
ESSAY
DESCRIPTION
SUMMARY
Factions (interested groups in the government) would be Factions are FEDERALIST #10
limited in this new government because it is a
limited in a
republic (representative democracy) and not a direct republic.
democracy.
“Tyranny of the majority” is control ed due to:
-­Separation of Powers (3 separate branches)
Tyranny wil be
FEDERALIST #51 -­Checks and Balances (presidential veto, judges for life) stopped
because
-­Bicameral legislature (House and Senate)
power is divided.
-­Federalism (Division of National and State Governments)
-­The federalist papers (a col ection of 85 essays written by James Madison, Alexander
Hamilton, and John Jay) is always on the test. You must know what these two essays are
about!!!
-­These papers convinced many people to favor the new constitution being ratified.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CONSTITUTIONAL UNDERPINNINGS
THE CONSTITUTION
BILL OF RIGHTS
AMENDMENT
DESCRIPTION
-­Freedom of Speech
-­Freedom of Religion
AMENDMENT I
-­Freedom of press
-­Freedom to Assembly
-­Freedom to protest (or petition)
AMENDMENT II
-­Right to bear arms
AMENDMENT III -­No quartering of troops
AMENDMENT IV -­No unreasonable searches or seizures
-­Indictment
AMENDMENT V
-­Double jeopardy
-­Protection against self incrimination
-­Due process (from national government)
-­Speedy public trial with jury of peers
AMENDMENT VI -­Cross examination
-­Right to defense counsel
AMENDMENT VII -­Lawsuits and juries
AMENDMENT VIII -­No cruel and unusual punishments
-­No excessive fines
AMENDMENT IX -­Listing rights here doesn’t deny others
AMENDMENT X
-­Delegated and reserved powers
Anti-­federalists only agreed to ratify the new constitution with the promise that this new
government would add a bil of rights to protect citizens liberty.
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FEDERALISM
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CONSTITUTIONAL UNDERPINNINGS
FEDERALISM
SYSTEMS OF GOVERNMENT
SYSTEM
DESCRIPTION
EXAMPLES
-­United Kingdom
Local and regional
UNITARY
-­France
governments derive authority -­Italy
from the national government. -­Japan
-­Power is shared between the
national government and the
-­United States
State governments.
(under Constitution)
FEDERAL
-­Canada
-­Australia
-­National government and
-­Germany
states derives authority from
the people.
The national government
CONFEDERATION derives authority from states. -­United States (under Articles of
Confederation) (“League of friendship” comes
-­Southern United States (during civil war)
together primarily for foreign issues)
-­Alternative definitions of federalism: The division between a central government and
regional governments. Basical y central and national are the exact same things. Also
regional and state governments are the exact same things.
-­Federal almost always means the division of national and state. But in society (and
occasional y on test) Federal Government is often a term for the national government. Be
careful about that.
POWERS IN A FEDERAL SYSTEM
POWER
DESCRIPTION
Specific powers granted to Congress under Article I,
ENUMERATED
section 8, of the Constitution;; these powers include
taxation, coinage of money, and authority to provide for
a national defense.
CONCURRENT
Authority possessed by both state and national
governments that may be exercised concurrently.
RESERVED
Powers reserved to that states by the 10th amendment
that lie at the state’s right to legislate for the public
(AKA: Police Powers)
health and welfare of its citizens.
Most scholars agree that the 10th amendment has not been that far reaching. The
supremacy clause has had more of an impact in terms of national & state tensions. But the
test wants you to know both.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CONSTITUTIONAL UNDERPINNINGS
FEDERALISM
FEDERALISM IN THE UNITED STATES
TYPE OF
POWER HOLDER
EXAMPLE OF POWERS
POWERS
-­coin money
NATIONAL
-­regulate interstate & foreign trade
NATIONAL
-­raise & maintain armed forces
GOVERNMENT
(ENUMERATED)
-­declare war
POWERS
-­govern US territories & admit states
-­conduct foreign relations
BOTH
-­levy & col ect taxes
-­borrow money
NATIONAL
CONCURRENT -­establish courts
&
-­define crimes & set punishments
POWERS
STATE
-­claim private property for public use
GOVERNMENTS
-­make and enforce laws
-­charter banks and corporations
-­regulate trade and business within the
State
-­establish public schools
-­pass license requirements for
professionals
-­regulate alcoholic beverages
STATE
STATE
-­conduct elections
(RESERVED)
-­establish local governments
GOVERNMENT
POWERS
-­ratify amendments to the Constitution
-­take measures for public health, safety,
and morals
-­exert powers the Constitution does not
delegate to the national government or
prohibit the states from using
-­Now people have disagreed about what some of these powers actual y mean. For FRS’s on
the AP test, just don’t pick controversial issues unless prompted to do so. Keep it simple
and get the points.
-­The National Government powers are broken into 3 categories::
1) Delegated or Expressed Powers: Powers that are written in Constitution .
2) Implied Powers: Powers that are “reasonably inferred” as stated in the Elastic Clause
(AKA: Necessary and Proper Clause) 3) Inherent Powers: Powers do not rely on specific
clauses (usual y involved in foreign affairs and grow out of the very existence of a
government.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CONSTITUTIONAL UNDERPINNINGS
FEDERALISM
CONSTITUTIONAL INTERPRETATIONS
WOULD
BELIEF ON
LATER
HOW
FORM
GROUP
CONSTITUTION
LEADERS
WHICH
SHOULD BE
POLITICAL INTERPRETED
PARTY
LOOSE
Federalists
Loose or broadly
Hamilton & Adams
CONSTITUTIONALISTS
STRICT
Democratic
Jefferson & later
Literal y or strictly
CONSTITUTIONALISTS Republicans
Madison
-­George Washington who would warn against political factions as he exited his presidency
usual y agreed with the federalist.
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISION THAT GUIDE FEDERALISM
MAIN IDEA
PROVISION
DESCRIPTION
NATIONAL
POWERS
Enumerate powers of Congress, including
Article I, Section 8
the “necessary and proper clause”
ALLOWED
NATIONAL
No regulating slave trade before 1808,
Article I, Section 9
POWERS DENIED
states to be treated uniformly
STATE POWERS
Article I, Section 10 Treaties and impairing contracts
DENIED
STATES MUST
Ful Faith and Credit Clause;; privileges
Article IV
HELP STATE
and immunities;; extradition
SUPREMACY
Article VI
Supremacy of the national government
CLAUSE
MORE LIBERTY
People have more rights than listed in the
9th Amendment
Constitution
STATES’ RIGHTS
Powers not delegated to the federal
10th Amendment
government are reserved by the states
20
AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CONSTITUTIONAL UNDERPINNINGS
FEDERALISM
GOV ACTION ON FEDERALISM: BEGINNING-­RECONSTRUCTION
HISTORICAL
TYPE OF
FIGURE
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
FEDERALISM
INVOLVED
Jefferson thought the alien and sedition act
Thomas
Kentucky &
violated liberty. The resolutions declared
Jefferson
Virginia
the states’ right to nul ification (declare nul
against John
and void) any federal law if a state thought
Resolutions
Adams
the law violated the Constitution. (This has
never been found constitutional)
Supreme Court ruled that Congress could
FEDERALISM
McCul och v.
create a national bank because of the
(WHAT DOES IT
Necessary and Proper Clause gives
Maryland (1819)
LOOK LIKE?)
them implied powers so they can carry
Justice
out expressed powers.
John Marshal
Congress and New York were both
Gibbons v.
licensing ships to use the Hudson River.
The Supreme Court ruled that Congress
Ogden (1824)
had the power to regulate commerce and
commercial activity.
Dred Scott v.
Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional
because Congress lacked authority to ban
Sanford (1857) slavery in territories.
DUAL
Justice
Even after the Civil War amendments
FEDERALISM:
Roger B. Taney
Plessy v.
(13-­15) gave more rights to African
Belief it is best to
Americans The Supreme Court ruled
Ferguson (1896)
have separate
separate but equal was constitutional. (and
up to the states to deal with)
and equal y
powerful national
After Supreme Court stuck down the
and state
Republican
16th Amendment incomes tax act of 1894, Congress
governments
(anti-­slavery)
(1913)
proposed the 16th amendment al owing
(AKA: Layer Cake)
Congress
income taxes.
resisted against
Took power away from State legislatures
State powers
17th Amendment by now having citizens from each state
(1913)
vote for their senators.
-­You can see before, throughout and after the Civil War. Congress was anti-­slavery. The
Supreme Court was more pro slavery. There was a conflict for power. We also had a states
rights versus national government conflict. Many levels of government are hard to get
under control by the same faction or political party or group.
-­Selective Exclusiveness: a doctrine asserting that when the commodity requires a
national uniform rule, only Congress may regulate.
21
AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CONSTITUTIONAL UNDERPINNINGS
FEDERALISM
GOV ACTION ON FEDERALISM: NEW DEAL-­GEORGE W. BUSH
HISTORICAL
TYPE OF
FIGURE
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
FEDERALISM
INVOLVED
Grants-­in-­aid programs to often defined
federal/state relationships and made the
national government a major player in
COOPERATIVE
Franklin D.
New Deal
domestic policy. Categorical Grant:
FEDERALISM
Roosevelt (FDR)
Congress appropriates funds for specific
Intertwined
purposes (often States must match some
relationship
of the money).
among national,
Southern States were blamed for
state, and local
perpetuating discrimination. So national
governments
Lyndon B.
Great Society & funds were held unless states would act
(AKA: Marble Cake)
like the national government wanted. The
Johnson (LBJ)
War on Poverty spending in 1960’s on urban renewal,
education, and poverty programs had not
been seen since the New Deal.
Reagan cut taxes which altered the
relationship between the federal and state
Ronald Reagan
Reagan
governments. There was a consolidation
of may categorical grants into fewer block
George Bush
Revolution
grants. Block grants: broad grants to
states for specific activities with few strings
NEW
attached.
FEDERALISM
Returning
-­Unfunded Mandates Reform Act:
prevented congress for passing costly
administrative
mandates without a debate on how to fund
powers to the
them and address concerns for state
state governments Ronald Reagan
Devolution
governments. (They were taking 30% of state
Bil Clinton
budgets)
Revolution
Newt Gingrich
-­Block grants for welfare (replaced AFDC
Aid to Families with Dependent Children
with TANF Temporary Assistance for
Needy Families) that gave more control to
local government.
-­Preemption: concept that it is ok for
National government to override state or
No Child Left
local action because of Supremacy
FEDERALISM
Behind
Clause. (Usual y democrats do this but
under Bush
George W. Bush
this time it was a republican)
& his overal
Administration
-­Bush could not fol ow through on
program
campaign promises because of tax cuts,
debt, wars in Iraq & Afghanistan, terrorist
attacks, and Hurricanes Katrina and Rita.
22
AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CONSTITUTIONAL UNDERPINNINGS
FEDERALISM
MAJOR EVENTS IN FEDERALISM (SHORT VERSION)
TIME PERIOD
GENERAL TREND OF POWER
ERA OF FEDERALISM
1789-­ CIVIL WAR
National government establishes power.
DUAL FEDERALISM
CIVIL WAR
National government gains power.
DUAL FEDERALISM
AMENDMENTS
POST
State governments gain power.
DUAL FEDERALISM
RECONSTRUCTION
COOPERATIVE
NEW DEAL
National government gains power.
FEDERALISM
COOPERATIVE
CIVIL RIGHTS
National government gains power.
FEDERALISM
DEVOLUTION ERA
State governments gain power.
NEW FEDERALISM
RELATIONS AMONG THE STATES
REQUIREMENT OF CONSTITUTIONAL
DESCRIPTION
STATES
ARTICLE
Judicial decrees and contracts made in
FULL FAITH AND
one state wil be binding and enforceable
CREDIT CLAUSE
ARTICLE IV
in another.
(Sorry deadbeat dads, you can’t just move and
expect to keep your $$)
PRIVILEGES &
Citizens of each state are afforded the
IMMUNITIES
ARTICLE IV
same rights as citizens of al other states.
CLAUSE
States cannot give their residents priority.
(except col ege tuition rates, urg)
EXTRADITION
ARTICLE IV
States must extradite or return criminals.
CLAUSE
(convicted or those who are to stand trial)
INTERSTATE
ARTICLE I
Contracts between states that carry the
COMPACTS
Section 10, Clause 3
force of law.
(Driver license compact)
-­The Constitution also says that any disputes between two states wil go directly to the
Supreme Court (original jurisdiction).
-­The Constitution gives the State complete power when creating local governments within
the state's’ borders.
23
AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CONSTITUTIONAL UNDERPINNINGS
FEDERALISM
STATE GOVERNMENTS
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
STATE CONSTITUTIONS
The state constitutions were written before the Constitutional
Convention in 1787. State constitutions are easier to amend.
-­They are the elected chief executive. Like President of the State
budget powers, signing legislation, and appointing officials.
-­LINE ITEM VETO: Veto a portion of a spending bil (signs rest)
-­CLEMENCY POWERS FOR BREAKING STATE LAW:
GOVERNORS
Pardon: Forgive someone entirely for a crime.
Commute: Reducing the length of a prison sentence
Reprieve: Postpone a prison sentence.
Parole: Release a prisoner before sentence is complete with
conditions that must be met as part of the release.
STATE LEGISLATURES
Initial y established as the most powerful. One-­person, one-­vote
ruling of Supreme Court has them accurately representing citizens.
Separate court system to handle state law. Inclusion: state courts STATE COURTS
are obligated to enforce federal law. Some judge are appointed but
many are elected.
ELECTIONS &
Nonpartisan elections: State/local officials often downplay al party POLITICAL PARTIES
ties. Diverse candidates have had more success in recent years.
DIRECT INITIATIVE: People sign a petition and the measure goes
on the bal ot for residents to determine if it wil become State law.
INDIRECT INITIATIVE: People sign a petition, State legislatures
has a chance to pass it, or the measure goes on the bal ot for
residents to determine if it wil become State law.
MANDATORY REFERENDUM: Due to State Constitution or law the
State Legislature must put certain measures on the bal ot for
residents to determine if it wil become State law.
DIRECT DEMOCRACY
OPTIONAL REFERENDUM: State Legislatures can decide to put a
measure on the bal ot for the residents to determine if it wil become State law.
POPULAR (DIRECT) REFERENDUM: Voters can sign a petition to
take the deciding power on a measure away from the State
legislature and put it on the bal ot.
RECALL ELECTION: Voters can petition for an election to remove
an office holder before the next scheduled election.
State Constitutions grant certain types of powers for each state. So not al states have al the
same form of local governments and direct democracies. Only 23 States have direct
democracies. Only 18 states have recal elections. You real y have to look it up per State.
24
AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CONSTITUTIONAL UNDERPINNINGS
FEDERALISM
LOCAL GOVERNMENTS
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
DILLON’S RULE
A court ruling that stated local governments do not have any inherent sovereignty. Thus,
states can create, regulate, and destroy local governments.
A document that, like a constitution, specifies the basic policies, procedures, and
institutions of a municipality.
CHARTERS
Cities, towns, and vil age need charters because they emerge as people locate in a particular
place (unlike counties and school districts which are arbitrarily made by the state).
There are 87,000 local governments in the United States that fal within four main
categories:
-­Counties: (also cal ed parishes and boroughs) They have very broad responsibilities,
created by the State for welfare & environmental programs, courts, registration of land,
births, and deaths.
TYPES OF LOCAL -­Towns: Everyone in community is invited to an annual meeting to elect
GOVERNMENTS
officers, adopt ordinances, and pass a budget.
-­Municipalities: Vil ages, towns, and cities are established municipalities and authorized
by the State as people congregate and form communities.
-­Special Districts: are the most numerous. They are created particular policy or service
area. School districts is the most common form of special district.
Others include library service, sewage, water, and parks.
Town meeting: form of local government in which al eligible voters are invited to attend a
meeting at which budgets and ordinances are proposed and voted on.
-­Mayor: An elected chief executive of a city.
-­City council: The legislature in a city government.
-­Manager: A professional executive hired by a city council or county board to manage
daily operations and th recommend policy changes.
EXECUTIVES &
-­District-­based election: Election in which candidates run for an office that represents
only the voters of a specific district within the jurisdiction.
LEGISLATURES
-­at-­large election: Election in which candidates for office must compete throughout the
jurisdiction as a whole.
-­commission: Form of local government in which several officials are elected to top
positions that have both legislative and executive responsibilities.
-­public corporation (authority): Government organization established to provide a
particular service or run a particular facility that is independent of other city or state
agencies and is to be operated like a business.
25
AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CONSTITUTIONAL UNDERPINNINGS
FEDERALISM
STATE BUDGET
SEGMENT OF
% OF
DESCRIPTION
BUDGET
BUDGET
SALES TAX
23%
Regressive: tax not based on earnings.
FEDERAL AID
20%
Grant money from the national government.
INCOME TAX
19%
Progressive Tax: tax based on earnings.
INSURANCE TRUST
17%
Retirement funds for employees (current/old).
USER FEES
14%
Example: licenses for hunting & fishing.
OTHER
3%
N/A
PROPERTY TAX
1%
Varies based on the value of the home.
This data came from census bureau and is an average for the year 2006.
LOCAL BUDGET
SEGMENT OF
% OF
DESCRIPTION
BUDGET
BUDGET
STATE AID
31%
Money given from the State government.
PROPERTY TAX
26%
Varies based on the value of the home.
USER FEES
21%
Example: licenses for hunting & fishing.
OTHER
8%
N/A
SALES TAX
6%
Regressive: tax not based on earnings.
INSURANCE TRUST
3%
Retirement funds for employees (current/old).
FEDERAL AID
3%
Grant money from the national government.
INCOME TAX
2%
Progressive Tax: tax based on earnings.
This data came from census bureau and is an average for the year 2006.
26
AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CONSTITUTIONAL UNDERPINNINGS
FEDERALISM
GRANTS-­IN-­AID PROGRAMS
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
EFFECT ON FEDERALISM
Federal grants for
This type of grant forces states to
CATEGORICAL
specific purposes.
spend at least a portion of their budget
GRANT
(There are strings attached
on issues determined by the national
that usual y include the state
government. If they do not match
matching funds)
funds they lose on that free money.
This type of grant gives the state more
BLOCK GRANT
Broad grants for general freedom in spending money as they
purposes.
see fit.
This forces states to spend money on
Terms set by the
national desires regardless of their
MANDATE
national government that personal preferences.
states must whether or
(AKA: UNFUNDED MANDATE)
(Example: If the federal law forces states to pay
not they accept federal
for wheelchair access in public buildings. That
grants.
states have no choice. They have to spend the
money on this issue)
-­Grant-­in-­aid programs refer to money that the national government gives to the states
in the forms of grants.
-­Conditions of aid: terms set by the national government that states must meet if they are
to receive certain federal funds.
-­States prefer block grants because it gives them more freedom.
27
UNIT 2:
CIVIL LIBERTIES & CIVIL RIGHTS
MAIN TOPICS
CIVIL LIBERTIES
CIVIL RIGHTS
28
CIVIL
LIBERTIES
29
AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CIVIL LIBERTIES & CIVIL RIGHTS
CIVIL LIBERTIES
LIBERTIES VERSUS RIGHTS
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
CIVIL
Personal guarantees and freedoms that the federal government
LIBERTIES cannot abridge, either by law or judicial interpretation.
CIVIL
Freedom from a host of discriminatory actions and lace the burden
RIGHTS
of protecting individuals on the government.
Civil Liberties issues often fal to the judiciary, who must balance the competing interests of
the government and the people.
OUTLINE OF THE BILL OF RIGHTS (FIRST 10 AMENDMENTS)
AMENDMENT
DESCRIPTION
1-­8 Amendments Specific freedoms (we wil cover soon)
“The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shal
9th Amendment
not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the
people”
10th Amendment Powers not delegated to the national government are reserved to the
states or to the people.
-­The Bil of Rights were added to the Constitution to please the anti-­federalists so they
would agree to ratify the Constitution.. The anti-­federalists feared the strong central
government would not protect individual liberty. (Should be cal ed Bil of Liberties)
-­The Bil of Rights original y protected citizens from the National Government (NOT State
governments). (On AP test every time)
DUE PROCESS
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
5th Amendment Ratified in 1791, provides that the NATIONAL GOVERNMENT
(Due Process Clause)
cannot arbitrarily deny life, liberty, or property.
14th Amendment Ratified in 1868, provides that STATE GOVERNMENTS cannot (Due
Process Clause)
arbitrarily deny life, liberty, or property.
Procedural
The methods of the government must be fair and just.
Due Process
Substantive
The policy of the government must be fair and just.
Due Process
14th Amendment’s Due Process clause al ows for Courts to protect liberty from state
governments (thru selective incorporation).
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CIVIL LIBERTIES & CIVIL RIGHTS
CIVIL LIBERTIES
SELECTIVE INCORPORATION TERMS
TERM
DESCRIPTION
INCORPORATION
An interpretation of the Constitution that holds that the due process clause of the
DOCTRINE
14th Amendment requires state and local government also guarantee those rights.
SELECTIVE
A judicial doctrine whereby most of the protections in the Bil of Rights are made
INCORPORATION
applicable to the states due the Fourteenth Amendment’s Due Process Clause.
(Process of Incorporation)
Fundamental Freedoms: Those rights defined by the Court to be essential to order,
liberty, and justice and therefore entitled to the highest standard of review, strict scrutiny.
SELECTIVE INCORPORATION CASES
AMENDMENT
LIBERTY
DATE
CASE INCORPORATED
Speech
1925
Gitlow v. New York
Press
1931
Near v. Minnesota
I
Assembly
1937
DeJonge v. Oregon
Religion
1940
Cantwel v. Connecticut
II
Bear Arms
2008
D.C. v. Hel er
III
No quartering of soldiers
-­
NOT INCORPORATED
No unreasonable searches or seizures
1949
Wolf v. Colorado
IV
Exclusionary Rule
1961
Mapp v. Ohio
Just compensation
1897
Chicago, B&Q RR Co. V. Chicago
Self-­incrimination
1964
Mal oy v. Hogan
V
Double jeopardy
1969
Benton v. Maryland (overturned by Palko v. Connecticut)
Grand jury indictment
-­
NOT INCORPORATED
Public trial
1963
Gideon v. Wainwright
Right to counsel
1968
Duncan v. Louisiana
Confrontation of witnesses
1967
Klopfer v. North Carolina
VI
Impartial trial
1965
Pointer v. Texas
Speedy trial
1948
In re Oliver
Compulsory trial
1967
Washington v. Texas
Criminal trial
1966
Parker v. Gladden
VII
Civil jury trial
-­
NOT INCORPORATED
No cruel and unusual punishment
1962
Robinson v. California
VIII
No excessive fines or bail
-­
NOT INCORPORATED
31
AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CIVIL LIBERTIES & CIVIL RIGHTS
CIVIL LIBERTIES
THE FIRST AMENDMENT: RELIGION
EXAMPLES OF
IMPORTANT ITEM
DESCRIPTION
LIMITATIONS
-­Christianity is sometimes found (money)
ESTABLISHMENT
It prohibits the government from
-­Lemon Test determines if a policy is constitutional.
establishing a national religion.
-­Funding to religious schools is often seen as ok it al
CLAUSE
(Wal of Separation)
schools get the money for nondenominational
purposes.
FREE EXERCISE
It prohibits the U.S from interfering -­It is ok to sacrifice animals but not people.
with a citizen’s right to practice his
-­Poisonous snakes have been denied in ceremonies
CLAUSE
or her religion.
-­Islamic services have been banned in some prisons.
THE FIRST AMENDMENT: SPEECH & PRESS
PROTECTED/
DESCRIPTIONS/ EXAMPLES/
SEGMENT
UNPROTECTED
LIMITATIONS
Al owed only in matters of national security. The court general y denies PRIOR
RESTRAINT al owing the government to prohibit speech and publication from being
expressed.
PROTECTED
SYMBOLIC
-­Symbols, signs, and other methods of speech.
SPEECH &
SPEECH
-­ Like Wearing an armband to protest a war or burning the U.S. flag.
PUBLICATIONS
-­The KKK could legal y meet and discuss their feelings on the
importance of ending al immigration. But they cannot discuss plans to HATE SPEECH
go around murdering people.
-­Some universities have created free speech zone (certain places at
certain times). Supreme Court has yet to rule on that one.
LIBEL
A false written statement that defames the character of a person.
(Much harder for to prove “actual malice”for public figures)
SLANDER
Untrue spoken words that defame the character of a person.
FIGHTING WORDS Speech is not protected that inflicts injury or incites an immediate
breach of peace.
UNPROTECTED
SPEECH &
COMMERCIAL
False advertising is not protected.
PUBLICATIONS
SPEECH
No national standard defines what it is but it isn’t protected. The Court OBSCENITY
often lets a local judge or jury define obscenity by applying local
community standards. The Court checks for obscenity by the Miller Test.
CLEAR AND
-­You cannot yel fire in a movie theater if there isn’t one. (People get trampled to death.
Government must balance freedom of expression and
PRESENT DANGER the need to protect a free society by Clear and present danger test)
Students stil do not shed their rights at the schoolhouse gates, but neither are they entitled
to lewd or offensive speech. Court protects some students speech but denies other. If there
is a political message it is usual y ok. If you are disrupting class to be funny...then no.
32
AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CIVIL LIBERTIES & CIVIL RIGHTS
CIVIL LIBERTIES
THE FIRST AMENDMENT: ASSEMBLY & PETITION
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
THE SUPREME
To become the arbiter between the freedom of the
COURT’S JOB
people to express dissent and government's authority
to limit controversy in the name of national security.
If the words or actions taken at any even cross the line
MAIN ISSUE
of constitutionality, the people there may be subject to
governmental regulation and even criminal arrest,
incarceration, or civil fines.
-­The freedoms of assembly and petition are related directly to the freedoms of speech and
of the press.
-­The five freedoms of the first amendment (religion, speech, press, assembly, and petition)
are seen as mandatory to live in a free society and to have a true democracy in which the
people are choosing leaders to represent them based on which ideas they agree with the
most.
THE SECOND AMENDMENT
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
WORDING OF THE
"A wel regulated Militia, being necessary to the
2ND AMENDMENT
security of a free State, the right of the people to keep
and bear Arms, shal not be infringed."
NATIONAL FIREARMS This was passed as a response to the organized crime ACT OF
1934
that developed during Prohibition.
In 1939, The Court decided the 2nd amendment was
U.S. v Miller
intended to protect a citizen’s right to own ordinary
militia weapons and not sawed-­off shotguns.
This imposed a federal mandatory five-­day waiting
BRADY BILL
period on the purchase of handguns. (Her husband was left
disabled after he was shot on an attempt to assassinate Ronald Reagan) BAN ON ASSAULT
Bil Clinton signed in 1994. It outlawed assault
WEAPONS
weapons purchases for 10 years.
In 2008 (nearly 70 years after Mil er), the Court ruled that the
D.C. v. Heller
Second Amendment protects individual’s right to own
a firearm for personal use.
The gun control argument is far from over. It appears that the Supreme Court al ows some
gun control to exist but not al . Feel free to go to col ege and write thesis papers over this
controversial topic.
33
AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CIVIL LIBERTIES & CIVIL RIGHTS
CIVIL LIBERTIES
RIGHTS OF CRIMINAL DEFENDANTS: IN ARTICLE I OF CONSTITUTION
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
WRITS OF
Court orders in which a judge requires authorities to prove that a prisoner is being held
lawful y and that al ows the prisoner to be freed if the judge HABEAS CORPUS
is not persuaded by the government’s case.
EX POST FACTO LAW
Laws that apply to actions committed before the laws were passed.
BILL OF ATTAINDER
Legislative acts that inflict punishment on individuals without judicial action.
RIGHTS OF CRIMINAL DEFENDANTS: THE DUE PROCESS AMENDMENTS
AMENDMENT
RIGHT/ LIBERTY
DESCRIPTION
-­Warrants wil be used to search 1)the person arrested;;
2)things in plain view of the accused person;; and
3)places or things that the arrested person could touch
or reach or are otherwise in the arrestee’s immediate
control. (Warrant says what wil be searched and what
Search and Seizure
they are searching for)
4TH AMENDMENT
-­Cops do not need a warrant if they have probable
cause (like if they see you breaking the law)
-­Private companies and schools have an easier time
forcing mandatory drug testing.
Exclusionary Rule
It bars the use of il egal y seized evidence at trial
(Both 4th and 5th amendments protects people from this)
A person has the right not to incriminate him/herself.
Self Incrimination
Examples: pleading the 5th (refusing to answer) or
5TH AMENDMENT
criminals being read their miranda rights.
Double Jeopardy
It protects individuals from being tried twice for the
same crime in the same jurisdiction.
Right to Counsel
Attorneys are provided to the poor in al federal criminal
cases.
6TH AMENDMENT
-­A person accused of a crime shal enjoy the right to a
Jury Trials
speedy & public trial by an impartial jury.
-­Also the right to confront a witness.
-­The U.S is the only western nation to have the death
8TH AMENDMENT
Cruel & Unusual
penalty legal in 34 states. (Must not be unusual)
Punishment
-­We can’t torture inmates (like stretching out limbs).
Procedural Due Process: in that we want to make sure the government fol ows fair
procedures when taking away life, liberty or property.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CIVIL LIBERTIES & CIVIL RIGHTS
CIVIL LIBERTIES
THE RIGHT TO PRIVACY
ISSUE
DETAILS AND COURT DECISIONS
In 1965, the Supreme Court ruled in Griswold v. Connecticut, that there are “penumbras” or
unstated liberties on the fringes or in
BIRTH CONTROL the shadow of more explicitly stated rights (1st, 3rd, 4th, 9th, and 14th
amendments). Connecticut was the last state banning the
sale of contraceptives (since 1879).
-­In 1973, the Supreme Court decided in Roe v. Wade, that the
decision to carry a pregnancy to term was a woman’s
fundamental right:
1st Trimester: A woman can get an abortion with no regulation
from the state.
ABORTION
2nd Trimester: States can only regulate abortions to protect the health of the mother.
3rd Trimester: Abortions only al owed to save life or health of the mother.
-­Abortion was one vote from being overturned in 1989.
-­In 2007, the Supreme Court ruled in Gonzales v. Carhart the Partial Birth Abortion Ban
Act was constitutional.
-­In 2003, Lawrence v. Texas ruled that a Texas law that
criminalized private sexual behavior (anti-­sodomy laws).
-­Some states start al owing domestic partnerships in the 1990’s.
HOMOSEXUALITY -­This was the first time the Supreme Court ruled homosexualtiy was a
fundamental privacy right.
-­In 2015, The Supreme Court ruled in Obergefel v. Hodges, that States could not ban same
sex marriage.
-­In 1997, the Court ruled that terminal y il persons do not have a constitutional right to
physician assisted suicide.
-­In 2006, the Supreme Court decided in Gonzales v. Oregon, that THE RIGHT TO DIE the
State of Oregon can have a law al owing physician assisted suicide.
-­In 2008, voters in Washington approved an initiative al owing
physician assisted suicide in their state.
-­Substantive Due Process: The substance (or essence) of the law should not violate some
basic right. If it does it can be found unconstitutional by the Supreme Court (Some texts cite
that this is even if the right is NOT directly stated in the Constitution).
-­The Right to Privacy is not a term found in the Constitution. The founders intended to
have some areas of life to be off limits to government. Of course the founders had no idea
what issues would be dividing our nation in the year two thousand whatever.
35
AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CIVIL LIBERTIES & CIVIL RIGHTS
CIVIL LIBERTIES
CIVIL LIBERTIES AND NATIONAL SECURITY
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
Federalists party made the publication of any false scandalous writing against the THE
ALIEN AND
government a criminal offense. Ten democratic-­republican newspapers were imposed
fines and jail terms, but Jefferson pardoned them when he became SEDITION ACTS
president. Congress let the Act expire so the Supreme Court never weighed in on if this
broke the 1st amendment.
-­Northern and Southern states both made it il egal to publish items that did not CIVIL
WAR ACTIONS reflect their belief in slavery. Southern postmasters refused to deliver
northern abolitionist newspapers.
-­Lincoln suspended the free press (unconstitutional)
-­Over 30 States had passed laws to punish sedition speech (they were after ANTI­GOVERNMENT socialists and communists.
DURING WWI
-­Espionage Act (1917) passed the U.S. Congress to target nearly 2,000 people who were
urging the resistance of the draft or distributing anti-­war materials.
INTERNMENT
During World War II, the government relocated and incarcerated over 100,000
Japanese Americans to internment camps. The Supreme Court found this action CAMPS
constitutional. Congress did say sorry in the 1990’s.
During the Red Scare there were acts (like the Alien Registration Act) passed that COLD
WAR
made it il egal to overthrow the government. They were used to silence communists,
socialists, and pacifists. Joseph McCarthy would accuse people of being communists
sympathizers with no proof.
-­United and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept
and Obstruct Terrorism (USA PATRIOT ACT). This law covers
intel igence gathering and sharing by executive agencies. It widened authority on USA
PATRIOT ACT tapping suspects’ phones. This act al owed the government to detain il egal
immigrants for longer periods, and monitor email communications.
-­This controversial bil has been recently altered by new legislation. Some say it weakened
national security. Others say it did not protect liberty enough.
Goldilocks thinks it is just right.
-­There is a U.S. military detention camp in Guantanamo Bay, Cuba which exists to hold
terror suspects. Administration officials believe that it is located outside the United States
so this loosens constitutional restrictions.
-­In Rasul v. Bush (2004), the Court ruled that they can not suspend habeas GUANTANAMO
BAY corpus in there.
-­In Hamdi v Rumsfeld (2004), the United State cannot detain a U.S. citizen without a
minimal hearing to determine the suspect’s charge.
-­In Hamdan v. Rumsfeld (2006), the United States must fol ow the Geneva Convention and
cannot rely strictly on military commissions in prosecuting terror suspects.
-­You can see that during times of war the Court typical y sided with government
restrictions on liberties that protect national security.
-­You can also see that deciding between liberty and national security is a very divisive
issue of which it appears America is constantly struggling to find the right balance.
36
CIVIL
RIGHTS
37
AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CIVIL LIBERTIES & CIVIL RIGHTS
CIVIL RIGHTS
SLAVERY, CIVIL WAR, & CITIZENSHIP
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
MISSOURI COMPROMISE This prohibited slavery north of 36 degrees latitude. It also
(1820)
brought in Maine (free state) and Missouri (slave state) to
the United States.
The Supreme Court declared it was unconstitutional when
Dred Scott v. Sandford
the Missouri Compromise prohibited slavery in the North.
(1857)
It also decided that slaves were not citizens and could not
bring suits in federal courts.
Slavery was a key issue for the civil war. Northern
CIVIL WAR
Republicans did not want slavery in the nation. North had
(1861-­1865)
more people and resources and would ultimately win the
war.
EMANCIPATION
Lincoln issued that on January 1st, 1863 al slaves in the
PROCLAMATION
Confederacy would be freed (Only ended slavery in South but the
South was at war with the United States so they didn’t real y listen) 13TH AMENDMENT
It abolished slavery and involuntary servitude.
(1865)
-­Guaranteed citizenship to al freed slaves. (Anyone born
in the United States is a citizen)
14TH AMENDMENT
-­Due Process Clause: No State can deprive any person of
(1868)
life, liberty or property without due process of the law.
-­Equal Protection Clause: No State can deny to any
person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the
laws.
15TH AMENDMENT
The right to vote cannot be taken away due to a person's
(1870)
race, color, or condition of previous servitude.
-­Fol owing the 13th amendment, southern states passed Black Codes to take away rights
from newly freed slaves (such as prevention from voting, sitting on juries, appearing in
public, arrest unemployed blacks, fineing for vagrancy and firing them to employers to
satisfy fines).
Congress was outraged and passed the Civil Rights Act of 1866 to stop (some of) the black
codes. Andrew Johnson vetoed the legislation and for the first time ever Congress overrode
a presidential veto. The Black Codes would lead the way for the Jim Crow laws.
38
AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CIVIL LIBERTIES & CIVIL RIGHTS
CIVIL RIGHTS
DISENFRANCHISEMENT AND SEGREGATION IN THE SOUTH
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
It was designed to grant access to public accommodations
CIVIL RIGHTS ACT OF
such as theaters, restaurants and transportation. Also
(1875)
prohibited the exclusion of African Americans from jury
service. (AKA: Enforcement Act or Force Act)
Federal occupation of the South was from 1865-­1877.
END OF
National interest in the legal condition of African Americans
RECONSTRUCTION
waned so federal troops were pul ed in 1877. National
(1877)
troops were no longer there to guard pol ing places and
prevent whites from excluding black voters.
Laws enacted by southern states which required
JIM CROW LAWS
segregation in public schools, railroads, restaurants, and
theaters (“Whites only” signs). Some laws even barred
interracial marriage.
The Supreme Court ruled (on five separate court cases) that
THE CIVIL RIGHTS
Congress could prohibit only state or governmental action
CASES (1883)
and not private acts of discrimination. This made the Civil
Rights Act of 1875 was now considered unconstitutional.
-­Poll Taxes: You have to pay to vote (many African
Americans were sharecroppers and had little money)
-­Property Qualifications: Must own property in order to
DISENFRANCHISING
vote.
AFRICAN AMERICANS
-­Literacy Tests: Local voter registration officials
(ALL NON-­WHITES)
administered difficult reading-­comprehension tests
-­Grandfather clause: If your grandfather voted before
reconstruction you could be exempt from pol taxes &
literacy exams.
Plessy v. Ferguson
The Supreme Court found that separate but equal
(1896)
accommodations did not violate the equal protection clause
of the 14th Amendment.
The National government decided to end reconstruction and let the South have State
government control in 1877. Unfortunately for African Americans the South and Supreme
Court were not interested in giving them with the ful rights of citizens despite what the
13th, 14th and 15th amendments did guaranteed.
39
AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CIVIL LIBERTIES & CIVIL RIGHTS
CIVIL RIGHTS
THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
NAACP
Oswald Garrison Vil ard & W.E.B. Du Bois met in 1909 to discuss the (NATIONAL
ASSOCIATION FOR issues faced by African Americans. This group soon formed the THE
ADVANCEMENT OF
NAACP.
COLORED PEOPLE)
BROWN V. BOARD OF The Supreme Court ruled that Plessy’s separate-­but-­equal
doctrine EDUCATION (1954)
was unconstitutional. (Although a decade later less than 1% of black children attended
integrated schools)
EISENHOWER SEND In 1957, Eisenhower sent in troops to Little Rock, Arkansas to enforce
IN FEDERAL TROOPS a school desegregation order.
In 1955, Rosa parks refused to give up her seat on a bus to make
room for a white man. Martin Luther King took over the bus boycott BUS BOYCOTT
that started on the first day of Park’s trial. In 1956, a federal court ruled that segregated
buses violated the equal protection clause of the 14th amendment.
24TH AMENDMENT
Outlaws the pol tax in any federal, primary, or general election.
(1962)
(Although it did not say anything about taxes in State or local elections the Supreme Court
ruled those unconstitutional in 1966)
MARCH ON
200,000 people gathered in the national’s capital (Martin Luther King
WASHINGTON
organized it) to demand the government end discrimination in al states.
-­Banned discrimination in public accommodations
-­Outlawed discrimination in hiring based on race, color, religion, sex, or CIVIL RIGHTS
ACT
national origin.
-­Cut off federal funding for discriminating organizations, including
OF 1964
schools.
-­Empowered the U.S. Department of Justice to initiate suits against
noncompliant programs.
VOTING RIGHTS OF
Aimed to overcome barriers that existed at the State and local levels 1965
stopping African Americans from voting.
Swann v.
-­Supreme Court ruled to eliminate al state-­imposed segregation.
Charlotte-­Mecklenburg -­De jure discrimination: racial segregation as a result of law/
policy.
-­De facto discrimination: racial segregation as results from practice
School District (1971) (like housing patterns) (not any government action)
-­The civil rights movement was successful for different reasons. There were groups like
Martin Luther King’s Southern Christian Leadership Conference that organized boycotts
and protest marches. The media for focusing the nation’s attention on how blacks were
being treated in the south. But the NAACP was monumental for pressuring presidents,
lobbying in Congress, and taking cases to the Supreme Court.
-­These legal decisions and laws helped not only African American but other diverse groups
(like Hispanics and Asians).
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CIVIL LIBERTIES & CIVIL RIGHTS
CIVIL RIGHTS
WOMEN’S SUFFRAGE
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
A women’s rights convention in which 300 men and women met
and passed resolutions cal ing for the abolition of legal economic,
SENECA FALLS
and social discrimination against women.
CONVENTION (1848)
(Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott formed this because they were banned from
participating in a abolition convention in London focused on ending slavery)
NAWSA
It was revitalized in 1890 when the national and american
organizations merged and decided to focus on obtaining the right
(NATIONAL AMERICAN WOMAN
to vote (suffrage). Susan B. Anthony headed this new group.
SUFFRAGE ASSOCIATION)
(The suffrage movement: the drive for voting right for women 1890-­1920) 19TH
AMENDMENT
Ratified in 1920, guaranteed women the right to vote.
(This was 50 years after African American men)
-­I think it is interesting how different factions gave different reasons for extending
suffrage for women. Some claimed mothers would know best for society. Others said why
would uneducated black people get the right to vote before women. Some added white
women need this power so white can dominate. Some said hey people should be equal.
-­After the 19th Amendment some women joined numerous groups like the National
Consumers League or the Women’s Christian Temperance Union to work towards
individual group goals. The widespread organized activity on the behalf of women would
not reemerge until the 1960’s.
THE WOMEN’S RIGHTS MOVEMENT
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
Outlawed discrimination in hiring based on race, color, religion, sex, or CIVIL RIGHTS ACT
national origin. (Southern Democrats added sex to the list so it would kil the bil , OF 1964
but it passed anyway) TITLE VII: of act has helped in sexual harassment & discrimination
cases and
NOW
Formed in 1966 after the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
(NATIONAL ORGANIZATION failed to enforce the law as it applied to sex discrimination.
FOR WOMEN)
(Goals: equality by the Passage of Equal Rights Amendment or judicial decision).
ERA
Congress proposed it in 1972. ¾ of state did not ratify. (They were three states short in
1978. Opponents linked it to Roe v. Wade feminists and said it was (EQUAL RIGHTS
anti-­family. Congress extended ratification deadline by 3 years but no more states
AMENDMENT)
voted for it. It was renamed to the Women’s Equality Amendment in 2007).
EQUAL PAY ACT
Requires employers to pay women and men equal pay for equal work.
OF 1963
(As of 2013, women stil make about 78 cents for every dol ar a man makes).
Educational Amendments of 1972 law that bars education institutions
TITLE IX
receiving federal funds from discriminating against female students.
(It is a portion of an amendment of national law)
41
AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CIVIL LIBERTIES & CIVIL RIGHTS
CIVIL RIGHTS
HISPANIC AMERICANS
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
Stil today's largest Latino/a group in the United States
LULAC
was formed in 1929. Original members families owned
(LEAGUE OF UNITED LATIN
land in the Southwest when it was stil under Mexico’s
AMERICAN CITIZENS)
control.
Hernandez v. Texas The Supreme Court ruled that Mexican Americans were (1954)
entitled to a jury that included other Mexican Americans.
UNITED FARM
Cesar Chavez and Dolores Huerta organized the largest
WORKERS UNION
farm workers union in the nation and led them to strike
and boycott against California growers.
MALDEF alongside the Puerto Rican Legal Defense
and Education Fund focuses on funding schools with
MALDEF
low-­income minority students, bilingual education
(MEXICAN AMERICAN
programs, hiring and workers rights, chal enging election
LEGAL DEFENSE AND
EDUCATIONAL FUND)
rules and apportionment plans that undercount latino/a
voting powers. They also focused on getting the Voting
Rights Act of 1965 passed,
The United States only al ows so many immigrants to
IMMIGRATION
enter the United States. Many people want the United
ISSUES
States to let their friends and families to legal y enter
freely. This is met with resistance from Congress
support for border patrol and additional fences.
In 2006, legal and il egal immigrants took that day off in
DAY WITHOUT
an economic boycott. More than 1 mil ion marchers took
IMMIGRANTS
to the streets in at least 40 states to draw attention to the
plight of immigrants.
42
AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CIVIL LIBERTIES & CIVIL RIGHTS
CIVIL RIGHTS
AMERICAN INDIANS
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
-­Population depletion was a huge factor. Estimates as high as
50-­200 mil ion indians went down to less than 2 mil ion by 1900.
(Today there are approximately 2.8 mil ion)
1787-­1887
-­For years, Congress and the courts manipulated Indian law to
promote the westward expansion of the United States. Indian
lands were confiscated, they per placed on reservations, and their
political rights were denied.
The government switched policies to promote assimilation over
DAWES ACT
separation. Each Indian family was given land within the
OF 1887
reservation (Indian land was reduced from 140 mil ion acres to 47 mil ion).
Their children was sent to boarding schools off the reservation
where their native language and rituals were banned.
CITIZENSHIP
In 1924, American indians became U.S. citizens with the right to
vote.
NARF
It was founded in 1970. It was the result of 1960’s activists that (NATIVE AMERICAN
were mobilizing after being trained by the American Indian Law
RIGHTS FUND)
Center. Their lawsuits focus on hunting, fishing, and land rights.
CASINOS
Today, Indians have a number of casinos across the nation. This
has led to bil ions of dol ars for Indian tribes.
Indians new wealth has lead to them growing in power in terms of
CAMPAIGN
campaign contributions. (Example: The Agua Caliente Band of Cahuil a
CONTRIBUTION
Indians 7.5 mil ion in one year) Indians claim these large expenditures are legal because as
sovereign nations they are immune from
federal and state campaign finance disclosure laws.
INDN
Created in 2005, to elect Indians and Democrats at the state and
(INDIGENOUS DEMOCRATIC national level.
NETWORK)
43
AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CIVIL LIBERTIES & CIVIL RIGHTS
CIVIL RIGHTS
ASIAN & PACIFIC ISLANDERS
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
CHINESE
EXCLUSION ACT
The first law to restrict the immigration of any identifiable nationality.
1882
Yick Wo v. Hopkins Ruled that a San Francisco ban on cleaners operating in wooden 1886
buildings (⅔ owned by Chinese, and it was one of the few industries that Chinese were not
barred from).
In 1922, the Supreme Court ruled that Asian and Pacific Americans
SEGREGATION
were not white and therefore not entitled to ful citizenship rights.
States created more laws that separated races.
The Supreme Court upheld FDR’s executive order 9066 which
Korematsu v. U.S. rounded up Japanese Americans (⅔ U.S. citizens) and moved them
1944
to internment camps. (Congress apologized and gave reparations in 1988 as a result of to
Japanese Americans lobbying).
-­1960’s & 1970’s groups formed to fight for civil rights.
ORGANIZED FOR -­Filipino farms works joined with Mexican in the United Farm CIVIL
RIGHTS
Workers Union.
-­In 1973, movement for Free Philippines which later became The
Congress Education Project opposed the Vietnam War.
-­In 1977, the U.S. government decided to use the nomenclature “Asian and Pacific
Islanders”. This identity has been chal enged by some sub-­groups (like Hawai ans
requesting to be categorized with Native Americans). Original y Asian and Pacific Islanders
were far more likely to identify as japanese, Chinese, Korean, or Filipino.
-­Today groups are targeting diverse political venues (like obtaining positions at the
national, state, and local level of governments).
44
AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CIVIL LIBERTIES & CIVIL RIGHTS
CIVIL RIGHTS
LESBIAN, GAY, BISEXUAL & TRANSGENDERED (LGBT)
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
-­In the 1950’s, some states and local communities closed gay bars
DISCRIMINATION
and prevented liquor sales to gays.
-­In 1973, psychiatrists removed homosexuality as a mental
disorder from their chief diagnostic manual.
DON’T ASK
In 1996, Military policy in which you could not ask a person their
DON’T TELL
sexual orientation. But if you revealed you were gay you could be
discharged. It was ended in 2010.
A 1996 law, that keeps the power to define marriage at the state
DOMA
level and barred federal recognition of same-­sex marriage for
(DEFENSE OF
purposes of social security, federal income tax filings, and other
MARRIAGE ACT)
points of law.
Lawrence v. Texas
This ruling ended anti-­sodomy laws. It was the first time the Court
2003
declared homesexualilty was a fundamental privacy right.
-­There is a national backlash after Massachusetts al ows
same-­sex marriage in 2004.
SAME-­SEX
-­George W. Bush renewed his cal for a constitutional amendment
MARRIAGE
to ban same sex marriage in 2006.
BACKLASH
-­Same sex marriage bans were on the bal ot in several states in
2006.
-­Gay people stil face issues adopting in some states.
Obergefell v. Hodges The Supreme Court ruled that States could not ban same-­sex 2015
marriage. (37 States had same sex marriage before ruling, most added it in 2012-­2015. 13
States stil had bans.)
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
CIVIL LIBERTIES & CIVIL RIGHTS
CIVIL RIGHTS
AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
DISCRIMINATION Many veterans of WWII, Korea, and Vietnam came home disabled and
organized to end the discrimination they were facing.
-­The statute defines a disabled person as someone with a physical or mental impairment
that limits one or more “life activities,” or who has a record of such impairment.
ADA
-­It extends protections from the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to al of those (AMERICANS WITH
with physical or mental disabilities.
DISABILITIES ACT)
-­It guarantees access to public facilities, employment, communication
services, and it requires employers to acquire or modify equipment,
adjust work schedules, and make facilities accessible.
AAPD
The largest nonprofit organization lobbying for expanded civil rights
(AMERICAN
for the disabled. It works on behalf of 56 mil ion Americans who
ASSOCIATION OF
suffer from some form of a disability. They work alongside other
PEOPLE WITH
DISABILITIES)
groups to assure that the ADA is implemented ful y.
AFFIRMATIVE ACTION
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
EARLY
JFK issued executive orders to federal agencies to hire free of racial AFFIRMATIVE
bias. LBJ issued orders to hire minority contractors and employees.
This idea would exist in the federal government, states, col eges, and ACTION
private companies in terms of hiring and admissions.
Regents of the He sued for reverse discrimination in that he was kept out of medical
University of
school even though he scored higher than some women and non-­whites.
California v.
The court ruled (5-­4) that mandatory quotas were unconstitutional.
(Court stil ruled in favor of affirmative action, in some instances,
Bakke 1978
fol owing this case)
The Court al ows some forms of affirmative action but not others.
GRAY AREA
Although the use of strict quotas and automatic points is not
OF LAW
constitutional, the Court clearly believes that there is a place for some preferential
treatment, at least until greater racial and ethnic parity is achieved.
Affirmative Action:The label placed on institutional efforts to diversify by race or gender.
46
UNIT 3:
POLITICAL BELIEFS & BEHAVIORS
MAIN TOPICS
PUBLIC OPINION
POLITICAL PARTICIPATION
47
PUBLIC
OPINION
48
AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
POLITICAL BELIEFS AND BEHAVIORS
PUBLIC OPINION
PUBLIC OPINION, THE SPECTRUM, & ISSUE TYPES
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
PUBLIC OPINION
What the public thinks about a particular issue or set of issues at any point in time.
IDEOLOGY
A comprehensive and mutual y consistent set of ideas.
THE POLITICAL
-­Liberal (democrats) is on the left side of the spectrum.
SPECTRUM
-­Conservative (republicans) is on the right side of the spectrum.
(LIBERAL-­CONSERVATIVE -­Moderate is somewhere in the middle of the spectrum.
SPECTRUM)
(Most Americans are moderate but often belong to one of the two major parties) Concerns
or policies that are viewed in the same way by people with
VALENCE ISSUES a variety of ideologies.
(Examples: Everyone wants a strong economy and national security)
WEDGE ISSUE
Concerns or policies that sharply divide the public.
(Examples: People often disagree on abortion and universal health care) SALIENCY
If an issue is important to someone than it has high saliency.
(Often found in wedge issues)
POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES
IDEOLOGY
DESCRIPTION
One of today's major ideologies. Original y under the influence of Thomas Jefferson who
LIBERAL
wanted a government to do very little. Under FDR’s New Deal, the government took on a
new responsibilities. Since the 1930’s liberal usual y means al owing the government to
expand beyond established constraints.
One of today's major ideologies. Traditional y conservatives believe in fol owing tradition
CONSERVATIVE and authority. Goldwater (1964 republican presidential nominee) argued
that government should do less and thus al ow its people more freedom. Less taxation and
less government spending became its anthem.
LIBERTARIAN
One of today's minor ideologies. They often oppose government intervention or regulation.
It is a party but people in this ideology often belong to other parties.
POPULIST
One of today's minor ideologies. They general y attend a Protestant church. They support
things like prayer in school, high minimum wage, and welfare.
PROGRESSIVE One of today's minor ideologies. They split the republican party (peaked in
early 1900’s).
Today they believe in workers rights over corporate rights and support progressive taxes.
Both parties occasional y go against their own ideology. Democrats adopt policies that are
not very liberal in terms of personal liberty while Republicans adopt policies (like
abortion) that require more regulation and law (not less). As a result both parties have sub­groups within them.
49
AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
POLITICAL BELIEFS AND BEHAVIORS
PUBLIC OPINION
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION
FACTORS
DESCRIPTION
This is the single greatest influence on one’s political
socialization. When children start to inquire about world events
FAMILY
or local issues it is the parents who explain it to their children and within this explanation
comes the parents’ opinion on the issue.
(10% of seniors identify with the party opposite of their parents)
(60% of adults carry the same party identification as their parents)
Teachers and peer groups can have a large impact. There is no
evidence that obtaining high school diploma or a bachelor's
EDUCATION
degree wil affect ideology. People that graduate with a masters
degree or higher are more likely to vote for Democrats and hold
liberal attitudes.
(Average Col ege faculty claim: 48% liberal;; 14% conservative)
People who attend church (nearly weekly) are more likely to vote on election day.
Fundamentalists (believe in literal interpretation of the Holy RELIGION
Bible), Evangelical Christians (promote Christian faith), and
Protestants are located primarily in the South and midwest and
they vote conservative (republican). Catholics vote liberal
(democrat). Jews (smal est portion of electorate) vote liberal (democrat).
-­African Americans have voted for democrats since New Deal
and even more since the Civil Rights Movement.
RACE & ETHNICITY -­Hispanics (55-­65 percent) vote for democrats.
-­Asians usual y vote for republicans.
-­Whites are more likely to vote for republicans.
-­Northeast: liberal
LOCATION
-­West coast: liberal
-­West: conservative
-­South: conservative
GENDER
Women: liberal (especial y single women)
Men: conservative (especial y white men)
-­40% to 50% of Americans consider themselves moderate, 30% conservative, and about
20% liberal. Only 37% consider themselves
“strongly partisan”. How do people determine their ideology? The answer is political
socialization.
-­Political Socialization: The process by which one develops political opinions.
-­Other books also include: media, region, age, occupation, & wealth.
-­Other books mention psychological factors: party identification, perception of candidates,
& perception of issues
50
AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
POLITICAL BELIEFS AND BEHAVIORS
PUBLIC OPINION
MEASURING PUBLIC OPINION
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
PUBLIC OPINION Interviews or surveys with samples of citizens that are used to POLLS
estimate the feelings and beliefs of the entire population.
AKA: POLLING
Newspapers use to conduct simple, non-­scientific tal ies of
STRAW POLLS selected voters to make predictions.
(Since they were not scientific they were often wrong. People were like: uhhh is there
something more reliable?)
TRACKING
Researchers ask people the same or similar questions over time
POLLS
to “track” the path of public opinion.
EXIT POLLS
They are conducted outside of pol ing places on election day to
predict the outcome of an election.
Smal groups of citizens (10 to 40 people) gather to hold
FOCUS GROUPS conversations about issues or candidates. These are used for candidates to
determine how to change their image for elections.
(Example: People told Mitt Romney to wear more jeans)
Researchers simply ask whether or not the respondent approves,
yes or no of the president’s job performance. Presidents usual y
APPROVAL
hover at 50%. They can go up when the country finds itself in
RATINGS
crisis. Truman’s went up after he dropped the atomic bomb and
George W. Bush’s went up after 9/11
(Bush also had 29% when he was leaving office, which is real y low)
The most accurate way to measure public opinion is through scientific pol ing. The next
page discusses this in detail.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
POLITICAL BELIEFS AND BEHAVIORS
PUBLIC OPINION
MEASURING PUBLIC OPINION WITH SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
Construct a
questionnaire with Questions should be neutral and should not lead people to a certain
answer. (Example of a bad question: Don’t you think
properly worded
we should get rid of welfare so those lazy people can take
and ordered
care of themselves?)
questions
Define Universe: Who is in the group you wish to measure.
(Example: Al citizens or girls that age 13-­19)
Random Sampling: This method gives everyone in your
defined universe the same chance of being selected.
Select a
Stratified Sampling: Most national surveys and commercial
representative
pol s use samples of 600 to 1,000 individuals and use
stratified sampling which is a variation on random sampling.
sample
SCIENTIFIC
This included using information from the Census that rules
out those unlikely to vote, breaking the country into 4 regions
METHODOLOGY
and counties and metropolitan areas that are in proportion to
the total national population. They break into units and each
unit gets 20 people selected.
Correctly
The interviewer contacts and interacts with the respondent
interview
can impact a pool. People are more honest on paper than
the respondents
when they are on the phone or in-­person.
Analyze the
People could skew that data to meet their own selfish goals.
data appropriately (Some people….they are the worst)
Draw the
Perhaps the end result does not show convey people’s true
correct
feelings. (Which was the entire point)
conclusions
-­Margin of error: Al pol s contain errors. Typical y in a sample of 1,000 the margin of
error is 4 percent. So if the result is 52 to 48 you can add or minus 4 to each number.
So once you add the margin of error you see the race is too close to cal .
-­Sampling error: If parts of the universe are not questioned the whole pol could be
SHORTCOMINGS skewed. Homeless are hard to find, but they can vote.
-­
OF POLLING
Limited respondent options: If you answer agree or disagree you complex views may not
be recorded.
-­Lack of information: People answering may have no knowledge/ and or opinion of the
subject being surveyed. So what good is that?
-­Difficulty measuring intensity: Respondents opinions may not have been expressed.
-­Scientific pol ing (often referred to as pol ing) is the most accurate way to determine
public opinion despite al its shortcomings.
-­The media uses pol s often during an election and they start sounding like a horse race
announcer. They often focus on who is winning instead of showing what the candidates are
actual y saying about these issues.
52
POLITICAL
PARTICIPATION
53
AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
POLITICAL BELIEFS AND BEHAVIORS
POLITICAL PARTICIPATION
BASIC TERMINOLOGY REGARDING THE ELECTORATE
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
ELECTORATE
The people who are entitled to vote in an election.
SUFFRAGE
The right to vote.
FRANCHISE
The right to vote.
DISENFRANCHISE To take away the right to vote.
VOTING-­AGE
This refers to people who are 18-­years or older (since 1971).
POPULATION
VOTER TURNOUT The portion of the voting-­age public that votes.
-­General y speaking about the eligible adult population: 40% votes regularly, 25% are
occasional voters, and 35% rarely or never vote.
-­In 2012, 62% of the eligible electorate voted in the presidential election which was the
highest since 1960.
EXPANDING THE ELECTORATE
AMENDMENT
YEAR
DESCRIPTION
15TH AMENDMENT
The right to vote wil not be denied on account of
1870
race, color, or previous condition of servitude.
19TH AMENDMENT
The right to vote wil not be denied on account of
1920
sex.
23RD AMENDMENT
Washington D.C. residents have the right to vote in
1961
Presidential election (even though they are not in a state)
24TH AMENDMENT
The right to vote wil not be denied for failure to pay
1964
a tax.
26TH AMENDMENT
The right to vote wil not denied to people at least
1971
18-­year-­olds due to their age.
-­Initial y states would bar Women, African Americans, and immigrants from voting. But
they also limited white men from voting by imposing religion tests, property taxes, and pol
taxes.
-­By 1830 (Jacksonian Era) most states had removed the property requirement for being
eligible to vote. (North Carolina was last in 1856)
-­Don’t forget the 15th Amendment was ignored by many southern states when they added
literacy tests, pol taxes. The Civil Rights Movement lead to national law to address these
issues and even fueled some of the amendments on this chart.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
POLITICAL BELIEFS AND BEHAVIORS
POLITICAL PARTICIPATION
MODERN SUFFRAGE REQUIREMENTS & POSSIBLE LIMITATIONS
CATEGORY
SPECIFIC ITEM
DESCRIPTION
Citizenship
Must be a U.S. citizen.
Residence
Must be a resident from the State you are voting in.
SUFFRAGE
(There are absentee bal ots if you are gonna be gone)
REQUIREMENT
Age
Must be 18-­years-­old to vote.
Registration
Must be registered with officials in your state to vote.
(Except North Dakota)
Mental
Some states deny people in mental institutions the
POSSIBLE
Competency
right to vote.
VOTING
Some states deny convicted felons the right to vote.
LIMITATIONS
Convicted Felons (Some stil cannot vote for a number of years even after being released
from prison)
HIGH VOTER TURNOUT AND CORRUPTION
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
-­Fraudulent developed in voting in late 19th century (AKA: the late 1800’s)
-­Some estimates show 90% voting participation.
-­“Vote Early & Vote Often” repeat voters (like in movie: Gangs of New York) PROBLEM
-­People were bribed with money, alcohol, and threats of being fired.
-­Ward bosses intimidated voters to vote a certain way.
-­A generation of machine politics and patronage dominated from the
precinct up to the national level.
-­Register to vote (now 30 days prior to an election is most a State can require)
-­The Australian Bal ot -­Four key components:
SOLUTION
1) Bal ot is printed and distributed at public expense
2) Bal ot must show al candidates names
3) The bal ot is only available at the pol ing place
4) The bal ot is fil ed out in private
The Australian bal ot was first used in Australia in 1872. By 1892, 33 U.S. states adopted it.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
POLITICAL BELIEFS AND BEHAVIORS
POLITICAL PARTICIPATION
MEASURING VOTER TURNOUT
OPTION
DESCRIPTION
USE REGISTERED You take the percentage from registered voters.
VOTERS
(So if 5 people voted out of 100 registered voters then the voter turnout would be 5%)
USE VOTING-­AGE You take the percentage from the voting-­age population.
POPULATION
(So if 5 people voted out of 1000 people who are old enough then the voter turnout would
be .5%)
-­Percentage of registered voters that voted in 2008 was 89.6% while the percentage of
voting-­age population that voted was 63.6%.
-­Voter turnout refers to the percentage of voting-­age population unless otherwise stated.
And it has rarely have gone above 60% in since 1970. It usual y hovers closer to 50% or
55%.
REASONS FOR LOW VOTER TURNOUT
REASON
DESCRIPTION
Surveys indicate people have conflicting work or school
TOO BUSY
schedules, were il , disabled, or had a family emergency.
(Researchers have also found no one likes to say that they are uninformed about
candidates and issues even though it may be the case)
DIFFICULTY OF
In the United States voter registration requires individual initiative.
REGISTRATION
It costs people time and effort.
(Other nations place the burden on the government and not the people) DIFFICULTY OF
Many states require a person to apply for an absentee bal ot in
ABSENTEE VOTING person. The person is probably busy and on the go if they aren’t even
in their state for elections.
NUMBER OF
The United States hold twice as many federal elections as other
ELECTIONS
Western Democracies. American federalism leads to many
additional elections at the state and local level.
-­Voter apathy: a simple lack of concern for the election
VOTER ATTITUDES -­Voter efficacy: feeling your vote real y counts (some people don’t
have it) (Some nations inspire people to vote by fining them money if they don’t)
WEAKENED
The parties were once grassroots organizations that forged strong
INFLUENCE OF
party-­group links with their supporters. Today, candidate-­centered
POLITICAL PARTIES campaigns has resulted in a more distant party from the people.
-­I feel like Netflix should be included with “too busy” and “voter attitudes”.
-­The United States has the lowest voter participation rates of any nation in the
industrialized world: (Examples: 1960: 65%-­-­-­-­-­1996: 51.5%-­-­-­-­-­2004: 60%-­-­-­-­­2012: 62%) 56
AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
POLITICAL BELIEFS AND BEHAVIORS
POLITICAL PARTICIPATION
EFFORTS TO IMPROVE VOTER TURNOUT
IDEA
DESCRIPTION
EASIER
-­Same day (as election) registration states have higher voter
REGISTRATION & turnout.
CONVENIENCE
-­Some people think 18 year olds should be automatical y
registered.
VOTING
-­Oregon eliminated pol places and did al -­mail bal oting.
MAKE AN
This could make it easier for people to get out of work. Better
ELECTION DAY
keep election day on a Tuesday or people might go on long
HOLIDAY
weekends.
STRENGTHEN
Political parties have recently been putting more time, effort, and
PARTIES
resources into areas that have had lower turnout. It has helped
somewhat.
-­Hold fewer elections
-­Use a proportional representation system for congressional
elections to encourage 3rd parties
OTHER
-­Change election day to Saturday or Sunday
SUGGESTIONS
-­Making voting mandatory
-­Provide a tax credit for voters
-­Have an election week instead of an election day
-­Al ow people to vote over the internet
-­Have more pol ing places (some places have people waiting for hours)
CONGRESS AND NATIONAL VOTING REGULATIONS
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
NVRA
In 1993, Congress passed this law to help citizens register to vote at any (NATIONAL
VOTER
state-­run agencies, such as the bureaus of motor vehicles. Hence the
REGISTRATION ACT)
“motor-­voter law” nickname.
In 2002, Congress created a national standards for voting and election management:
HAVA
-­Al States had to upgrade voting systems to electronic format
(HELP AMERICA
-­People with disabilities must have easy access to pol ing places
VOTE ACT)
-­Registered voters must provide a driver's license or the last four digits of their social
security number.
-­HAVA was passed in response to the Bush-­Gore election. In Florida there was a confusing
punch-­card bal ot in which pieces of paper cal ed
“chads” made counting bal ots difficult.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
POLITICAL BELIEFS AND BEHAVIORS
POLITICAL PARTICIPATION
VOTING BLOCS & BEHAVIOR
TURNOUT
DESCRIPTION
VOTING BLOC
%
G
-­Slightly less likely to vote than women.
MALES
61.5
-­Believe in harsher punishments & are more fiscal y
E
conservative
N
D
-­Slightly more likely to vote than men.
E
FEMALES
65.7
-­More likely to vote democrat (especial y if single)
R
-­Oppose harsh punishments & are less war-­prone.
-­Support welfare systems.
WHITES
66.1
More likely to vote conservatively.
-­Since New Deal vote for democrats.
R
BLACKS
64.1
-­Support money for poor areas rather than on foreign
A
policy.
C
-­Have a less favorable view of the justice system.
E
HISPANIC
49.9
-­Side with democrats on urban, minority, & labor issues.
-­43 mil ion voters (fastest growing minority population)
ASIAN
47.6
-­Tend to vote for conservatives
18-­24
-­Low voter turnout.
(YOUNG
48.5
-­Might be uninformed because houses, careers, family,
A
VOTERS)
and running a business is al in the future for them.
G
-­High voter turnout.
E
65-­74
-­Have more experience and understanding of the political
(SENIOR
72.4
process because they are likely to have much at stake:
CITIZENS)
social security, medicare, taxes, & inheritance.
S
NO HIGH
C
SCHOOL
39.4
-­The less education you obtain the less likely you are to
vote.
H
DIPLOMA
O OBTAINED A
O
MASTERS
N/A
-­The more education you obtain the more likely you are
L
to vote.
DEGREE
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
POLITICAL BELIEFS AND BEHAVIORS
POLITICAL PARTICIPATION
VOTER BEHAVIOR BY DEMOGRAPHICS
DEMOGRAPHIC
VOTE LIBERAL
VOTE CONSERVATIVE
GENDER
Women
Men
RACE
African Americans
Whites
Hispanics
Asians
Protestants
RELIGION
Catholic
Evangelicals
Jews
Mormons
REGION
East Coast
South
West Coast
West
EDUCATION
The rest of educational attainment is pretty
Obtaining a masters
split between the two parties.
Wage earner
Business community
OCCUPATION
Craftsman
Entrepreneurs
Factory line workers
Shareholders
-­Obviously these are just statistical majorities. There is no way to know how a person
votes just because of their demographics. In some instances it is like 55 % of these people
vote like this. Wel 45% of them stil vote for the other side. So don’t go nuts with this
stereotypical data. But you might need an example or two on the AP test.
-­Party identification is stil the strongest indicator as how someone wil vote.
-­Also in terms of the electoral col ege, many states in certain regions vote consistently.
59
UNIT 4:
LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
MAIN TOPICS
POLITICAL PARTIES
ELECTIONS & CAMPAIGNS
INTEREST GROUPS
MASS MEDIA
60
POLITICAL
PARTIES
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
POLITICAL PARTIES
LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
ITEM
DESCRIPTION OF LINKAGE
POLITICAL PARTIES
A group which tries to win elections so they can control
the government.
A process in which one person is selected for a
ELECTIONS
governmental job. They should represent their
constituents.
-­Use propaganda to influence society
INTEREST GROUPS
-­Use PACs to influence elections
-­Hire lobbying to influence Congress
MASS MEDIA
Gains people’s attention by selecting which stories to
cover.
-­This entire unit covers Linkage Institutions: connect or link people with the
government.
POLITICAL SCIENTISTS DESCRIBE POLITICAL PARTIES
PORTION OF PARTY
DESCRIPTION
GOVERNMENTAL
The office holders who organize themselves and pursue
PARTY
policy objectives under a party label.
ORGANIZATIONAL
The workers and activists who make up the party’s formal
PARTY
organization structure.
PARTY IN THE
The voters who consider themselves al ied or associated
ELECTORATE
with the party.
DEFINITIONS:
-­Political Party: An organized effort by office holders, candidates, activists, and voters to
pursue their common interests by gaining and exercising power through the electoral
process.
-­Political Party: is an organization of people which seeks to achieve goals common to its
members through the acquisition and exercise of political power.
-­Political Party: A group who wins elections to gain power in the government.
-­Political Party: A group who wins elections so they can control the government.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
POLITICAL PARTIES
TYPES OF REALIGNMENT
TERM
DEFINITION
EXAMPLE
-­Jefferson forms anti-­federalist to respond
against federalists strong central
government
PARTY
A shifting of party coalition groupings in the
-­Whig party dissolved over slavery and
electorate that remains in place for several
Republicans gained strength to win
REALIGNMENT elections.
presidency of 1860.
-­Democrats gain former republicans
during the New Deal legislation aimed to
end depression of 1930’s).
Southern Democrats transformed into
SECULAR
The gradual rearrangement of party
Republicans as the Democratic party
coalitions, based more on demographic
REALIGNMENT
shifted its platform toward liberal social
shifts than on shocks to the political system.
causes.
-­Critical election: An election that signals a party realignment through voter polarization
around new issues. (One or two of them general y precede a major realignment (or party
realignment)
-­Secular realignment can take place because one generation is dying off and younger
voters which replace them are different.
-­Dealignment: a general decline in party identification and loyalty in the electorate
(similar sounding word, but different)
POLITICAL PARTIES CHANGE OVER TIME
1789-­1800
Federalists won ratification of the Constitution
Anti-­federalists opposed strong national government
and the presidency for the first three terms.
and favored states’ rights and civil liberties.
Federalists maintained beliefs in a loose
Democratic-­Republicans (Jeffersonians) (AKA:
1800-­1824
interpretation of the Constitution to strengthen
Republicans) put less emphasis on a strong Union
the nation.
and more on states’ rights.
Democrats (Jacksonians) encouraged greater
Whigs were a loose band of eastern capitalists,
1824-­1860
participation in politics and gained Southern
bankers, and merchants who wanted internal
and Western fol owing.
improvements and stronger national government.
Democrats became the second-­place party,
1860-­1896
aligned with the South and the wage earner
Republicans freed the slaves, reconstructed the
and sent only Grover Cleveland to the White
Union, and aligned with industrial interests.
House.
Democrats join with Populists to represent the
1896-­1932
Republicans
Southern and Midwestern farmers, workers,
continue to dominate after a
realignment based on economic factors.
and Protestant reformers.
Democrats, starting with the New Deal, have
Republicans have taken on a laissez-­faire approach
1932-­
pushed for affirmative action, strong protection
PRESENT
to economic regulation and a brand of conservatism
of civil liberties, and government intervention
that reflects limited government.
on the economy.
-­Some people notice that states rights and republicans are often in the right column so the
right column must be conservative. Unfortunately, it is not that simple. Republicans in the
1860 would actual y seem more liberal than the democrats of that time. By today’s
standards liberals would care more about expanding the role or influence of government
and conservatives would want to lessen the role government plays.
-­Some books point out the Golden Age: from 1860-­present day the Democrats and
Republicans have dominated elections in the United States.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
POLITICAL PARTIES
FUNCTIONS OF POLITICAL PARTIES
FUNCTION
DESCRIPTION
RECRUIT & LABEL
Parties search for candidates, nominate them, and help to
I
CANDIDATES
define their viewpoints.
N
E
BUILDING
L
Parties try to build coalitions of like-­minded citizens.
COALITIONS
E
C
T
I
GATHER FUNDS
Parties raise hundreds of mil ions of dol ars for the
campaigns.
O
N
S
GET INFORMATION
Mailings, social media platforms, and other forms of
OUT
communication can build support.
POLICY FORMATION Political parties play a major role in running the government.
I
N
& PROMOTION
Legislatures at national and state level are organized along
(AKA: GOVERNING OR
party lines. Most political appointments in the federal
O RUNNING THE GOVERNMENT) executive and judicial branches are made along party
lines.
F
F
I
OPPOSE OTHER
C
No party is in control of al level of government Parties are
PARTY
E
the “loyal opposition,” trying to force compromises.
(AKA: WATCHDOG)
TWO PARTY SYSTEM & MINOR PARTIES
TYPE OF ELECTION
DESCRIPTION
SYSTEM
EFFECT ON PARTIES
A voting system that
Minor parties are more
apportions legislative
PROPORTIONAL
successful in this system.
seats according to the
Multi-­party
This al ows interests to be
REPRESENTATION percentage of the vote
system
divided into more
won by a particular
groupings.
political party.
SINGLE-­MEMBER A system in which the
Minor parties do not
party that receives at
general y do wel . This
DISTRICTS
Two-­party
least one more vote
encourages the grouping of
(AKA:WINNER-­TAKE-­ALL
system
than any other party
interests into as few parties
SYSTEM
wins the election.
as possible.
-­The United States does not have proportional representation. It has a winner-­take-­al
system so third parties are not as successful. Some countries do utilize a proportional
representation system. They have a multi-­party system as opposed to the United States’
two party system.
-­Minor Party: (often cal ed 3rd parties) a political party that plays a much smal er role
than a major party in a country’s politics and elections.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
POLITICAL PARTIES
INFLUENCE OF MINOR PARTIES
ITEM
DESCRIPTIONS & EXAMPLES
THEY
-­Jacksonian Democrats was at first a minor party.
SOMETIMES
-­Lincoln's Republicans was at first a minor party.
TURN INTO
-­Although no minor party has won the White House since 1860, they
MAJOR PARTIES have sent members to Congress.
Created to advance a particular policy
or to solve one particular political
SINGLE ISSUE PARTIES concern. (Examples: Free Soil Party wanted to end slavery. The
American Party wanted to tighten restrictions
on immigration and citizenship)
Break off from a larger existing party
SPLINTER PARTIES
due to an ideology differing from that of
(AKA: FACTIONAL OR
party leaders. (Example: Liberal Republicans met
BOLTER PARTIES)
in 1782 to oppose incumbent Ulysses S. Grant because he
and the Radical Republicans were too harsh on al owing
4 TYPES OF
Southern States back into the Union)
MINOR PARTIES
ECONOMIC PROTEST
They are created due to concern with
PARTIES
economic conditions. (Example: In 1892, the
Populists focused on issues that farmers faced)
Created to fol ow a prescribed ideology
and have a comprehensive view of
government and policy that differs
IDEOLOGICAL PARTIES greatly from that of the two major
(AKA: DOCTRINAL PARTIES) parties. (Example: The Socialist Party took on child labor,
minimum wage, and foreign policy issues. The
Socialist Party could also be viewed as an economic protest
party)
BIGGEST
Major parties sometimes adopt ideas from minor parties.
INFLUENCE
-­Minor Party: (often cal ed 3rd parties) a political party that plays a much smal er role
than a major party in a country’s politics and elections.
-­Another historical minor party is the Progressive Party fol owing Theodore Roosevelt
didn’t like Republican leadership's (after Teddy had been president for 8 years) handling of
trust busting (when government breaks up corporate trusts and monopolies) and
environmental conservation. Teddy Roosevelt did better than Taft but it split the
republican-­conservative vote al owing Woodrow Wilson (democrat) to be elected.
-­Modern Minor Party Presidential Candidates: Pat Buchanan ran with Reform Party in
2000. Ralph Nader, consumer advocate, ran with the Green Party in 1996 and 2000.
-­To get a candidate's name printed on the bal ot they must meet certain qualification in
each State. Most states require a fee and a large amount of signatures.
-­Minor parties have a tougher time raising money and getting on bal ots than major
parties. Major parties are fearful they wil split their votes and do not want them on bal ots.
65
AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
POLITICAL PARTIES
PARTY ORGANIZATION
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
TYPE
EXAMPLE
PURPOSE
Democratic National Committee (DNC)
The DNC and the RNC focus
NATIONAL
on aiding presidential
COMMITTEE
campaigns and conducting
Republican National Committee (RNC)
general party-­building activities
NATIONAL
National Republican Senatorial
Committee (NRSC)
COMMITTEES
National Republican Congressional
PARTY
The Hil Committees work
Committee (NRCC)
COMMITTEES
primarily to maximise the
IN CONGRESS
number of seats held by their
(AKA: HILL
Democratic Senatorial Campaign
respective parties in Congress.
COMMITTEES)
Committee (DSCC)
Democratic Congressional Campaign
Committee (DCCC)
The party chairperson (or national chair) is the chief strategist and spokesperson. This
person is not usual y as famous as president or congressional leader but they run the party
LEADERSHIP machinery (building up the membership, seek funding, recruiting quality
candidates, conveying to voters the party philosophy). Each party elects its own
chairperson by a vote of the committee. (So both the DNC and RNC has a chairperson)
PARTICIPANTS
WHEN THEY MEET
WHAT THEY DO
1)Create platform: (a list of
NATIONAL
principals and plans that
they wish to enact)
CONVENTIONS
Delegates from al 50
Every 4 years
States (& U.S. territories)
2)Nominate Candidates:
(give official party
endorsement for president
and vice president)
Every state has a statewide party organization. The state party chairperson makes public
appearances on local television and works to recruit new member and register voters.
Some STATE &
have salaries and offices. County-­level chairperson from less populated counties operate
LOCALITIES
effectively out of their home with nothing more than a basic web page and a xob of voter
registration cards. State and local organizations can operate independently of the national
committee.
INFORMAL
Interest groups and associations that often provide money, labor, or other forms of
assistance to the parties.
GROUPS
Think tanks (institutional col ections of policy-­oriented researchers and academics) also
unofficial y influence party positions.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
POLITICAL PARTIES
POLITICAL PARTIES IN GOVERNMENT
BRANCH OR LAYER
DESCRIPTION
OF GOVERNMENT
Prior to the beginning of every session, the parties in both houses of Congress gather (or
caucus) separately to select party leaders and to
CONGRESS
arrange for the appointment of members of each chamber’s committees.
Leaders in congress often attempt to influence members to vote on party lines.
Presidents need support in Congress to pass legislation. In exchange for PRESIDENCY
congressional support the president often appoints many activists to office, recruiting
candidates, raising money for the party treasury, and campaigning extensively for party
nominees during elections seasons.
Judges are creatures of the political process. Judges are often seen as JUDICIARY
liberal or conservative. Democrats like to appoint liberal judges and Republicans like to
appoint conservative judges.
-­The political party influences the legislative, executive, and judicial branches at the state
level as wel .
STATE GOVERNMENTS -­Governors have more influence in their State than Presidents on
political parties because they have more jobs to hand out.
-­State legislative leaders also have more power, thus party unity is usual y higher in the
state capitols.
RECENT MAJOR PARTY SUPPORTERS
CATEGORY
DEMOCRATS
REPUBLICANS
Southern States
REGION
Northeast States
Great Plain States
West Coast
Mountain States
GENDER
Women
Men
ANCESTRY
African Ancestry
European Ancestry
Hispanic Ancestry
Catholic
RELIGION
Protestants
Jewish
Evangelicals
Nonreligious
WEALTH
Poor
Wealthy
URBAN/RURAL
Rural
Urban
Suburbs
These are decent trends for today’s electorate. They were supported with data and studies
on the 2000 and 2004 elections.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
POLITICAL PARTIES
RECENT MAJOR PARTY PLATFORMS
POLITICAL
2012 PLATFORM
PARTY
HEALTH CARE
Strengthen Medicaid and oppose efforts to block funding
FOR THE POOR
EQUAL RIGHTS
Ensure ful equality and support Equal Rights Amendment
FOR WOMEN
EQUALITY AND
Al americans deserve the same chance to pursue happiness
SEXUAL
regardless or sexual orientation
DEMOCRATS
ORIENTATION
Enact comprehensive reform that values our laws and a nation
IMMIGRATION
of immigrants
Affirms the science of climate change and need smart policies
CLIMATE CHANGE
that lead to clean energy
Supports
ABORTION
Roe v. Wade and a woman’s right to make decisions
regarding her pregnancy
Stand in contrast to current administration's policies that expand
GOVERNMENT-­
entitlements, create new public programs, and provide
FUNDED SUPPORT
expansive government bailouts
Courts should have the option of imposing the death penalty in
DEATH PENALTY
capital murder cases
Marriage would be one man and one woman and this must be
MARRIAGE
upheld as the national standard
REPUBLICANS
Oppose any form of amnesty of those that intentional y violated
IMMIGRATION
the law
Pass laws consistent with Supreme Court decisions which have
GUN CONTROL
upheld the fundamental right to keep and bear arms for
self-­defense
We oppose using public revenues to promote or perform
ABORTION
abortions of fund organizations which perform or advocate it
Platform: a list of principles and plans a political party hopes to enact. It is the best way to
determine a party’s primary ideology. Political Parties write a platform at every National
Convention (when they also official y nominate presidential and vice presidential
candidate).
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
POLITICAL PARTIES
MAJOR POLITICAL PARTIES & THE MEDIA
NEWS OUTLETS
PARTY
MASCOT
TYPES OF PEOPLE
LEANING THEIR WAY
● African Americans
● Pacifists
● Washington Post
● Environmentalists
● The Nation
DEMOCRATS
Donkey
● Feminists
● New Republic
● Latinos
● CNN
● Members of
● Air America Radio
organized labor
● Neo-­conservatives
● Business interests
● Wal Street and
financial interests
● Supply-­side
● Washington Times
REPUBLICANS
conservatives
● National Review
(AKA: GRAND OLD
Elephant
● Religious
● The Wal Street Journal
PARTY, GOP)
conservatives
● Fox News
● Southern
● Rush Limbaugh
conservatives
● Mountain states’
conservatives (more
libertarian)
Republicans are the elephants. Democrats are the donkeys. Both mascots started out as
satire to make fun of the political parties in the 1800’s.
Both parties embraced their mascots today.
PARTY IDENTIFICATION & DEALIGNMENT
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
PARTY
A citizen’s personal affinity for a political party, usual y expressed
IDENTIFICATION
by a tendency to vote for the candidates for that party.
DEALIGNMENT
A general decline in party identification and loyalty in the
electorate.
-­Party membership is optional. People can change it whenever they want.
-­Some people like to cal themselves independent even though they always vote for the
same political party to win.
-­Lately about 40% of the american public have been identifying themselves as
independent. The two major parties go up and down but both of them can usual y claim
near 30%.
-­Party Identification is stil the most accurate indicator of how an individual wil vote.
69
ELECTIONS
&
CAMPAIGNS
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
ELECTIONS & CAMPAIGNS
TYPES OF ELECTIONS
TYPE OF
SPECIFIC TYPE
DESCRIPTION
ELECTION
Election in which voters decide which of the
PRIMARY ELECTION
candidates within a party wil represent the party in
the general election.
A primary election in which only a party’s registered
CLOSED PRIMARY
voters are eligible to vote.
PRIMARY
A primary in which party members, independents,
ELECTIONS
and sometimes members of the other party are
OPEN PRIMARY
al owed to vote. (Participation of voting when not affiliated it cal ed crossover voting) (
Raiding is an organized attempt to influence the primary results of the other party)
A second primary election between the two
RUNOFF PRIMARY
candidates receiving the greatest number of votes in
the first primary.
GENERAL
Election in which voters decide which candidates
GENERAL ELECTION
ELECTIONS
wil actual y fil elective public offices.
An election option such as initiative or referendum
BALLOT MEASURE
that enable voters to enact public policy.
A election that al ows citizens to propose legislation
INITIATIVE
OTHER
and submit it to the state electorate for popular vote.
STATE
An election whereby the state legislature submits
ELECTIONS
REFERENDUM
proposed legislation to the state’s voters for
approval.
An election in which voters can remove an
RECALL
incumbent from office by popular vote.
-­These elections take place at national, state, and local levels.
-­Electorate: the citizen eligible to vote. At fixed intervals they vote to express opinions
about issues and to judge those in power.
-­If we did not have peaceful transition of power that would only leave us with non peaceful
transitions.
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ELECTIONS & CAMPAIGNS
PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION: SUMMARY
PHASE OF
WHAT THE
WHAT TAKES PLACE
ELECTION
CANDIDATES NEED
Primaries & Caucuses are held ● At least 2,118
in each State for both major
delegates for
NOMINATIONS
the democratic nomination
parties to see which candidates ● At least 1,191
the delegates wil vote for their
delegates for
the republican nomination
party’s nomination.
Both political parties hold a
NATIONAL
convention where the delegates People in their party to come
CONVENTION
official y nominate their party’s
together and support them on
candidate and they write the
during the general election.
party’s platform.
On election day each state's’
GENERAL
They need at least 270
popular vote determines how
electoral votes
ELECTION
many electoral votes each
to become
President.
candidates receives.
The next 3 charts go into greater detail regarding these three phases of presidential
elections..
PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION: NOMINATIONS
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
PRIMARIES
There are different kinds. People vote on bal ot. There vote
is their secret.
Participants spend several hours learning about politics and
the party. There are speeches by candidates or
CAUCUSES
representatives and receive advice from party leaders.
People often go to corners a room to show support (if your
candidate as low support you have a chance to go to your next choice)
-­The political party determines how many delegates each state possesses. The primary
elections and caucus votes determine which candidates the delegates support. Once a
candidate receives a majority of delegates they have earned the party nomination. (At least
2,118 delegates for the democratic nomination and at least 1,191 delegates for the
republican nomination)
-­Number of delegates per state are determined by the party (but they base it on
population)
-­States determine the date of their own primaries (often referring to both primaries and
caucuses, AKA: primary season
-­Frontloading: the tendency of states to choose an early date on the primary calendar.
(States do this so the candidates wil come to their state and so their citizens can vote before
a candidate receives a majority of delegates). Frontloading gives an advantage to early
leader because it gives less time for opponents to tear them down.
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LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
ELECTIONS & CAMPAIGNS
PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION: NATIONAL CONVENTION
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
WHO HAS THEM?
Both Democrats and Republicans have their own national
conventions.
WHEN ARE THEY? They take place every four years (the summer before a presidential
election).
WHO GOES?
Delegates selected at local and state level to represent the people
from their state.
WHAT DO THESE
-­Official y nominate the presidential and vice presidential
DELEGATES DO?
candidates (as a team).
-­Write the party platform.
-­Some delegates do not legal y have to support the person their state voted for. Some legal
y do. Most delegates do select their state's choice. A couple go against the grain from time
to time. Weird huh
-­Superdelegates: (only exist the democrats party) A delegate slot to the Democratic
Party’s national convention that is reserved for an elected party official.
-­National conventions are where the political party needs to come together (unify the
party). Parties spend a year tearing themselves apart in the nomination process. Now they
need to stand together to take on the opposition.
PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION: THE GENERAL ELECTION
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
ELECTORAL
Representatives of each state who cast the final bal ots that actual y COLLEGE
elect a president.
ELECTOR
Member of the Electoral Col ege chose by methods determined in
each state.
WINNING THE
The winner must receive 270 electoral votes of the 538 possible. (If no PRESIDENCY
candidate receives at least 270 electoral votes then the House of Representatives selects
the President and the Senate selects the Vice President)
ELECTORAL
Each state has the same number electoral votes as the
VOTES PER STATE representation they have in Congress. (Example: Nevada has 4 House
of Representatives + 2 Senators = 6 Electoral Votes)
WINNER-­TAKE-­ALL In 48 states, whichever candidate receives the majority of the votes
(popular vote) wins al the electoral votes from that state.
(SINGLE-­MEMBER DISTRICT)
(Under this
(PLURALITY)
system it is possible to win the electoral col ege while losing the popular vote. Nebraska
and Maine both have a proportional disbursement of electoral votes based on how the
population of their states voted).
-­Least amount of elector votes a state can have is 3. California has the most with 55..
Washington D.C. has 3. (23rd amendment).
-­Some people want a popular vote to determine the presidency instead, because in 1824
John Quincy Adams, 1876 Rutherford Hayes, 1888
Benjamin Harrison, and 2000 George W. Bush won the presidency without winning the
popular vote.
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LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
ELECTIONS & CAMPAIGNS
CONGRESSIONAL CAMPAIGNS
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
To compete for a seat in the House of Representatives and the
MODERN
Senate, a candidate must create a networked organization that
CAMPAIGNS
resembles a smal corporation, spend much of his or her own
money, solicit hundreds of donors for contributions, and sacrifice
many hours and days to the process.
MIDTERM
Al House candidates and ⅓ of Senate candidates run for election
ELECTIONS
every two years. Federal elections that take place halfway through
a president’s term are cal ed midterm elections.
-­The size of a candidate's war chest, or bank account for
campaigning can play a role in determining victory or loss. (Half of al House candidates
raise more than $1 mil ion dol ars, which would require them fundraising $16,000 a
FUNDRAISING
week) (Senate candidates spend on average 12 mil ion)
-­Candidates general y spend ¼ of their campaign time making
personal phone cal s and holding formal fundraisers (cocktail parties,
picnics, and formal dinners with celebrities and officials has guest speakers).
FINDING OUT WHAT A typical campaign spend 3 percent of its revenue on pol ing and
THE PUBLIC
surveys to understand what voters think. They also use focus
groups, internet blogs, radio cal -­in shows, and conversations with
WANTS
party leaders & political analysts to find out what the public wants.
-­The candidate gets their message out (common themes of
decency, loyalty, and hard work). The three phases a campaign
GETTING MESSAGE include: the biography, the issues, and the attack.
OUT TO VOTERS
-­¾ of al voters say they get most of their information about
elections by watching television. A visual is a short news segment showing the candidate in
action (cost the candidate nothing to show). A spot is short expensive commercial.
-­Redistricting: the process of of redrawing congressional districts to reflect increases or
decreases in seats al otted to the states. This effects how many seats each state gets in the
House of Representatives. The census counts the population every 10 years. If a state is
gain or lose seats in the House it is up to the State legislatures to draw the congressional
districts for their state. Gerrymandering: the drawing of boundaries in a way to produce a
particular electoral outcome without regard to the shape of the district.
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LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
ELECTIONS & CAMPAIGNS
INCUMBENCY ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
ITEM
SPECIFIC ITEM
DESCRIPTION
People often know their members by name.
This is partly due to the franking privilege in
which free mailing is available so Congress
Name Recognition members can inform constituents about new
things going on in their states and districts.
Some members become household names
being re-­elected over and over again.
Incumbents nearly always have more money
ADVANTAGES
Money
than chal engers. Political action committees
(PAC’s) donate heavily to incumbents.
Officeholders can provide services to
constituents, including answer questions about
Presence
issues of concern to voters. Incumbent keep
offices in their hometowns and in Washington
D.C.
Congressional candidates can often ride on the
Coattail Effect
popularity of their party’s presidential candidate.
The single greatest predictor of an incumbent's
DISADVANTAGES
loss is a poor economy. When times are tough
Role of Economy the voting public wil often hold incumbents and their party responsible.
Incumbent: the office holder who is seeking re-­election.
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LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
ELECTIONS & CAMPAIGNS
A CAMPAIGN’S KEY PLAYERS
PLAYERS
DESCRIPTIONS
A person chooses to run for office for a number of reasons which include CANDIDATE
personal ambition, the desire to promote a certain ideology and pursue specific public
politics, or simply because they think they can do a better job than their opponents.
Volunteers are the lifeblood of every national, state, and local campaign.
Voter canvas: the process by which a campaign reaches individual VOLUNTEER
voters, either by door-­to-­door solicitation or by telephone. Closer to CAMPAIGN STAFF
election day volunteers begin vital get out the vote (GOTV) efforts, fal ing and e-­mailing
supports to remind them to vote and arranging their transportation if necessary.
Campaign
The individual who travels with the candidate and
coordinates the many different aspects of the
Manager
campaign.
Finance Chair
A professional who coordinates the fund-­raising
efforts for the campaign.
Pollster
A professional who gives and analyzes public
opinion surveys that guide political campaigns.
THE CANDIDATE’S
Direct Mailer
A professional who supervises a political
PROFESSIONAL
campaign's direct mail fund-­raising strategies.
STAFF
Communications The person who develops the overal media
strategy for the candidate, blending free press
Director
coverage with paid TV, radio and mail media.
Press Secretary The individual charged with interacting and
communicating with journalists on a daily basis.
The campaign staff that makes use of Web-­based
Internet Team
resources to communicate with voters, raise
funds, organize volunteers, and plan campaign
events.
Campaign
A private-­sector professional who sel s to a
candidate the technologies, services, and
THE CANDIDATE’S
Consultants
strategies required to get that candidate elected.
HIRED GUNS
Media
A professional who produces candidates’
Consultants
television, radio, and print advertisements.
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LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
ELECTIONS & CAMPAIGNS
CAMPAIGN MEDIA
MEDIA TYPE
DESCRIPTIONS
Political advertisements purchased for a candidate’s campaign.
Types of Ads:
positive ads: Advertising on behalf of a candidate that stresses the candidate’s
qualifications, family, and issue positions, without reference to the opponent.
negative ads: advertising on behalf of a candidate that attacks the opponent’s platform
PAID MEDIA
of character.
contrast ad: Ad that compares the records and proposals of the candidates, with a ibas
toward the sponsor.
spot ad: Television advertising on behalf of a candidate that is broadcast in sixty-­,thirty­,or ten-­second durations.
inoculation ad: Advertising that attempts to counteract and anticipated attack from the
opposition before the attack is launched.
FREE MEDIA Coverage of a candidate’s campaign by the news media.
NEW MEDIA
New technologies, such as the Internet, that blur the line between paid and free media
sources.
Candidatet want favorable coverage. Campaign teams use media consultant in an attempt
to influence the media by 1) Staff members seek to isolate the candidate from the press 2)
the campaign stages media events (sound bites: brief clever quotes with appealing
backdrops so they wil be covered on the news) 3) Spin any circumstance they can (make
their candidate look good and the other look bad) 4) Circumvent the news by going on talk
shows.
THE FEDERAL ELECTIONS CAMPAIGN ACT (FECA)
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
FEDERAL ELECTIONS This law created an independent agency created to monitor and
COMMISSION (FEC)
enforce campaign regulation. (6-­member nonpartisan body)
REGULATED MONEY This law prevented donors from giving more than $1,000 to any
federal candidate and more than $5,000 to a political committee.
POLITICAL ACTION
This law defined that Political Action Committees must:
●
Must have at least 50 members.
COMMITTEES
●
Must donate to at least five candidates.
●
Must register with the FEC at least six months in advance of the election.
This law created a voluntary public fund to assist viable presidential PUBLIC FUND
candidates. (When you file taxes you have chance to give $3 bucks. Candidates use public
funds to match individual donations of $250, if they spend less than 50K own money and
raise 5k in at least 20 states)
-­This law was created in 1971 and amended in 1974 and 1976 in response to americans
distrust of money in politics and politics in general after the Watergate scandal.
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LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
ELECTIONS & CAMPAIGNS
CAMPAIGN FINANCE
ITEMS
DESCRIPTION
FEDERAL ELECTIONS The FEC is an extremely important independent agency that is
responsible for regulating elections. Laws and court cases have also
COMMISSION
had great importance on this issue.
HARD MONEY
Donations given directly to a candidate for campaigning.
Donations given to a political party for party-­building purposes
SOFT MONEY
(Such as get out the vote drives or issue ads) (Soft money
skyrocketed after FECA)
● Banned soft money contributions to the national parties
● Increased limits on hard money donations per election cycle:
McCAIN-­FEINGOLD
○ $2,000 from individuals (with an adjustment for inflation)
LAW
○ $5,000 from PACs
○ $25,000 from the national parties
(AKA: BIPARTISAN CAMPAIGN
● Prohibited corporations, trade associations, and labor
REFORM ACT OF 2002)
organization from paying for electioneering communications
using campaign treasury money within 60 days of the general
(AKA: BCRA)
election and 30 days of a primary.
● Candidates must explicitly acknowledge approval of al TV
ads.
527 POLITICAL
Non profit and unregulated interest groups that focus on specific
cause or policy positions and attempt to influence voters. They
COMMITTEES
cannot directly engage in advocacy for or against a candidate.
501(C)(3)
Nonprofit and tax-­exempt groups that can educate voters about
COMMITTEES
issues and are not required to release the names of their contributors.
McConnel v. FEC
The McCain-­Feingold law was largely upheld.
(2003)
Citizens United v. FEC The Court ruled that corporations have a right to free speech and
(2010)
cannot be denied the that right in the final days before an election.
McCutcheon v. FEC
The Court ruled that the free speech clause prevents Congress from
limiting the aggregate total an individual may donate to various
(2013)
candidates.
-­Hatch Act, 1939: federal employees and companies doing business under federal
contracts were forbidden from contributing to elections.
-­ Buckley v Valeo, 1976: The Court ruled that Congress could limit some contributions to
candidates but protected other forms of ucing to parties as forms of free speech.
-­527 committees and 501 (c ) (3) committees are named after tax code: they show that
taking money out of politics is not going to be easy.
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LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
ELECTIONS & CAMPAIGNS
GOVERNING ELECTIONS
LEVEL OF
DESCRIPTION
GOVERNMENT
● Sets times and locations for elections. (Sets dates for non-­federal elections)
● Chooses format of bal ot and how to file for candidacy.
STATE
● Creates rules and procedures for voter registration.
● Draws congressional district lines (state legislatures).
● Certifies election results days after election day.
● Set date for federal elections: (Currently: Tuesday fol owing the first Monday in
November of even numbered years).
NATIONAL
● Has judicial jurisdiction on election policy.
(AKA: FEDERAL)
● Addresses suffrage in constitutional amendments
● Enforces relevant civil rights legislation.
● Administers and enforces campaign finance rules (FEC)
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INTEREST
GROUPS
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LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
INTEREST GROUPS
TYPES OF INTEREST GROUPS
TYPE OF GROUP
DESCRIPTION
ECONOMIC
These organizations form to serve the economic interest of
INTEREST GROUPS their members, such as labor groups.
SOCIAL ACTION AND When a social change is desired, people may join together to
EQUALITY GROUPS help get this change made.
PUBLIC INTEREST
Some organizations exist to work for their perception of the
GROUPS
public’s best interests. (Not just to benefit group members)
State and local governments are becoming strong organized
interests as they lobby the federal government or even
GOVERNMENTAL
charitable foundations for money for a vast array of state and
UNITS
local programs. (They want earmarks: monies targeted for programs within a state or
congressional district to fund basic programs for roads schools, parks & waterways, or
other public works projects)
POLITICAL ACTION
Federal y regulated, official y registered fund-­raising committee
COMMITTEES (PACs) that represent interest groups in the political process.
(Often made up of corporations, labor unions, and interest groups)
-­Interest Group: A group that tries to encourage or prevent change in public policy
without being elected. (Political parties are different because they want to control the
government by winning elections)
-­Other names interest groups go by: special interests, pressure groups, organized
interests, nongovernmental organization (NGO’s), political groups, lobby groups, and public
interest groups.
-­Interest groups connect citizens to the government by increasing public awareness about
issues and helping frame the public agenda.
-­Do the rich and powerful have greater influence? More than they deserve?
INTEREST GROUP THEORIES
THEORY
DESCRIPTION
PLURALIST THEORY The theory that political power is distributed among a wide array of
diverse and competing interest groups.
DISTURBANCE
The theory that interest groups form in part to counteract the efforts of THEORY
other groups.
TRANSACTIONS
The theory that public policies are the result of narrowly defined
THEORY
exchanges among political actors.
POPULATION
The theory that the life of a political organization is conditional on the ECOLOGY THEORY
density and diversity of the interest group population in a given area.
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LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
INTEREST GROUPS
FUNCTIONS OF INTEREST GROUPS
FUNCTION
SPECIFIC FUNCTION
DESCRIPTION
Lobbying activities include congressional
testimony on behalf of a group (even writing bil s),
LOBBYING CONGRESS
individual letters from interested constituents,
and campaign contributions (straight up vote
buying is il egal)
Groups target the president, White House
LOBBYING THE
staff, and numerous levels of bureaucracy to
EXECUTIVE BRANCH
influence policy decisions at the formation and
implementation stages.
-­Direct sponsorship of litigation, paying so
their group can sue someone using a test
LOBBYING
case. (Example: NAACP paid for lawyers to take the
LOBBYING THE COURTS
Brown case al the way to the Supreme Court to fight
against segregation in the American schools)
-­ Amicus curiae briefs: Write to inform justices
of the group’s policy preference, general y
offered in the guise of legal arguments.
Interest group activity that encourages people
GRASSROOTS LOBBYING to contact their congressional representatives directly in an
effort to affect policy.
This is occasional y used by some interest
PROTESTS AND
groups. Like the Boston Tea Party. Or when
RADICAL ACTIVISM
marchers risk detention or jail to protest the
International Monetary Fund.
CANDIDATE RECRUITMENT Some interest groups recruit, endorse, and/or provide
financial or other forms of support for
AND ENDORSEMENTS
political candidates.
Launch GOTV to increase voting expecting
GETTING OUT THE VOTE
these voters wil vote in favor of the group’s
ELECTIONEERING
policy preferences.
RATING THE CANDIDATES Liberal and conservative interest groups rate members of
Congress so the public can hold
OR OFFICE HOLDERS
members accountable.
POLITICAL ACTION
Interest groups use these to raise and spend
COMMITTEES (PACs)
money on campaigns.
-­Lobbying: the process by which interest groups attempt to assert their influence on the
policy-­making process. Interest groups are large organization that hire people to apply
pressure at al aspects involving policy. Lobbyists are experts in their fields with scientific
data to back up their claims, so when they testify to congress and write legislation it is very
persuasive.
-­Electioneering: to actively take part in the activities of an election campaign.
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LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
INTEREST GROUPS
SUCCESSFUL INTEREST GROUPS
ITEMS
DESCRIPTIONS
-­The group’s ability to get its issues on the public agenda.
DIFFERENT
-­Winning key pieces of legislation Congress.
-­Successful implementation of laws
MEASUREMENTS
-­Winning key lawsuits in court.
-­Backing successful candidates.
-­Leaders: Must be inspiring, persuasive, and attract new members.
-­Partons & Funding: Providing start up funds to pay for advertising, FACTORS THAT
litigating, and lobbying.
OFTEN CONTRIBUTE -­Committed members: Leaders at top, then workers, then due
paying TO SUCCESS
members (that do not do much else). Al groups provide some col ective good: something of
value like money, a tax write-­off, a good feeling, or a better environment that can not be
withheld from a nonmember.
-­Free rider problem: Potential members fail to join a group because they can get the
benefit, or col ective good, sought by the group without contributing the effort.
REGULATING LOBBYISTS
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
UNREGULATED PERIOD For the first 150 years of our nation’s history, federal lobbying
practices went unregulated.
THE FEDERAL
This required anyone hired to lobby any member of Congress to
REGULATION OF
register and file quarterly financial reports. For years very few
LOBBYING ACT (1946) lobbyists actual y filed any reports.
Defined a lobbyist anyone who devotes at least 20 percent of a
client’s or employer’s time to lobbying activities. Also it required: THE LOBBYING
1) register with the clerk of the House and the secretary of the
DISCLOSURE ACT OF
Senate
1995
2) report their clients and issues and the agency or house they
lobbied
3) estimate the amount they are paid by each client
(by 2005 32,890 lobbyists were registered and they spend $4 mil ion on lobby both
chambers) HONEST LEADERSHIP -­ban on gifts
AND OPEN
-­tougher disclosure requirements
GOVERNMENT ACT OF -­longer time limits on moving from federal government to the
2007
private lobbying sector.
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LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
INTEREST GROUPS
MAJOR INTEREST GROUPS (ALSO REGISTERED AS LOBBIES)
INTEREST GROUP
DESCRIPTION
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF RETIRED
citizen over 55 influences on issues like Social Security and
PERSONS (AARP)
prescription drugs
AMERICAN BAR ASSOCIATION (ABA)
represents the legal community
AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION (ACLU)
legal experts focuses on civil rights and civil liberties
CHAMBER OF COMMERCE
represent the business community al across the nation
COMMON CAUSE
lobbies for liberal causes and “open, accountable” government
AMERICAN-­ISRAEL PUBLIC AFFAIRS
support for Jewish communities and Israel
COMMITTEE
AMERICAN FEDERATION OF
LABOR-­CONGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL
headed labor movement and worker rights for decades
ORGANIZATIONS (AFL-­CIO)
EAGLE FORUM
advocates for family values issues and laissez-­faire economics
EARTH FIRST!
radical environmental group & controversial violent protests
HERITAGE FOUNDATION
lobbies in favor of reducing the federal bureaucracy (less gov)
LEAGUE OF UNITED LATIN AMERICAN
defends the civil rights of Hispanic citizens
CITIZENS (LULAC)
MOTHERS AGAINST DRUNK DRIVING
influences changes in state law concerning penalties for driving
(MADD)
under the influence of alcohol
THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF COLORED PEOPLE
advocates for African American civil rights
(NAACP)
NATIONAL RIFLE ASSOCIATION (NRA)
focuses on the 2nd amendment rights (anti-­big government)
NATIONAL RIGHT TO LIFE COMMITTEE
seeks to make abortion il egal
NATIONAL ORGANIZATION FOR WOMEN
supports women’s right & abortion rights
(NOW)
PEOPLE FOR THE ETHICAL TREATMENT
advocates for animal rights
OF ANIMALS (PETA)
PROMISE KEEPERS
represents evangelical Christians and conservative views
environmental group focuses on conservation issues maintaining
SIERRA CLUB
clean air and water standards
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MASS
MEDIA
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LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
MASS MEDIA
TYPES OF MEDIA
MEDIA TYPE
DESCRIPTION
-­Local Newspapers (Ex: Las Vegas Sun) & National Magazines (Ex: Time Magazine)
-­yellow journalism: newspaper publishing (late 19th century) featured PRINT MEDIA
sensationalized and oversimplified news coverage.
-­muckraking: (early 20th century) journalism concerned with reforming government and
business conduct.
FDR use to inform Americans directly with “fireside chats”. Invention of RADIO NEWS
television made it less popular. 12% of Americans reported getting their news
(BROADCAST MEDIA) from talk radio in 1997. By 2005 it was up to 22% of Americans.
This media is currently used much more by conservatives.
Most homes had televisions by the 1960’s. In 2007, 65% of Americans claimed
TELEVISION
to get their news from television whereas only 27% read newspapers. C-­SPAN
NEWS
AND C-­SPAN 2 cover Congress. Nightly and weekly news programs inform (BROADCAST
MEDIA) viewers on events. Saturday Night Live and the Daily Show entertain and inform
viewers.
INTERNET
In 2007, 29% of American claimed to receive news from the Internet which was (THE NEW
MEDIA)
up from 9% in 2000. (Examples: blogs, news websites, and social media)
-­Mass media: the entire array of organizations through which information is col ected and
disseminated to the general public.
-­News media: media providing the public with new information about subjects of public
interest.
FUNCTIONS OF THE MEDIA
SHORT
FUNCTION
LONG DESCRIPTION
DESCRIPTION
Producer, anchors ,editors, and writers set the news agenda.
They have to decide what is news worthy. There is not
GATEKEEPER
DECIDING WHAT
enough air time or space to give al the news that happened.
MAKES THE NEWS They have to pick and choose. If the American people are aware of
something the government is more likely to get
involved.
The media tracks political successes and failures. During
REPORTING
campaign season they update their readers and viewers on
SCOREKEEPER
SUCCESSES &
the success of the competing candidates (AKA: Horse race
journalism). Scorekeeping does continue onward after the
FAILURES
election is over judging and reporting on opinion pol s of
sitting presidents.
REPORT
Reporters look for corruption, scandal, or inefficiency. The
WATCHDOG
SCANDALS &
media has an obligation to report american abuses and
CORRUPTION
mistakes of its officials.
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LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
MASS MEDIA
MEDIA INFLUENCE
POSSIBLE EFFECTS
DESCRIPTION
IGNORANT PEOPLE Reporting can sway those who are uncommitted and have not strong
opinion in the first place.
EXOTIC TOPICS
The media is likely to have a greater impact on topics far removed from the lives and
experiences of readers and viewers.
AGENDA SETTING News organizations can influence what we think about, even if they
cannot determine what we think.
The process by which a news organization defines a political issue and FRAMING
consequently affects opinion on the issue. (Example: A ku klux klan story could be framed
as a civil rights story exercising the freedom of speech, or it could be framed as a law and
order story in which they were disturbing the peace. Both stories would interpreted very
differently by the audience)
The media has the power to indirectly influence the way the public views INDIRECT
politicians and government. (Example: Presidential elections are often related to the voters
assessment to the economy. So if the news chose not to highlight the bad economy for a
while the sitting president might do better)
Media effects: The influence of news sources on public opinion.
GOVERNMENT’S RELATIONSHIP WITH THE MEDIA
BRANCH OF
DESCRIPTION
GOVERNMENT
-­Bully pulpit: a stage from which a president can persuade the public who then would
persuade Congress.
-­Press Secretaries hold (almost daily) press conferences in which they have PRESIDENTS
rehearsed answers to likely questions.
(EXECUTIVE BRANCH) -­This briefing room has 60 reporters to cover the president daily
and another 2,000 have White House press credentials. The president's communication
team can alter or revoke press credentials or seating assignments to
discipline hostile reporters.
-­ Rol Cal and The Hil are two notable papers that cover Congress.
CONGRESS
-­In the late 1970’s, C-­SPAN (Cable-­Satel ite Public Affairs Network) which is a
(LEGISLATIVE BRANCH) privately funded, nonprofit public service. (C-­SPAN 2 came in
1986 to cover Senate at same time).
Cameras are general y not al owed in federal court, which is why we see COURTS
drawings of people on the stand on the news. There are reporters covering (JUDICIAL
BRANCH)
these stories and they do go into court to view the proceedings. They are often seen
reporting from outside the courthouse.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
LINKAGE INSTITUTIONS
MASS MEDIA
FREEDOM OF PRESS
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
In New York Times v. United States (1971) the Supreme Court
PRIOR RESTRAINT
assured that the haty cry of national security does not justify
censorship in advance and that the government does not have to
power of prior restraint.
In Branzburg v. Hayes (1972) the Supreme Court ruled that
ANONYMOUS
knowledge a reporter col ects is “everyman’s evidence” and cannot
SOURCES
be legal y withheld. Some States have created shield laws to
protect journalists from this, but federal y there is not law.
LIBEL & SLANDER
If a publication or broadcast lies about an individual and defames
them. That individual has the right to sue the publican or reporter.
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulates
electronic media. It currently commissions licenses to stations,
REGULATING
assures equal time to political candidates, balanced coverage of
AIRWAVES
controversial issues, facilitates non commercial public broadcasts,
prevented rigged game shows, and assured decency on radio and
television.
-­In the late 1960’s Congress passed the Corporation for Public
Broadcasting Act which created the Corporation for Public
CORPORATE VS.
Broadcasting (CPB) to develop noncommerical television and radio.
It subsidizes a TV Network, Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) and
PUBLIC MEDIA
a radio network, National Public Radio (NPR).
-­In 1996, Telecommunications Act deregulated ownership and
al owed large corporations to purchase more media outlets.
The first amendment al ows for the freedom of the press. Anyone can print anything, but
the government can punish the publishing of
“improper, mischievous, or il egal” material.
MEDIA BIAS
BIAS IN FAVOR OF LIBERALS
BIAS IN FAVOR OR CONSERVATIVES
Network Evening News
PBS Newshour
Fox News
CNN
Majority of talk radio shows
MSNBC
There is a lot of data about negative reporting on candidate coverage. There is definitely
biases in the media. In the 2008 presidential election only 9% of the stories examined
issues positions and candidate qualifications.
88
UNIT 5:
GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
MAIN TOPICS
CONGRESS
THE PRESIDENCY
THE BUREAUCRACY
THE JUDICIAL
89
CONGRESS
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
CONGRESS
CONGRESSIONAL POWERS
EXPRESSED
IMPLIED
NON-­LEGISLATIVE
(ENUMERATED)
POWERS
POWERS
POWERS
Powers that are
Powers that congress
Powers that are found in the
actual y written out in
is implied to have to
Constitution which give
Description:
Article I of the
help them carry out
Congress powers that do
Constitution.
expressed powers.
not relate to making laws.
Supreme Court
declared in
McCul ough v
Maryland that the
necessary and
Reasoning:
Stated in Constitution
proper clause (Elastic Stated in Constitution
Clause) gave
Congress the right to
have implied powers if
they helped carry out
expressed powers.
●
Create tax laws &
● Investigative
●
Tax
punish evaders
●
Spend
●
Use tax revenues to
information to
●
Coin Money
fund welfare, public
become informed
●
Borrow Money
schools, health and
(House & Senate)
●
Set Bankruptcy Laws
housing programs
●
Regulate Interstate
●
Establish the Federal
● Propose
Commerce
Reserve System of
Amendments (⅔
●
Regulate
banks
International Trade
●
Regulate & limit
House and Senate)
●
Declare War
immigration
● If no one wins 270 of
●
Raise & Support
●
Draft Americans into
electoral votes, pick
Examples:
Armed Forces
military
●
Make Naturalization
●
Establish a minimum
the President
Laws
wage
(House) and Vice
●
Establish a Postal
●
To ban discrimination
President (Senate)
System
●
To pass laws
●
Protect against
protecting the
● Impeachment (bring
copyright
disabled.
charges) (House) &
infringement
●
To regulate banking
●
Fix weights &
●
To prohibit mail fraud
convict (Senate)
measures
& obstruction of the
● Confirm
●
acquire, manage,
mails)
appointments &
and sel federal lands
●
To bar shipping of
certain items through
treaties (Senate)
mail
-­Most implied powers are justified (according to Supreme Court) as needed to carry out
the expressed Commerce Power of Congress.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
CONGRESS
KEY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE HOUSE AND SENATE
HOUSE OF
SENATE
REPRESENTATIVES
Total Members
435
100
State
Based on population
Equality
Representation
(census determines apportionment)
(2 per State)
● Must be at least 25
● Must be at least 30
Membership
● Citizen for 7 years
● Citizen for 9 years
Qualifications
● Resident of the State
● Resident of the State
Terms
6 Years
2 Years
(Continuous Body: ⅓ up for reelection
(Unlimited)
every two years)
●
Original y selected by State
Elected
Legislature
●
Always directly elected.
●
17th Amendment (1913)
changed it to direct elections.
Exclusive
●
Consent on presidential
●
Initiate revenue bil s
appointments
Power
●
Approve treaties
Firing Public
● Impeachment
● Tries impeached officials
Officials
(indict or charge someone with a crime) (choose to convict or fire)
●
More centralized
●
Stronger leadership
●
Less centralized
●
More rules (Rules Committee:
●
Weakers leadership
determines amendments & debate
●
Less Rules (debate ends with
Differences in
limits on floor for each bil )
unanimous consent or cloture
●
More impersonal
ending a filibuster)
Operation
●
Power distributed less evenly
●
More personal
●
Members are highly
●
Power distributed more evenly
specialized
●
Members are generalists
●
Emphasizes tax and revenue
●
Emphasizes foreign policy
policy
●
Power centralized in the
●
Senate workload increasing
Speaker’s inner circle of
and institution becoming more
advisers
Changes in the
formal;; threat of filibusters more
●
House procedures becoming
frequent than in past
Institution
more efficient
●
Becoming more difficult to pass
●
Turnover is relatively high
legislation
(although those seeking reelection
●
Turnover is moderate
almost always win)
Bicameral: Two house legislature. In order for a bil to become law it must be passed by a
majority of both houses.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
CONGRESS
CONGRESSIONAL MEMBERS’ DEMOGRAPHICS
CONGRESS IN
CATEGORY
HOUSE OF REP
SENATE
GENERAL
Less Male & Less
White over time.
Overall Trend in
Quicker to Change
Slower to Change
(Most Common is stil :
Demographics
White Male, Middle
Aged, Protestant,
Lawyer)
Median Net
Richer than
$75,000
$1.7 milion
Worth (2008)
average Americans
Average Age
Older than average
(111th
56 years-­old
62 years-­old
Americans
Congress)
Most diverse thus
Women
80% Men
80% Men
far. Membership of
(114th
20% Women
20% Women
women doubled by
Congress)
(20 Women: 14D 6R)
(84 Women: 62D 22R)
95 and again by 05.
79.1% White
94% White
Race
House is more
10.1% Black
2% Black
(114th
diverse than the
7.8% Hispanic
3% Hispanic
Congress)
Senate.
2.3% Asian
1% Asian
57.7% Protestant (251)
55% Protestant (55)
31.7% Catholic (138)
Religion
26% Catholic (26)
General y become
4.4% Jewish (19)
(114th
9% Jewish (9)
less Protestant over
2.1% Mormon (9)
Congress)
7% Mormon (7)
time.
1.1%Orthodox-­Christian 2% Non Religious (2)
(5)
Much more
Education
399 of 435 (92%) are
97 out of 100 (97%) are education than the
(2008)
col ege graduates.
col ege graduates.
general public
(over ⅔ of both houses
hold advanced degrees)
-­Congress is more
Political Party
188 Democrat
44 Democrat
polarized than
(114th
246 Republican
54 Republican
American public.
Congress)
1 Vacant
2 Other
(Majority party shifts
frequently since WW2)
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
CONGRESS
ADVANTAGES OF INCUMBENCY
ADVANTAGE
DESCRIPTION
Name Recognition After years of media exposure, undecided voters often select a
candidate whose name is familiar to them.
Members of Congress have access to many groups that fund races,
Campaign Costs
and senators are often privately wealthy enough to finance their
campaigns.
Free communication with the home constituents throughout a term
Franking
helps with name recognition and sharing about pork. (Legal y, they could mail you
everyday for free)
Pork Projects &
Local jobs and contracts help build local support, and members of
Congress are not shy about reminding their constituents about the
Claims of Credit
source of benefits.
As leaders get more influential position, voters feel that they gain
Seniority Powers
power in Congress as wel . They hesitate to start over with a new
face.
Party Support
Party organizations are reluctant to turn on loyal members, who are
also proven winners.
Lobby Support
Groups that give money to exert influence are reluctant to gamble on
lesser-­known outsiders.
-­Incumbents: A person seeking reelection for office. (They already have the job, just want
another term)
-­Marginal District: Close election, general y win by less than 55%.
-­Safe District: Incumbents win by 55% or more.
-­Political Parties often focus time and resources trying to win marginal districts.
-­Pork-­barrel legislation (makes up 2.5% of national spending) give tangible benefits
(highways, post office) to constituents in hope of gaining votes.
-­Pork: nickname for those tangible benefits
-­Sidenote on Pork: Impossible to remove from Congress because you cannot tel if a
member is getting a bridge for a district because they need pork or maybe that district or
State real y needs that bridge. Also some feel they need to be able to deal like this so they
do not resort to bribery.
-­Earmarks: money that appropriation bil designates for specific projects in certain
districts or States.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
CONGRESS
CONGRESSIONAL LEADERSHIP
HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES
SENATE
ROLE
DESCRIPTION
ROLE
DESCRIPTION
P
P
The Vice President of
R
R
President of
E
E
the United States. (Only S
S
the Senate
votes to break a tie so they are
I
I
D
D
never real y there)
I
I
The presiding officer of
N
N
Speaker of the
G
G
the House. (Most powerful
Presiding Officer if VP
House
O
O
position in the House)
is not there.
F
F
President Pro
F
F
(They are not as powerful as
I
I
Tempore
Speakers so they often al ow
C
C
junior members to preside for
E
E
R
R
them)
S
The leader of the party
The leader of the party
control ing the most
control ing the most
Majority Leader seats. Tries to advance
Majority Leader seats. Tries to
party goals.
advance party goals
(2nd most powerful position in the
(Most powerful position in
House)
Senate)
P
P
A
Serves as a liaison
Serves as a liaison
A
R
between the party’s
between the party’s
R
T
leadership and
leadership and
T
Y
Majority Whip
rank-­and-­file members.
Majority Whip
rank-­and-­file members. Y
(Assist party leaders by staying in
(Assist party leaders by staying
O
contact with party members to
in contact with party members
O
see how they plan to vote)
to see how they plan to vote)
F
F
F
The leader of the party
The leader of the party F
I
control ing the 2nd most
control ing the 2nd
I
C Minority Leader
Minority Leader
seats. Tries to advance
most seats. Tries to
C
E
party goals.
advance party goals.
E
R
R
S
Serves as a liaison
Serves as a liaison
S
between the party’s
between the party’s
leadership and
leadership and
Minority Whip
rank-­and-­file members.
Minority Whip
rank-­and-­file members.
(Assist party leaders by staying in
(Assist party leaders by staying
contact with party members to
in contact with party members
see how they plan to vote)
to see how they plan to vote)
-­Congressional leaders are elected by Party Caucuses (or Party Conference): A formal
gathering of al party members.
-­Majority party: The political party in each house of Congress with the most members.
-­Minority party: The political party in each house of Congress with the second most
members.
-­Overal trend of decentralization of congressional leadership since mid 20th century. Thus
individual members are seen as more powerful.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
CONGRESS
THEORIES ON CONGRESSIONAL VOTING
THEORY
DESCRIPTION
REPRESENTATIONAL
They vote to please their constituents.
(DELEGATE)
-­Constituents: people who voted the member into office
ORGANIZATIONAL
They vote to please their party leaders and col eagues.
(PARTISAN)
-­Logrolling: vote trading
ATTITUDINAL
They vote based on their own judgement.
(TRUSTEE)
-­Politico: When a congress member regularly alternates between al three theories due to
circumstance.
-­Most members vote attitudinal y or organizational y unless a majority of constituents
opinions are known and they are paying attention.
INFLUENCING CONGRESS
INFLUENCED BY
DESCRIPTION
Overal priorities for legislation are created, and committee
Political Party
memberships are determined.
People back home may not vote their members back for
Constituents
another term if they disagree with Congress’s output.
These can be critical sources of media or campaign support.
Colleagues & Caucuses
Pressure is applied for loyal votes and the advancement of
their group’s goals.
Interest Groups
Thier access to information, staff members, and campaign
use of Lobbyists
contributions helps influence bil s and their content.
Interest Groups use of
They control votes through pressure and campaign fund
Political Action
access.
Committees (PAC’s)
The level of expertise from staff members on issues can
Staff Members
guided Congress’s votes.
Their reports and recommendations could alter opinions of
Congressional Agencies
Congressional members.
Media access, public support, leadership, and the setting of
The President
national priorities affects Congress’s work.
Independent Agencies &
Vast bureaucracies control the way issues are addressed, the
Executive Agencies
way rules are administered, and the way laws are enforced.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
CONGRESS
CONGRESSIONAL COMMITTEES
TYPE OF COMMITTEE
DESCRIPTION
EXAMPLE
Permanent:
STANDING
(A committee that is there from one
Senate Finance Committee
congress to another)
Senate Select Committee of
SELECT (SPECIAL)
Temporary:
Presidential Campaign
(Appointed for a specific purpose)
Activities
Members are from both the
JOINT
House and the Senate.
Joint Committee on Taxation
(To stop duplication of work)
A joint committee that
CONFERENCE
creates compromise bil s
(reconcile differences)
IMPORTANT CONGRESSIONAL COMMITTEES
HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES
SENATE
NAME
FUNCTION
NAME
FUNCTION
Federal discretionary
Federal expenditures
Appropriations
Appropriations
spending programs are
are control ed here.
set.
Oversight of
Oversight of
Budget
Budget
government agencies
government spending.
and spending is done.
Debate rules, bil
sequence, and rules of
Taxation legislation,
Rules
Finance
amendments for floor
social security.
action are set.
Policy debates and
Taxation legislation,
Foreign
Ways & Means
treaty votes are main
social security.
Relations
duties.
Look into impeachment
Judges and justices are
resolutions and make
Judiciary
Judiciary
questioned and
recommendation to
possibly confirmed.
entire House.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
CONGRESS
HOUSE RULES COMMITTEE
RULE
DESCRIPTION
CLOSED RULE
● Strict time limit for debate.
● Does not al ow amendments.
MODIFIED CLOSED RULE
● Al ows Some Amendments
(RESTRICTIVE RULE)
(Usual y can only add amendments to certain portions of the bil )
SPECIAL RULE
● Sets guidelines time for debate and for
amendments process.
OPEN RULE
● Al ows more time for Debate
● Al ows Amendments
MODIFIED OPEN RULE
● Stricter time for Debate (than open rule permits)
● Al ows Amendments
BYPASSING THE RULES COMMITTEE:
1) A member can move that the rules be suspended, which requires two-­thirds vote 2) A
discharge petition can be filed
3) The House can use the “Calendar Wednesday” procedure (committee can bring up any
bil , but must be done in one day)
LEGISLATIVE COMMITTEE OPTIONS ON BILLS
COMMITTEE ACTION
DESCRIPTION
RECOMMENDATION
Recommend the bil is passed by the entire house of Congress.
Amend or change the bil to their liking before recommending it
AMEND
to Congress. -­Also known as during markup: They are rewriting the bil REJECTION
Vote to kil the bil .
SUBSTITUTION
Substitute an entirely new bil . (Like if they received a pro-­abortion bil , the committee
could report to Congress a bil that was anti-­abortion)
PIGEONHOLE
The bil is ignored and never acted on. (Happens to majority of bil s)
-­Multiple Referral: bil goes to several committees simultaneously. Sequential referral:
Send bil to second committee after first is done.
-­Most bil s deserve their fate of dying in committee. However, if people in Congress are
upset that a bil is stal ed in committee for 30 days (or 7 days in the Rule Committee) a
discharge petition to blast the bil onto the floor.
-­Discharge petition procedure: Majority (218) members sign a discharge petition, the
committee has 7 days to report the bil , if not any member (on 2nd & 4th monday of each
month) can cal for motion to be brought to the floor, if majority agrees the bil is
immediately brought to the floor.
-­Discharge petitions overal are rarely tried and usual y fail. Also it is real y only used in the
House of Representatives due to Senate procedures for adding amendments to bil s easily.
-­Subcommittees (there is like 150 between the 2 houses): Is a division of existing
committee that is formed to address specific issues. They usual y hold informational­gathering activities like public hearings or trips out of Washington to witness areas
affected by legislation.
-­Rider: a bil that has amendments that do not directly relate to the main bil . Christmas
Tree: a bil that has a lot of riders 98
AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
CONGRESS
VOTING METHODS (DONE ON HOUSE & SENATE FLOOR)
VOTING METHOD
DESCRIPTION
Members shout “yea” in approval or “nay” in
VOICE VOTE
disapproval, permitting members to vote unanimously
on bil s. (They do not keep track of who voted for what)
DIVISION VOTE
Members stand and are counted.
(STANDING VOTE)
(They do not keep track of who voted for what)
Members pass between two tel ers, the “yeas” first and
TELLER VOTE
the “nays” second.
(Since 1971, the clerk wil write down how members voted if 20 member request them to
keep track)
ROLL-­CALL VOTE
Members answer “yea” or “nay”
(Can be down if ⅕ request) (Electronic voting system instal ed in 1973)
-­Quorum: minimum number of members must be present for business to be conducted.
(218 for the House & 51 in Senate)
-­Committee of the Whole: In the House only, they need 100 members to form this super
committee which debates & amends the bil . Then the entire House is cal ed back to vote on
yes or no on this newly changed bil .
STAFF MEMBERS
STAFF MEMBERS ROLE
DESCRIPTION
Each Congress member has 17-­40 staffers to help them of
Serve the
which ⅓ of them stay in local office to help their constituents
Constituents
answering mail, handling problems, sending out newsletters,
and meeting with voters.
Assist in
Most Congress members serve on 2 committees and 7
Creating Legislation
subcommittees need help researching and writing legislation.
Some staffers are more like secretaries or personal assistants
Complete Routine Tasks in that they answer phones and pick up dry cleaning.
Attempt to
They give information to reporters and act as sources to help
Influence Media
their boss take credit for this new and important legislation.
Communicate
Meeting with Lobbyist to hear opinions and become informed
with Lobbyists
takes a lot of time so staffers assist by taking meetings.
Communicate with
Deals made regarding voting can be made by two staffers
other Staffers
who do not actual y get to vote.
-­Staffers have a lot of influence in how Congress members vote. They also have made
Congress less col egial and more individual. A Congress member is surrounded by their
staff and so they discuss business with other congress members less.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
CONGRESS
STAFF AGENCIES
STAFF AGENCY
DESCRIPTION
● Created in 1914.
● Responds to a quarter of a mil ion requests from
CONGRESSIONAL
Congress members for information.
RESEARCH
● Conducts non-­partisan studies of public issues
SERVICE
and conducts major research projects for
(CRS)
committees at the request of members.
(Administered by Library of Congress)
● Prepares summaries and tracks progress of al
bil s introduced.
● Created in 1921.
● Independent Agency that audits financial
GOVERNMENT
expenditures of the executive branch and
ACCOUNTABILITY
federal agencies.
OFFICE
● Set government standards for accounting.
(GAO)
● It provides a variety of legal opinions.
● It settles claims against the government.
● It conducts studies upon congressional request.
● Created in 1974.
● Evaluates the economic effect of different
CONGRESSIONAL
spending programs and to provide information
BUDGET
on the cost of proposed policies.
OFFICE
● It is responsible for analyzing the president's
(GBO)
budget and economic projections.
● Provides members with a valuable second
opinion to use in budget debates.
-­Between congressional staffers and staff agencies Congress was actual y the most rapidly
growing bureaucracy in Washington until the 1990’s.
BILLS & RESOLUTIONS
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
A proposed Law.
BILL
(Public bills: deals with everyone)
(Private bills: deals with specific, private, personal, or local matters) JOINT RESOLUTION
Requires approval of both houses & president
(except constitutional amendments which needs no presidential approval.
CONCURRENT RESOLUTION Both houses express an opinion. (Freedom Fries) (Not Law)
This deals with procedure in the one house which
SIMPLE RESOLUTION
passed it.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
CONGRESS
HOW A BILL BECOMES A LAW
LEGISLATIVE ACTION
● INTRODUCE BILL
Only a Senator can propose in the Senate.
Only a House member can propose in the
House of Representatives.
● COMMITTEE ACTION
They can pass, slightly change, substitute
entirely or ignore.
● FLOOR ACTION
Debate and Vote (MAYBE Amend, depends
on Rules Committee rules in the House)
● BILL GOES TO OTHER
HOUSE
If it started in House then it must go to Senate
or vice versa.
● COMMITTEE ACTION
They can pass, slightly change, substitute
entirely or ignore.
● FLOOR ACTION
Debate and Vote (MAYBE Amend, depends
on Rules Committee rules in the House)
● CONFERENCE
COMMITTEE
A type of Joint Committee that produces 1
compromise bil (when House & Senate
produce 2 bil s that are different from one
another)
● BOTH HOUSES VOTE
Conference committee changed bil again, but
no bil goes to the President until a majority of
both houses approve.
● APPROVED BILL GOES
TO THE PRESIDENT
PRESIDENTIAL ACTION
TWO WAYS FOR PRESIDENT TO PASS IT
● Sign the bil into law
● If Congress is in session, wait 10 days and do nothing and the bil wil pass.
TWO WAYS FOR PRESIDENT TO STOP IT
● Veto bil (Attach a veto message saying why it was denied) (⅔ of Congress could override
veto)
● Pocket Veto: If Congress it out of session, wait 10 days and do nothing and the bil wil die.
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GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
CONGRESS
CONGRESSIONAL CHECKS
IF THIS BRANCH
DID THIS
THEN CONGRESS COULD
EXECUTIVE
override veto with ⅔ vote of
Veto a bil
(President)
both houses
EXECUTIVE
appoint a judge or
approve or deny
(President)
department head
EXECUTIVE
set up a treaty
ratify or deny
(Department of State)
Oversight: They hold
investigative hearings and
have a program review to
EXECUTIVE
interpret or enforce a law in
possibly:
(Department of Health & Human
a way other than Congress
●
pass new legislation that
Services)
intended
alters activities or discretion
●
refuse to appropriate funds
●
abolish existing programs
or agencies
EXECUTIVE
Implements a major rule or
Congressional review:
(Federal Communication
regulation that Congress
Congress has 60 days to
Commission)
does not agree with
disapprove (with presidential consent)
EXECUTIVE
commits treason, bribery, or
impeach (House) and convict
(President)
other high crimes
(Senate)
War Powers Act 1973:
●
President must notify
Congress within 48 hours if
EXECUTIVE
Send troops to France
our troops are sent to
(President)
#freedomfries
foreign soil.
●
President must withdraw
troops within 60 days
unless Congress approves.
●
Change the size of the
Supreme Court
●
Change the appel ate
Repeatedly throws out laws
SUPREME COURT
jurisdiction
as unconstitutional
●
Change the structure of the
federal court system
●
Change the judiciary
budgets
102
THE
PRESIDENCY
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GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
PRESIDENCY
QUALIFICATIONS FOR PRESIDENCY
COMMON CHARACTERISTICS
CONSTITUTIONAL
OF OUR PRESIDENTS
QUALIFICATIONS
(THESE ARE NOT OFFICIAL QUALIFICATIONS)
(ALSO PRESIDENTS HAVE BEEN ELECTED THAT DID
NOT SHARE THESE CHARACTERISTICS)
● Male
● European American
● Middle-­Aged
● Wealthy
● At least 35 years old
● Protestant Christian
● Native born citizen
● Col ege Graduate
● Resident for 14 years
● Healthy
● Attractive (Some seem ugly to Meenan)
● Married
● Leadership or Military Skil s
● Debates Wel
-­Youngest elected were Teddy Roosevelt and JFK at age 43. Oldest were Harrison &
Reagan in their 60’s.
-­Television had large impact on campaigns, now they need to look good (or presidential)
and debate wel .
-­There are only 3 qualifications. Legal y they are no other reasons to exclude someone
from running for President.
PRESIDENTIAL BENEFITS
BENEFITS
●
Live in mansion (You know, the White
●
Secret Service protection (guaranteed for
House)
10 years after term)A White House staff of
●
Salary of $400,000 annual y
over 400 people
●
Expense account of $50,000
●
Vacation home: Camp David
●
Travel expenses of $100,000
●
Personal airplane: Air Force One
●
A pension on retirement equal to cabinet
●
Personal chef
member
●
Personal doctor
PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS
TWO MAIN PHASES
DESCRIPTION
Candidates try to win a party’s nomination. There are caucuses and
NOMINATIONS
primaries held in the States where citizens of both parties vote for
their pick. Each party has set a number of delegates a candidate must receive in order to
win the party nomination.
Electoral College: Electors (each state has same number as
GENERAL ELECTION Senators and House Members) of each state select the President.
Our votes determine how our State's’ Electors wil vote. The
candidate that receives at least 270 Electoral Votes wins
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GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
PRESIDENCY
PERSONALITY EXPANDS THE POWER OF THE PRESIDENCY
PRESIDENT
WHAT THEY DONE DID
●
Military man with headstrong demeanor
●
Served in House and Senate
●
Used veto 12 times (more than al predecessors combined)
ANDREW JACKSON
●
Opposed the National Bank
●
Led the Southern Expedition that evacuated Native
Americans
●
Popular among farmers and workers in an age of expanded
suffrage
●
General y he assumed sweeping presidential powers
(breaking constitution provisions) after the South seceded in
order to save the union:
●
Assembled the militia
●
Enlarged the Army and Navy beyond congressional
appropriation
ABRAHAM LINCOLN
●
Suspended habeas corpus: people can explain to Court why
they should not be detained.
●
Arrested ‘disloyal’ people
●
Asserted right to proclaim martial law behind the lines
●
Arrested people without a warrant
●
Seized property
●
Suppressed newspapers
●
Brash forward manner earned him respect
●
Rough rider with military experience in the Spanish American
War.
THEODORE
●
Progressive actions for environmental conservation and
ROOSEVELT
against corporate giants
●
“Speak softly and carry a big stick”
●
His stewardship theory: belief that President can do anything
unless the Constitution says otherwise
●
Progressive policies included 8 hour work day and to prvent
child labor abuses
●
He led the country into World War I and was seen as
WOODROW WILSON
successful
●
He became sick and could not get his post war plans
accomplished (like getting Senate to ratify the League of
Nations) and finished his term as invalid.
●
New Deal policies fundamental y changed the role of
FRANKLIN DELANO
government (minimum wage, social security, public works)
●
He moved to pack the Supreme Court with supporters
ROOSEVELT
●
Mobilized a nation during World War II
●
Relocated Japanese Americans in the name of security
COLD WAR &
●
1974 in peacetime created Central Intel igence Agency to spy
overseas to anticipate problems
THROUGHOUT 1990’S
●
Overthrow leaders and replace with more favorable ones
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GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
PRESIDENCY
CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENTS DEFINING THE PRESIDENCY
AMENDMENT
DESCRIPTION
Electors vote for President and Vice President.
12TH AMENDMENT (1804) (Problem arose due to political parties running two
candidates in 1800 when Jefferson & Burr tied)
20TH AMENDMENT (1933) Inauguration date moved from March 4 to January 20.
Limits a president’s tenure to two terms or 10 years.
22ND AMENDMENT (1951) (Only one did more than 2 terms, FDR was elected 4 times) (A
vice president can take over for a president who has died for two years without it counting
as one of their terms, hence they could serve 2 + 4 + 4 = 10
years max)
23RD AMENDMENT (1961) Awards electors to the District of Columbia (Washington, DC)
(They currently have non voting members in Congress)
25TH AMENDMENT (1967) Addresses presidential vacancy and disability
-­Remember that amendments are proposed by ⅔ of Congress and approved by ¾ of State
Legislatures.
-­A presidential term is four years as stated in Article 2 of Constitution (this is not real y on
any chart because, Come on! This is AP!
PRESIDENTIAL POWERS
TYPE OF
COMPLICATED
STRAIGHT FORWARD
POWER
NUANCE
-­Executive order: a directive, rule, or
regulation that has the effect of law
-­Presidents can remove officials that
EXECUTIVE
(used to carry out laws) (Also known as
were appointed except from
Ordinance Power from Constitution & Acts of
POWERS
Congress)
commissions (because they are supposed
-­Appoint top officials to agencies and
to be more removed from politics)
departments
-­Make treaty (with Senate approval)
-­War Powers Act (1973):
-­Executive Agreements (no approval
1) President must report entering another
DIPLOMATIC/
needed from Congress)
nation to Congress within 48 hours
MILITARY POWERS -­Power of Recognition
2) Congress must approve extending past 60
(decides if
days
countries exist)
3) Congress can pass concurrent resolution
-­Commander in chief
to end combat
-­Attempts to influence Congress
LEGISLATIVE
-­Signs and Vetoes bil s
members (& public support) to pass
POWERS
legislation (State of the Union Address,
bul y pulpit)
JUDICIAL POWERS -­Appoints Judges
-­Presidents general y pardon criminals
-­Clemency Powers
near end of last term
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GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
PRESIDENCY
PRESIDENTIAL ROLES
ROLE
IN
DESCRIPTION OF ROLES/POWERS
CONSTITUTION
● Persuades citizens & law-­makers to
Art 2
support bil s with bully pulpit: (When presidents
Chief Legislator
Sec 3
take advantage of the prestige and visibility of the
(Art I, Sec 7)
presidency to mobilize the American people)
● Signs or vetoes legislation
● Appoints diplomats & ambassadors (Senate
confirms)
● Creates Treaties (Senate confirms)
Art 2
Chief Diplomat
● Creates Executive Agreements
Sec 2
(An
Clause 2
agreement between two nations that does not require
Senate approval)
● Power of Recognition: The president
decides if other nations are nations.
● In charge of the nation’s military
● However, Only Congress can declare war
Art 2
Commander in Chief
Sec 2
● Also limited by the War Power Act of 1973
Clause 1
(Must alert Congress of military action within 48 hours.
Congress can vote to approve or disapprove within 60
days) (Some argue this Act is unconstitutional)
● Ceremonial head of government.(Acts as a
Chief of State
Art 2
Sec 3
symbol leader of the country, host officials from other
nations)
-­Clemency powers for federal crimes:
● Reprieve: to postpone punishment
Art 2
Chief Magistrate
● Pardon: to forgive for crime (no punishment)
Sec 2
Clause 1
● Commute: to reduce a punishment
● Amnesty: to pardon an entire group of law
violators
● The head of the executive branch. (Appoints
Chief Executive
Art 2
Sec 1 & 3
diplomats, judges, and agency heads with Senate
Confirmation)
Chief Administrator
Art 2
● Director of the bureaucracy (2.7 mil ion civilians
Sec 3
work to carry out laws Congress creates, spending tril ions)
Chief Citizen
● President should look out for al american
NOPE
citizens, not just the majority.
● Presidents are the most famous/powerful
Chief of Party
NOPE
person in their political party. (Hence they are
considered a leader)
-­Many books wil merge chief executive and chief administrator as one job, they may refer
to either job title, it is way annoying.
-­President could convene congress. Not important now because Congress now sits in year­round sessions.
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GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
PRESIDENCY
PRESIDENTS OPTIONS FOR BILLS
IF CONGRESS PASSES A
BILL AND THE
THEN HE/SHE CAN
PRESIDENT
Sign the bil into law.
APPROVES OF BILL
Do nothing and the bil wil become law
(BUT ONLY If Congress is in session)
Veto or refuse to sign the bil (Attach a veto message
declaring why they refuse to sign the bil into law)
DISAPPROVES OF BILL Pocket Veto: Do nothing and the bil wil NOT
become law (BUT ONLY if Congress is out of session)
PRESIDENTS POWER TO SAY NO
POWER
DESCRIPTION
EFFECTIVENESS
-­Veto message: signs a statement and
sends to Congress explaining why they
didn’t like the bil enough to sign into law.
-­Substantial Power
-­Pocket Veto: Doing nothing to a bil for
-­2,500 Bil s were vetoed between
Veto
10 days while Congress it out of session.
Washington & Clinton.
-­Line item Veto: vetoing part of spending
-­Only 4 percent were overridden.
bil while approving the rest (Enhanced
-­Threat of veto is powerful.
Rescission existed in 1996, very similar,
but Supreme Court says it was
unconstitutional.
United States V. Nixon (1974), the
Supreme Court decided that executive
Executive
Essential y means that a President does
privilege does exist especial y for
not have to divulge information that was
Privilege
military matters, but this does not
shared at meetings in the White House.
excuse a President from judicial action
under al circumstances.
Budget Reform Act of 1974 states
Impoundment When a president does not spend money that a President must spend
money of Funds
that Congress has appropriated.
that Congress appropriates. Congress
(Presidents have been doing this since Jefferson)
must approve delay or not spending $.
Supreme Court has al owed signing
They are used to express presidential
Signing
statements to clarify the unclear
attitudes about law, to tel the executive
legislative intent of law, it has never
Statements
branch how to implement it, or to express
given a clear verdict about
belief a law is unconstitutional.
constitutional significance.
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GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
PRESIDENCY
THE OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT
OVERALL
EXAMPLES
DESCRIPTION
● Staffers in include:
President’s closest assistants
Press secretary, chief
WHITE HOUSE with offices in the White
of staff, chief legal
House. The president can pick
OFFICE
counsel, congressional
whoever they want for the
liaisons, national
jobs.
security advisor
Agencies report to the
● Office of Management
THE
President and perform staff
and Budget
EXECUTIVE
services for but are not
● The National Security
OFFICE OF THE located in the White House.
Council
The president picks top
PRESIDENT
● Council of Economic
officials but the Senate must
Affairs
confirm them.
The heads of the federal
● Secretary of State
THE CABINET departments. The president
● Secretary of Treasury
picks but the Senate must
● Secretary of Defense
confirm.
● Attorney General
Independent Executive
● Environmental
Agencies: Functions much
Protection Agency
like Cabinet but are smal er.
● Federal Reserve
Independent Regulatory
System
INDEPENDENT Commissions: Regulate
● Federal
aspects of economy. Largely
AGENCIES
Communications
beyond the reach of President.
Commission
Government Corporations:
● Federal Deposit
Carry out business like
Insurance Corporation
activities in order to provide
● U.S. Postal Service
service.
● Amtrak
-­Staff Agencies service in a support capacity by offering advice and assistance.
-­Line Agencies actual y perform the tasks for which the organization exists.
-­The president is the head of the bureaucracy which essential y is the agencies and
departments that make up the executive branch which has the primary function of
enforcing laws created by Congress.
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GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
PRESIDENCY
PRESIDENTIAL MANAGEMENT STYLES
MANAGEMENT STYLE
DESCRIPTION
Rigid top-­down approach that features the President at
the top of the pyramid. Chief of staff is next in line,
Pyramid
fol owed by department heads and then the lesser
offices.(Critics argue this system can lead to a president being isolated as they can be cut off
of information as the Chief of Staff acts as a gatekeeper) This style is like a large wheel with
many spokes. The
president is the wheel’s hub while the principal officers
Circular
are at the many points along the rim. (Critics argue that this
open communication can give staffers too much access to the president
resulting in a groupthink)
Groups (subordinates, cabinet officers, committees, and
Ad Hoc
tasks forces) report directly to the president. (Critics argue
that this system is disorganized and out of control)
-­Presidents create a management style that reflects their persona and their operation. A
president’s experience, personality, and chosen appointees help to determine White House
character and management style.
WHITE HOUSE OFFICE
STAFF POSITIONS
DESCRIPTION
●
They are responsible for the smooth operation of the
Chief of Staff
White House, acting as a gatekeeper for the President.
●
Some do the firing, clear up misstatements and corrects
errors.
●
This job exists because the Attorney General is busy
managing a department with more than 100,000 people.
Chief Legal Counsel
●
Available to give President advice on constitutionality of
program ideas
●
Reviews legislation, treaties or executive agreements and
pardon recommendations
Communications Staff
●
Press secretary: expresses presidents opinions
●
Also speechwriters & public relations experts.
Congressional Liaisons
●
A team to draft bil s and assist in gaining support in
Congress for the legislation the President wants.
●
This person oversees the National Security Council.
National Security Adviser
●
They coordinate information coming from the CIA, the
military, and the State Department.
-­Some books describe the White House office as the nerve system of the Executive Office of
the President.
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GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
PRESIDENCY
EXECUTIVE OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT
OFFICE
DESCRIPTION
● Assemble and analyze the figures that into the
Office of Management
budget the President submits to Congress
and Budget
● Studies organization and operations of executive
branch
● Helps the President write executive orders
● Consists of the president’s principal advisers on
National Security Council
matters of national security, defense,
intel igence, and war. (Today has 250 people working
as support)
Council of
● Assists the president in preparing an annual
Economic Advisers
economic report for Congress.
● Assesses federal government spending
● Negotiates treaties regarding international
Office of U.S. Trade
commerce.
Representation
● Connects with business interests and works to
formulate international law.
VICE PRESIDENTS
THE POINT OF
DESCRIPTION
THE VICE PRESIDENT
Presidents like to choose a running mate, during the
BALANCE THE TICKET campaign that wil please a region of the United States to help them
gain support.
The Vice President is technical y the presiding officer in
PRESIDE OVER SENATE the Senate. They vote only if there is a tie. They are usual y not in
the Senate chamber.
Some Presidents real y like their vice presidents. They
SERVE AT DISCRETION put them on tasks forces and invite them to be on the OF
PRESIDENT
National Security Council. Some do not like them or
have them do anything.
OH NO, THE
The Vice President is next in line if anything happens
to the President. (They also serve as acting president
PRESIDENT IS DEAD!
if they go into surgery or something)
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GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
PRESIDENCY
PRESIDENTIAL LINE OF SUCCESSION
WHAT HAPPENS...
THEN THIS PERSON TAKES OVER
IF PRESIDENT DIES? The Vice President becomes President.
IF ONLY THE VICE
The President picks someone and Congress confirms.
PRESIDENT DIES?
This the line of succession (passed in 1947):
●
Vice President
●
Speaker of the House
●
President Pro tempore of the Senate
●
Secretary of State
●
Secretary of Treasury
●
Secretary of Defense
IF A LOT OF PEOPLE
●
Attorney General
START GETTING
●
Secretary of the Interior
●
Secretary of Agriculture
ASSASSINATED?
●
Secretary of Commerce
(HERE IS THE WHOLE LIST)
●
Secretary of Labor
●
Secretary of Health and Human Services
●
Secretary of Housing and Urban Development
●
Secretary of Transportation
●
Secretary of Energy
●
Secretary of Education
●
Secretary of Veterans Affair
●
Secretary of Homeland Security
-­What if al 19 people get assassinated? I don’t know, anarchy???
-­The line of Succession starts with VP, then top leaders in Congress, and then ends with the
secretaries of the departments in order of creation.
-­So far 8 Presidents have died in office from il ness or assassination.
-­So when Nixon was about to resign, his VP quit. Then Nixon picked Ford to be Vice
President. Then Nixon quit. Thus Ford picked another VP after becoming President.
(Sidenote: He pardoned Nixon)
THE FIRST LADY
THE LADY
WHAT THEY DID
Edith Bolling Galt Wilson When her husband was paralyzed she became his surrogate and
decided who could see him.
Eleanor Roosevelt
She wrote for a national paper, traveled and lectured. Later
appointed for the United Nations.
Hillary Clinton
Started on task force for Healthcare. After it did not pass she
took on less strenuous and divisive jobs.
-­Some first ladies are seen as more powerful than others. But modern first ladies are
supposed to take on at least on cause and act as spokesperson for it. They have their own
office and communications team to help them utilize the media.
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GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
PRESIDENCY
DIVIDED GOVERNMENT
PARTY CONTROL
DESCRIPTION
EFFECT
Just because one party
controls both does not
UNIFIED
The same party controls
real y mean that legislation
the White House and both
GOVERNMENT
wil pass easily. There are
houses of Congress.
different factions within a
party.
One party controls the
DIVIDED
Gridlock stops only the
White House and another
most costly or polarizing
GOVERNMENT
party controls one or both
legislation.
houses of Congress.
18 out of 28 congressional elections from 1952-­2008 have produced divided government.
-­Some political scientists argue that gridlock is a good thing.
THE PRESIDENT AS A POLICY MAKER
CATEGORY
DESCRIPTION
The President must get people to agree with
PROPOSING
him/her regarding policy issues so their ideas can
LEGISLATION
become law. (These people include the politicians inside
Washington, D.C., politicians outside Washington, D.C., and
the general public)
The President (with help of Office of Management and Budget)
submits a budget to Congress. But Congress has
BUDGET PROCESS
complete power to fund it. Congress creates
appropriation bil to pay for programs and to carry
out laws.
A rule or regulation issued by the President that
has the effect of law. Some are issued to help
EXECUTIVE ORDER
clarify or implement legislation enacted by
congress, other executive orders have the effect
of making new policy.
-­To gain support for legislation that the President wants, he/she wil often try to mobilize
the American People. Thus Congress members wil do what the President wants because
their constituents demand it. The Bully Pulpit: is when presidents use the prestige and
visibility of the office to gain public support for their policy programs.
-­Popularity of a president does make a difference regarding how effective they can
persuade the public.
-­Executive Orders can be seen as unconstitutional by Supreme Court, like any government
action.
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GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
PRESIDENCY
PRESIDENTIAL PROGRAM RESTRAINT
TYPE OF RESTRAINT
DESCRIPTION
ADVERSE REACTION
The public may dislike the president’s
program ideas.
Presidents work an average of 90 hours a
TIME RESTRAINT
week but they can stil only get so much
accomplished. Many groups want
attention.
No President plans on 9/11 or recession
UNEXPECTED CRISIS
to take place during their presidency but it
happens. They have to deal with issues
they have not chosen.
BUDGET RESTRAINT
Congress has the final say on spending
bil s (appropriations).
114
THE
BUREAUCRACY
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GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
BUREAUCRACY
FEATURES OF A BUREAUCRACY
FEATURE
DESCRIPTION
Hierarchical Authority Structure in which one person at the top is in charge and there are
subsequent levels with less power.
Job Specialization
People are experts in particular fields.
Formalized Rules
There is system for hiring and firing each bureaucrat.
-­Bureaucracy: a large complex administrative structures that handles the everyday
business of an organization.
-­The bureaucracy is sometimes referred to as the “fourth branch” of our government. It is
real y departments and agencies that are part of the executive branch, headed by the
President, that carries out the laws that Congress passes.
-­Our bureaucracy has grown over time, especial y with the New Deal during the Great
Depression.
SPOILS SYSTEM TO MERIT SYSTEM
GENERAL
SPECIFIC DESCRIPTION
SYSTEM
DESCRIPTION
WITH TERMS
This system existed in the United States, legal y
starting in 1820 with the Tenure Office Act. The
Spoils System
Friends &
new president could fire the old president's
supporters get jobs appointments and select friends that helped get
them elected.
Congress passed the Pendleton Civil Service Act
in 1833 to prevent the constant rewarding of party
Qualified people
members. This included written exams for
get jobs because
application and created the bipartisan Civil
Merit System
due to their
Service Commission to oversee the process.
education and/or
This coincided with specialization needed to
experience.
regulate an economy during the Industrial period.
In 1939 and 1940 Congress passed the Hatch Act
which prohibited federal workers from being directly
-­”To the victor belongs the spoils” Andrew Jackson liked the spoils system.
-­In 1881, Charles Guiteau tried to persuade President Garfield for job. After Garfield
refused, he shot him to death. The renewed reformers desire for government jobs to be
given based on merit, skil , and experience
-­In 1939 & 1940 Congress passed the Hatch Act which prohibited federal workers from
being directly involved with campaigns. This interfered with first amendment. Now they
can express opinions but they cannot use their influence of their position on elections.
-­Bureaucrat is general y referred to an appointed official. They are selected by President
and confirmed by the Senate.
Only top government positions are selected by this. Most go through the Civil Service
Commision. Other bureaucrats include anyone in the executive branch (including
bureaucracy) that carry out some decision or apply some law (administrators, lawyers,
doctors, educators, plumbers, carpenters, drivers).
-­The competitive service includes jobs that require some type of exam or competitive
hiring process.
-­The excepted service include al the the others, providing hiring options when the
competitive service is not practical.
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BUREAUCRACY
BUREAUCRACY GENERAL OVERVIEW
OVERALL
EXAMPLES
DESCRIPTION
● Staffers in include:
President’s closest assistants
Press secretary, chief
WHITE HOUSE with offices in the White
of staff, chief legal
House. The president can pick
OFFICE
counsel, congressional
whoever they want for the
liaisons, national
jobs.
security advisor
Agencies report to the
● Office of Management
THE
President and perform staff
and Budget
EXECUTIVE
services for but are not
● The National Security
OFFICE OF THE located in the White House.
Council
The president picks top
PRESIDENT
● Council of Economic
officials but the Senate must
Affairs
confirm them.
The heads of the federal
● Secretary of State
THE CABINET departments. The president
● Secretary of Treasury
picks but the Senate must
● Secretary of Defense
confirm.
● Attorney General
Independent Executive
● Environmental
Agencies: Functions much
Protection Agency
like Cabinet but are smal er.
● Federal Reserve
Independent Regulatory
System
INDEPENDENT Commissions: Regulate
● Federal
AGENCIES
aspects of economy.
Communications
Commission
Government Corporations:
● Federal Deposit
Carry out business like
Insurance Corporation
activities in order to provide
● U.S. Postal Service
service.
● Amtrak
-­Staff Agencies service in a support capacity by offering advice and assistance.
-­Line Agencies actual y perform the tasks for which the organization exists.
-­The president is the head of the bureaucracy which essential y is the agencies and
departments that make up the executive branch which has the primary function of
enforcing laws created by Congress.
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GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
BUREAUCRACY
WHITE HOUSE OFFICE
STAFF POSITIONS
DESCRIPTION
●
They are responsible for the smooth operation of the
Chief of Staff
White House, acting as a gatekeeper for the President.
●
Some do the firing, clear up misstatements and
corrects errors.
●
This job exists because the Attorney General is busy
managing a department with more than 100,000
people.
Chief Legal Counsel
●
Available to give President advice on constitutionality
of program ideas
●
Reviews legislation, treaties or executive agreements
and pardon recommendations
Communications Staff
●
Press secretary: expresses presidents opinions
●
Also speechwriters & public relations experts.
Congressional Liaisons
●
A team to draft bil s and assist in gaining support in
Congress for the legislation the President wants.
National Security
●
This person oversees the National Security Council.
●
They coordinate information coming from the CIA, the
Adviser
military, and the State Department.
-­Some books describe the White House office as the nerve system of the Executive Office of
the President.
EXECUTIVE OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT
OFFICE
DESCRIPTION
●
Assemble and analyze the figures that into the budget
Office of Management
the President submits to Congress
and Budget
●
Studies organization and operations of executive branch
●
Helps the President write executive orders
National Security
●
Consists of the president’s principal advisers on matters
of national security, defense, intel igence, and war.
Council
(Today has 250 people working as support)
Council of
●
Assists the president in preparing an annual economic
report for Congress.
Economic Advisers
●
Assesses federal government spending
Office of U.S. Trade
●
Negotiates treaties regarding international commerce.
●
Connects with business interests and works to
Representation
formulate international law.
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GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
BUREAUCRACY
THE DEPARTMENTS
IMPORTANT
DEPARTMENT
PRINCIPAL FUNCTION
AGENCIES
-­Advises the President of foreign policy
-­Foreign Service
State (1789)
-­Negotiates agreements with foreign countries
-­Bureau of Diplomatic Security
-­Represents the United States abroad & international organizations
-­Bureau of Consular Affairs
-­Produces coins and bil
-­Internal Revenue Service (IRS)
Treasury (1789)
-­Col ects Taxes
-­US Mint
-­Borrows money & manages public debts
-­Bureau of Public Debt
Defense (1789)
-­Provides military forces to deter war and provides security
-­Joint Chiefs of Staff
-­Army -­Navy -­Air Force
-­Prosecutes those accused of violating federal law
-­Federal Bureau of Investigation
Justice (1870)
-­Enforces federal laws & operates federal prisons
(FBI)
-­Represents the U.S. in court
-­Bureau of Prisons
Interior (1849)
-­Manages public lands, indian lands, and national parks
-­National Park Service
-­Bureau of Land Management
-­Food & Safety Inspection
Agriculture (1889)
-­Manages nation's forests
-­Inspects food
Service
-­Farm service Agency
-­Conducts census
-­Bureau of Census
Commerce (1903)
-­Promotes international trade
-­Patent and Trademark Office
-­Grants patents & registers trademarks
-­Economic Development Admin
-­Occupational Safety and
Labor (1913)
-­Enforces federal laws on minimum wage, maximum hours, and working
conditions
Health Administration (OSHA)
-­Bureau of Labor Statistics
Health & Human
-­Enforces pure food and drug laws
-­Food and Drug Administration
-­Administers Medicare & Medicaid
-­Centers for Disease Control
Services (1953)
-­Conducts programs to prevent and control disease
and Prevention
Housing and Urban
-­Office of Fair Housing and
-­Operates home-­financing & public housing programs
Equal Opportunity
Development (1965)
-­Office of Housing
Transportation (1967) -­Administers programs to promote and regulate highways, mass
transit,
-­Federal Highway Admin
railroads, waterway, air travel, and oil and gas pipelines
-­Maritime Administration
Energy (1977)
-­Promotes production of renewable energy, fossil fuels & nuclear energy
-­Regional Power Admin
Education (1979)
-­Administers federal aid to schools & conducts educational research
-­Office of Postsecondary Ed.
Veterans Affair
-­Administers benefits, pensions, and medical programs to veterans
-­Veteran Benefits Administration
(1988)
-­National Cemetery Admin
Homeland Security
-­Emergency preparedness and response for chemical, biological,
-­Coast Guard
-­U.S. Citizenship and
(2002)
radiological & nuclear defense
Immigration Services
The cabinet: is a nickname for the 15 departments that advise the President. They are
considered important and have numerous agency within them. Department is the only
name or label of importance. The other terms (like: commission, administration, bureau)
are fancy names for agency.
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GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
BUREAUCRACY
INDEPENDENT AGENCIES
TYPE OF
EXAMPLE
DESCRIPTION
EXAMPLES
AGENCY
DESCRIPTIONS
Environmental
Writes and enforces
Protection Agency
regulations to protect
(EPA)
the environment.
Independent
The construction and
Functions much
General Services
Executive
operation of public
like Cabinet but are Administration (GSA) buildings
Agency
smal er
National Aeronautics Scientific research
and Space
and in charge of
Administration
civilian space
(NASA)
program
Supervises banking
Regulate aspects
The Federal Reserve system;; regulates
of economy
Board (The Fed)
money supply, use of
credit in economy
Quasi Legislative
Independent (create regulations)
Regulates securities,
Securities and
(discretionary authority)
other financial
Regulatory
Exchange
markets, investment
Commission
Commissions Quasi Judicial
companies, brokers
(Decide disputes over
regulations)
Regulates interstate
Federal
and foreign
Largely beyond the Communications
communications by
reach of President
Commission
radio, television,
satel ites, and cable
U.S. Postal Service
Deliver mail
Carry out business
like activities in
Federal Deposit
Government order to provide
Insurance
Insure bank deposits
service
Corporation (FDIC)
Corporations
President does
National Railroad
Provide intercity rail
have more control
Passenger
passenger service
Corporation (Amtrak)
-­Independent Agencies are located outside of the Departments. They are separate because
1)They do not fit into one wel 2) They are outside to protect them from partisan and
pressure politics 3) on accident.
-­There are over 150 agencies outside of the cabinet departments. They were al created by
Congress with a purpose.
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GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
BUREAUCRACY
BUREAUCRATIC PATHOLOGIES
PATHOLOGY
DESCRIPTION
RED TAPE
Complex rules and procedures leads to fil s and wait
times before action can take place.
CONFLICT
Agencies work at cross-­purposes with one another
DUPLICATION
Two agencies may be given the same tasks from
Congress.
IMPERIALISM
Agencies grow without regard to benefits or costs.
Some agencies spend more than they need. (They are
WASTE
not worried about keeping costs down because it is just the
government’s money)
-­When people are concerned with government waste they put in rules and procedures to
monitor it, thus creating red tape. if they want to speed up time and efficiency they have to
cut rules and procedures which leads to waste. Paradox!!!
IRON TRIANGLES
● Congressional
Committee
● Interest Group
● Agency in Bureaucracy
Iron Triangles is the name for when
the three members (listed above)
stabilized and helped one another.
Issue Networks: include members of
iron triangle and lawyers,
consultants, academics, public
relations specialists ,and the courts.
They have broken the power of Iron
Triangles. (Pluralism Elite View: in which
competitive groups stop each other from
obtaining constant control in the government)
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
BUREAUCRACY
BUREAUCRACY MAKES POLICY
TERM
ALSO KNOWN AS
DESCRIPTION
-­Many agencies can make
Rule
Quasi-­Legislative Power Regulations (which have force of law)
Making
(like the FCC makes regulations on what
cannot be said on the air)
Administrative
-­Bureaucratic agency settle
Quasi-­Judicial Power
Adjudication
disputes (much like a court) (such as
when FCC ruled Timberlake broke rules on TV)
-­Administrative Discretion (or discretionary authority): The ability to make choices
concerning the best way to implement congressional or executive intentions. This can be
done on formal and informal levels. IRS agents make decisions during personal audits and
Department of Justice lawyers make decisions about whether or not prosecute someone.
CONTROL OF BUREAUCRACY
BRANCH
DESCRIPTION
● Appoint and remove agency heads
EXECUTIVE
● Reorganize the bureaucracy (with congressional approval)
CONTROL
● Make changes in the agency’s annual budget
proposals (Congress has the final say)
● Issue executive orders
Al of these are referred to as oversight function:
● Pass Legislation that alters activities
● Abolish existing programs
CONGRESSIONAL
● Refuse to appropriate certain funds
CONTROL
● Investigate bureaucratic activities
● Force bureaucrats to testify at hearings
● Influence presidential appointments for top
bureaucratic positions.
● Write legislation to limit the bureaucracy's discretion
● Rule on whether bureaucrats have acted within the
law and require policy changes to comply with law
JUDICIAL
● Force the bureaucracy to respect the rights of
CONTROL
individuals through hearings and other proceedings.
● Rule on constitutionality of al chal enge rules and
regulations.
The bureaucracy is usual y considered part of the executive branch. But some agencies are
far removed from the President.
So it is also considered “the fourth branch” of our government. That is why this chart is
showing some power the president possesses over the bureaucracy.
122
THE
JUDICIARY
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GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
JUDICIARY
CLASSIFICATION OF LEGAL ISSUES
TYPE OF CASE
DESCRIPTION
CIVIL CASES
covers issues of claims, suits, contracts, and licenses.
CRIMINAL CASES
covers il egal actions or wrongful acts and can result in
fines and imprisonment
KINDS OF LAW
TYPE OF LAW
DESCRIPTION
COMMON LAW
laws that are derived from precedents set by courts
of the past.
STATUTORY LAW
laws created by legislative bodies.
ADMINISTRATIVE LAW “laws” that agencies create as rules and regulations that concern
their area of influence.
CONSTITUTIONAL LAW laws created due to the interpretation of the constitution
established under the judicial review.
DUAL COURT SYSTEM
FEDERAL LAW
STATE LAW
Exclusive Jurisdiction:
State Jurisdiction:
●
Federal civil disputes are heard in specific federal
●
Most civil disputes between citizens are
courts or federal district courts
settle in state civil courts
●
Federal criminal cases are usual y heard in federal
●
Most criminal disputes in the United
district courts
States are settled in state criminal
courts
Examples of exclusive jurisdiction:
● Appeals from state courts are sent to
-­Citizens of one state sue citizens
-­Conflicts with federal officials,
state supreme courts (usual y thought
of another
agencies and federal government
-­Counterfeiting U.S. currency
-­U.S. Border issues
of as “court as last resort”)
-­Kidnapping
-­Crossing state lines to commit
-­Mail fraud
crimes
-­Interstate trade conflicts
-­Denying civil rights of citizens
-­National banking conflicts
-­Conflicts or patents & copyrights
-­Jurisdiction is the right to hear a case.
-­States have the power to create their own laws so they need their own court system. The
national government has the power to create laws so they also need their own court
system.
-­Concurrent Resolution is when Federal Law and State Law overlap. If a citizen commits
a crime that violates both federal and state laws, the case might be heard by either level of
the judicial system.
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GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
JUDICIARY
LAYERS OF FEDERAL COURTS
TYPE OF
DESCRIPTION OF
LAYER
JURISDICTION
JURISDICTION
There are 94 district courts
in across the United States.
District Courts
Original Jurisdiction
This is where a case is
heard for the first time.
Created by Article III of
Constitution.
There are 12 courts of
Courts of Appeals
Appel ate Jurisdiction
appeals. A previously tried
(Circuit Courts)
case to check for fairness.
Created by Congress.
Some cases can be
Supreme Court
Original Jurisdiction
appealed to Supreme Court
Appel ate Jurisdiction
which has the final say.
Created by Congress.
-­Over 90% of the Supreme Court's cases are ones being reviewed (appel ate jurisdiction)
but there are some cases are being heard for the first time in the Supreme Court (original
jurisdiction). Cases that may start with the Supreme Court are ones that involve
ambassadors, public ministers or state suing other states. In modern times, such cases are
usual y limited to state disputes concerning boundaries, water, or mineral rights.
-­The Supreme Court was established by Article III of the U.S. Constitution. Congress was
given the power to create any inferior courts.
-­The Judiciary Act of 1789 established the basic three-­tiered structure of the federal
court system.
CONSTITUTIONAL COURTS VERSUS LEGISLATIVE COURTS
CONSTITUTIONAL
SPECIAL LEGISLATIVE
COURTS
COURTS
Justification Directly or indirectly mentioned Needed for specific purpose in Constitution
Obtain
Appointed by President
Appointed by President
Judgeship
confirmed by the Senate
confirmed by the Senate
Typical y a 15 year fixed term
Term
For life (good behavior)
(Some courts need such a qualified
expert they have no term)
-­Congress creates inferior courts (constitutional ) and special legislative courts. When in
doubt on test just pick Congress :)
-­Sovereign Immunity: The United States has to grant you permission to sue them. Oddly
enough, they al ow it often. It goes through the U.S. Court of Claims.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
JUDICIARY
JUDICIAL REVIEW
CASE
SPECIFICS
IMPACT
Jefferson became president but
did not deliver the official John
The Supreme Court established
Adam’s appointments papers for
it had the power to:
judges. Marbury sued and
● interpret the words of the
Marbury v. Madison wanted a congressional law
Constitution
(1803)
interpreted to give him his
● to decide if government
appointment. The Supreme
actions are constitutional
Court said that Congressional law
(Judicial Review)
was unconstitutional.
This case established Judicial Review. Even though the Constitution does not actual y say
that the Supreme Court has this power.
PROCESS OF INCORPORATION (SELECTIVE INCORPORATION)
DEFINITION OF
CONSTITUTIONAL
PORTIONS OF BILL OF
SELECTIVE
JUSTIFICATION
RIGHTS INCORPORATED
INCORPORATION
-­Free speech
-­Free press
-­Freedom of religion
1st Amendment
-­Assembly & petition
rights
-­Association
The process through
-­Search & seizure
which the Supreme
The 14th Amendment
-­Exclusion of
4th Amendment
evidence
Court applies portions requires al states to
of the bil of rights to
provide al citizens with
-­Self incrimination
5th Amendment
protect individuals
due process and
-­Double jeopardy
from the State
equal protection.
-­Confront witness
government.
-­Impartial jury
-­Speedy trial
6th Amendment
-­Right to counsel
-­public trial
-­prohibition of cruel
and unusual
8th Amendment
punishment
-­Prior to the 14th Amendment (1868), dual federalism dominated views where State laws
were for States and national law was for the nation. Under this, the Bil of Rights only
protected citizens from the National Government. The 14th Amendment changed al this.
Now individual liberties can be protected from State governments too.
-­Also privacy has been incorporated even though it is not listed in Bil of Rights (it is
implied and interpreted from several amendment cases)
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
JUDICIARY
HEARING AND DECIDING SUPREME COURT CASES
STEPS IN THE
DESCRIPTION
PROCESS
The petitioner files a petition for certiorari: a brief
arguing why the lower court erred. The Rule of Four: 4
DECIDING TO TAKE justices (out of 9) must agree to listen a case. The court THE CASE
then issues a writ of certiorari to the lower court
informing it of the Court’s decision and to request the ful
trial transcript.
Each side gets 30 minutes to make their case and this
ORAL ARGUMENTS included the time they get to answer questions from the Justices.
The justices meet once a week (during argument
THE CONFERENCE scheduled weeks) to discuss the case and attempt to AND VOTE
influence each other. The decision is made on the case
by a simple majority vote (usual y 5 out of 9).
Justices write the reasoning for their opinions. This is
WRITING OPINIONS important because of stare decisis meaning let the decision stand.
Future court decisions are based on
precedent set on this decision.
-­In one year the Supreme Court has to decide how many out of the 9,600 cases were filed.
About 75 were heard. It helps if: the federal government is the party asking for review, the
case involves conflict among the courts of appeals, the case presents a civil rights or civil
liberties question, the case involves the ideological or policy preferences of the justices, or
the case has a significant social or political interest, as evidence by the present interest
group amicus curiae briefs.
-­ In forma pauperis: Filings by prisoners for a new trial (In the form or a pauper)
OUTSIDE INFLUENCE
INFLUENCE
DESCRIPTION
Interest groups and concerned individual are al owed to send in
AMICUS CURIAE BRIEFS
briefs explaining their viewpoints and reasoning for a case they
are interested in.
HARVARD LAW AND YALE Most justices went ivy-­league law schools. They read items
LAW REVIEWS
published from their alma mater.
LIVING IN SOCIETY
They are people. They have opinionated family and friends. They
read and watch the news. They are aware of public opinion.
CLERKS
Assist justices by handling briefs and analyzing important reports.
They work closely with and influence the justices.
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GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
JUDICIARY
THE GOVERNMENT’S INFLUENCE ON THE JUDICIARY
BRANCH
PART OF BRANCH
DESCRIPTION
The Senate Confirms the
presidential appointments for
the judiciary.
Senate
Senatorial Courtesy: is when the
Senate from the State with the
federal judge opening recommends
judges to the White House.
House impeaches judge
House of Representatives
(charged with crime) and Senate
LEGISLATIVE
& the Senate
Convicts (decides if they guilty)
House of Representatives
Pay judges salaries
& the Senate
House of Representatives
Sets jurisdiction of legislative
& the Senate
courts
House of Representatives
Creates new seats as
& the Senate
needed. (Double # of seats in last
50 years)
The President appoints
President
judges (with Senate approval)
Attorney General (and people
in office) prosecute federal
Department of Justice
criminals and defends the
United States in court.
EXECUTIVE
Solicitor general (appointed by
President, confirmed by Senate)
determines which cases to
appeal the U.S. Supreme
Court and represents the
Department of Justice
United States in the Supreme
Court room. They also file
amicus curiae briefs (friend
of court brief) for cases not
involving the United States.
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GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
JUDICIARY
SUPREME COURT OPINIONS
OPINION
DESCRIPTION
Per Curiam Opinion Brief, unsigned court opinion.
Opinion of the Court Majority opinion belief (this is the law of the land).
Concurring Opinion Justices write this if they agree with the Opinion of the Court but for
different reasons.
A justice writes this to explain why they disagree with the
Dissenting Opinion Opinion of the Court. (These are used as justifications when people try
to make the Supreme Court change its mind in the future)
FIVE SUPREME COURT CASES LIKELY TO BE ON THE AP TEST
CASE
SIGNIFICANCE
Court establishes Judicial Review: The Court
can now determine if government action
Marbury v. Madison, 1803
violates the constitution or not. (case was about
presidential appointments)
Court decides that Congress has the right to
implied powers (not written in Constitution)
McCul och v. Maryland, 1819
due to the necessary and proper clause, in
order to carry out their expressed powers. (case
was about Maryland taxing the national bank)
Court says that only the National Government
(Congress) has the power to regulate interstate
Gibbons v. Ogden, 1824
commerce. (case was about issuing licenses for
ports between New York and New Jersey)
The court uses Selective Incorporation for the
1st time in order to protect individuals freedom
Gitlow v. New York, 1925
of speech from State governments. ( case was
about New York charged Gitlow for printing a
communist manifesto)
Court declared segregated schools were
unconstitutional (case was about Brown had to
Brown v. Board of Education, 1954 walk past white school to attend color school that was
inferior)
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
JUDICIARY
CHIEF JUSTICE ERAS
PERIOD
CHIEF JUSTICE
YEARS GENERAL DESCRIPTION
OF TIME
John Marshall
Helped establish many court
1801-­1835 34 years powers
Roger Taney
1836-­1864 28 years Favored state power
Earl Warren
Major civil right changes and
1953-­1969 16 years cases
William Rehnquist 1986-­2005 19 years Major conservative influence Chief Justices have
no extra powers. The chief justice organizes hearings and guides discussion but al justices
have equal power. Any 5 justices in agreement (or more) determine the majority decision.
The chief justice writes the majority opinion if they are in the majority.
THE JUDICIARY AND THE POLITICAL SPECTRUM
POLITICAL
SPECTRUM
THEY TEND TO SUPPORT
POSITION
● Broad interpretation of the Elastic Clause (Necessary
and Proper Clause)
JUDICIAL
● Broad interpretation of civil rights acts and laws
LIBERALS
● Pro-­choice decisions
● Strict limits on the separation of church and state
● Affirmative action programs to end discrimination
● Stricter limits on the use of the Commerce Clause
● Limited uses of “necessary and proper”
JUDICIAL
● More local and state control of civil rights questions
CONSERVATIVES
● Pro-­life decisions
● Community standards for free speech and obscenity
● Affirmative action as a form of reverse discrimination
● Community limits to lifestyle choices
-­Justices and judges are people. They have political interests and agendas. Presidents
nominate judges and justices with political beliefs similar to their own. They tend to reflect
the biases of the two major parties.
-­Judges are insulated from the public in that many serve for life and they are not elected.
-­Judges answer to the public in that they could be impeached and removed by Congress,
their records of opinions and actions are used to determine if they should be appointed in
the first place, and Congress can react to unpopular decision by leading the charge to
amend the Constitution.
-­General y judicial liberals favor a more open interpretation of the powers of the
Constitution. Those who oppose that view are judicial conservatives.
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GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS
JUDICIARY
APPROACH OF COURTS AS A POLICY MAKER
JUDICIAL APPROACH
DESCRIPTION
When judges or courts make rulings that support a
particular political agenda or have a direct affect on
policy.
JUDICIAL ACTIVISM
Example: Brown v Topeka Board of Education, 1954
evidence of an instance in which judicial action can be
needed.
The belief that policy decisions should be left to the
JUDICIAL RESTRAINT legislative and executive branches because the judicial branch's role
is to interpret and apply the law,
not to create it.
-­The Court exerts policy-­making influence through Judicial Review, setting legal
precedents, and overturning the decisions of lower courts.
-­ Stare decisis: latin for “let the decision stand” is based on the custom of making judicial
rulings based on decisions made by earlier, similar cases. However the Supreme Court has
overruled its own precedent on many occasions.
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UNIT 6:
PUBLIC POLICY
MAIN TOPICS
DOMESTIC POLICY
FOREIGN & MILITARY POLICY
132
DOMESTIC
POLICY
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
PUBLIC POLICY
DOMESTIC POLICY
MAKING POLICY & INFLUENCING POLICY MAKERS
SPECIFIC
BROAD CATEGORY
DESCRIPTION
SEGMENT
Political Parties
A group which attempts to win elections
so they can control the government.
LINKAGE
-­Use propaganda to influence society.
INSTITUTIONS
Interest Groups
-­Use PACs to influence elections.
-­Hire lobbyist to influence Congress.
(THEY INFLUENCE POLICY)
Selects stories to cover thus that topic
Media
gains our attention. (This could place issues at
a higher priority on our nation's agenda)
Congress
Creates laws.
GOVERNMENT
President
Issues executive orders.
INSTITUTIONS
(THEY MAKE POLICY)
Bureaucracy
Agencies set regulations (rule making)
Judicial
Court sets a precedent.
-­Policy is basical y anything a government decides to do.
-­Domestic Policy includes everything a government takes care of within U.S. borders. The
United States has developed policy to take care of its people, especial y the less fortunate, to
protect the environment, to finance government, and to enhance that state of the economy.
-­Remember linkage institutions connect people to the government.
THEORIES ON THE COST & BENEFITS OF POLICY
THE
THEORY
THE COST
EXAMPLE
BENEFIT
MAJORITARIAN
Distributed
Distributed
-­Social Security
(Everyone pays)
(Everyone gets)
-­Military Protection
-­Congress passes a law
ENTREPRENEURIAL
Concentrated
Distributed
that factories can only
(Some pay)
(Everyone gets)
al ow so much carbon
emissions per year.
CLIENT POLITICS
Distributed
Concentrated
-­Food stamps
(Everyone pays)
(Some get)
-­Medicaid
Congress passes law that
INTEREST GROUP
Concentrated
Concentrated
when a factory closes they
(Some pay)
(Some get)
must give the workers 60
days notice.
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PUBLIC POLICY
DOMESTIC POLICY
THEORIES ON INFLUENCING POLICY
THEORY
DESCRIPTION
MAJORITARIAN
They focus on carrying out the wil of the majority.
POLITICS
(Framers wanted to stop the tyranny of the majority)
ELITE THEORY
People with more money and influence dominate the
policy-­making process.
INTEREST GROUP
Interest groups organize PACs to influence elections
POLITICS
and hire lobbyist to influence policy creation.
PLURALIST THEORY
Viewpoints are so scattered no group can control al
the levels of government.
Other textbooks refer to other theories:
-­Class View (theory) The view that that the government is dominated by capitalists.
-­Bureaucratic View (theory) in which appointed officials have too much control of the
government.
-­Power Elite View (theory) government is dominated by a few top leaders (many outside
of government).
BASIC OF POLICY DEVELOPMENT
PHASE
DESCRIPTION
The agenda is a set of issues to be discussed or given
attention. Presidents recommend legislation.
AGENDA SETTING
Congress member propose bil s in their house. Pol s
and media show government officials how the people
feel about policy.
POLICY FORMATION Political leaders look at the cost benefit analysis to decide if policy is
worthy.
POLICY ADOPTION
Congress creates policy (law) with presidential
approval.
POLICY
An agency within executive branch that deals with that
IMPLEMENTATION
topic is selected.
The public and government react to new policies to
POLICY EVALUATION decide if any changes are needed. Congress is the tool used to
change budgets or alter policy laws.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
PUBLIC POLICY
DOMESTIC POLICY
SOCIAL WELFARE POLICY
PROGRAM
DESCRIPTION
●
The Social Security Act of 1935 created an insurance program that required the employed
to pay a smal contribution via a payrol tax into an insurance fund designed to assist the
unemployed to help financial y strapped retirees.
SOCIAL
●
It also helps blind, elderly, and less fortunate people.
SECURITY
●
Official y cal ed Old Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance and it administered by the
Social Security Administration.
●
Most employed citizens pay 12.4 percent (6.2 by employer, and 6.2 by
employee) of which they can start col ecting at age 65.
●
Although it was one FDR’s plans the Medicare law was passed in 1965 and it administered
by the Department of Health and Human Services.
MEDICARE
●
It is funded by a payrol tax of 1.45 percent paid by both employee and employer. (People
who make over 200,000 by 3.8 percent)
●
Must be 65 years old to col ect benefits.
●
Health insurance coverage for the poorest Americans
MEDICAID
●
Eligibility requires minimum-­income thresholds or disabled or pregnant.
●
Citizens purchase their own health care coverage.
HEALTH
CARE
●
Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act in 2010 attempts to expand coverage.
-­The only portion of the Constitution that refers to welfare is in the preamble stating the
government wil “promote the general welfare”
-­Government intervention increased during the the Great Depression with New Deal
(series of legislation)
-­Food Stamps & Housing also exist for mean-­based needs (only if they make under a
certain amount)
NON-­MEANS TESTED VERSUS MEANS-­TESTED
-­Social Security (OASDI)
NON-­MEANS-­
Meet general requirements -­Medicare
TESTED
(does not include financial need) -­Veterans’ Disability
-­Unemployment Benefits
-­Medicaid
MEANS-­
Meets requirement that
-­Supplemental Security Income
TESTED
shows financial need.
-­Temporary Assistance for Needy Families
-­Food Stamps
Unemployment appears in wrong category at first glance. But actual y if you are fired you
can col ect regardless of savings.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
PUBLIC POLICY
DOMESTIC POLICY
ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
requires any government agency, state or federal, to
Environmental
file an environmental impact statement with the
Protection Policy Act
federal government every time the agency plans a
(NEPA) (1969)
policy that might harm the environment, dams,
roads, or existing construction.
Clean Air Act
cal s for improved air quality and decreased
(1970 Amendment to PCA)
contaminants.
Clean Water Act
regulates the discharges of pol utants into the water
(1972)
Endangered
empowers the National Fish and Wildlife Service to
Species Act
protect endangered species.
(1973)
Superfund
Congress created this to pay for waste cleanup in
the instances in which the company responsible is
(1980)
unknown or has gone bankrupt.
Environmental
It along with federal government require states to set
air quality standards, to reduce damage done by
Protection Agency
automobiles, to measure city smog, and to set
(EPA) (1970)
environmental guidelines.
● A multi-­country agreement that committed the
Kyoto Protocol
signing nations to reduced greenhouse gas
emissions.
(1997)
● Bil Clinton liked it but ⅔ of the Senate did not
agree.
-­Environment was first being seen as in issue in late 19th century, it was in the 1960’s and
1970’s (with the creation of the majority of acts and laws listed above) in which the
government started regulated business in order to protect the environment.
There has been backlash every since.
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
PUBLIC POLICY
DOMESTIC POLICY
LABOR POLICY
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
Wagner Act
(AKA: National Labor
Created the National Labor Relations Board
Relations Act) (1935)
A federal executive branch commission:
National Labor
● regulates labor organization
Relations Board
● hears complaints of unfair labor practices
● ensures workers’ rights to col ectively bargain with
management.
Fair Labor
● established minimum wage
Standards Act
● set 40 hour work week
(1938)
● required overtime pay
Favored by the business community:
● Enabled states to outlaw the closed shop (a company policy
or labor contract that requires al employees to join the local union) Taft-­Hartley Act
● State could now pass “right to work” laws
(1947)
● Al owed the federal government to block any labor strike
in an industry that might put into jeopardy the “national
health or safety”
Occupational Safety
and Health Act
Created the Occupational Safety and Health Administration
(1970)
Occupational Safety A federal regulatory agency:
and Health
● Inspect factories & workplaces for occupational hazards
Administration
● They can give fines to companies and even close them
(OSHA)
down until problems are fixed.
We have a mixed economy in the United States. We have free enterprise system in which
people can own the factors of production (land, labor, capital) instead of the government.
But we also have government regulation in order to ensure the production of safe products
and safe working conditions.
-­Labor regulation came into effect due to conditions under rapid industrialization.
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PUBLIC POLICY
DOMESTIC POLICY
EXECUTIVE INFLUENCE ON ECONOMIC POLICY
PRESIDENTIAL ECONOMIC
DESCRIPTION
ADVISORS
Council of
Three person panel in the White House Executive Office that
forecasts economic trends and makes predictions on the
Economic Advisors
economy.
Director of the Office of
Is the President’s chief accountant charged with determining
how much the federal government should spend year to
Management and Budget (OMB) year.
The treasury department carries out tax laws, enforcing
Secretary of the Treasury
economic sanctions, advises the president, and maintains
the country’s financial infrastructure.
-­Obviously we have already talked about how Congress is influenced by Interest Groups.
Americans public blame politicians for a bad economy (regardless of the fact that there are
many economic influences that our government does not truly control) at election time. (
The President is held most accountable)
-­The American people do belief that presidential philosophy and the col ective attitude of
Congress can influence the value of the dol ar, trade relationships with foreign nations,
taxes paid into the federal purse, and the federal budget.
-­People want lower taxes, no national debt, and enhance government services (al three
together is impossible)
ECONOMIC IDEOLOGY
THEORY
DESCRIPTION
●
This theory believes the government should get involved to ensure the right about of
demand. (This is referring to how much money is in the economy)
●
When demand is too low, the government should put more money into the economy by
reducing taxes and/or increasing government spending (even if we KEYNESIAN
need to borrow the money)
●
If demand is too high, the government should take money out of the economy by
ECONOMICS
taking more and/spending less.
●
Multiplier Effect: Best explained with an example: a $10 bil ion increase in government
spending could cause the total output to rise by 15 bil ion (a multiplier of 1.5) because
when the government spends money to begin a construction project they hire builders who
also hire bricklayers, electricians, and plumbers who purchase supplies for their jobs who
take portions of their earnings to pay for food, shelter, transportation and clothing.
●
This theory represents a fiscal conservative (also known as supply side theorists, or
supply-­siders)
SUPPLY-­SIDE
●
This approach believes that less taxes wil cause people to have more money to spend
(which they wil spend)
THEORY
and this spending wil increase purchasing, jobs, and
manufacturing. The states wil col ect more money in sales taxes.
●
If people do not spend more they wil then invest their savings to make more money thus
boosting the economy.
Other books include theories:
-­Monetarism: The belief that inflation occurs when too much money is chasing too few of
goods. They want a predictable increase in the money supply at a rate about equal to the
growth in the economy’s productivity.
-­Economic Planning: The belief that the government plans, such as wage and price
controls or the direction of investment can improve the economy.
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PUBLIC POLICY
DOMESTIC POLICY
MONETARY POLICY VERSUS FISCAL POLICY
POLICY
DESCRIPTION
● How the government manages the supply and demand of its
MONETARY
currency and thus the value of the dol ar.
● This is done by the Federal Reserve Board (The Fed).
● How the government decides to tax and spend of money.
FISCAL
● This is done by primarily by Congress (President signs)
THE FEDERAL RESERVE BOARD, AKA: THE FED (MONETARY POLICY)
POWER OF THE FED
DESCRIPTIONS
This is when American citizens and foreign
governments purchase government bonds & treasury
BOND RATES
notes (securities) with promise the U.S. government wil
pay them back with a certain amount of interest.
●
The Fed decides what rate those bonds pay out.
The interest rate which the government loans actual
DISCOUNT RATE
dol ars to commercial banks.
●
The Fed sets that interest rate
Commercial banks must have a certain amount of cash
RESERVE
in their vaults. This affects how much money that bank
REQUIREMENTS
can loan out (put into economy).
●
The Fed decides how much money banks keep on
hand
-­Federal Reserve System created by Congress in 1913, is made up 3 components: Federal
Reserve Board (most powerful), Federal Open Market Committee, and 12 Regional Federal
Reserve Banks.
-­The Federal Reserve Board is an independent agency (Presidents can appoint (with
consent) and remove with cause (although no one ever has). The elections of board
governors (members) is staggered as to not become a presidential election issue.
CONGRESS (FISCAL POLICY)
FISCAL POLICY
DESCRIPTION
REVENUE
Taxes (primarily income) and borrowing
SPENDING
Congress (with President) creates policy which costs money
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
PUBLIC POLICY
DOMESTIC POLICY
TAX PHILOSOPHY (FISCAL POLICY)
TYPE OF TAX
DESCRIPTION
EXAMPLE
PROGRESSIVE TAX The more you make the more
Income Tax
you pay.
FLAT TAX
Everyone pays the same rate.
Sales Tax
-­Some people think progressive tax is fair because the rich can afford to pay more money
than the poor.
-­Some people think progressive tax is unfair because they worked harder to make more
money so they should not be penalized and also people could invest more money into the
economy if they were taxed less.
-­Some AP Tests include questions in which they expect you to know that Regressive Tax
affects a poorer persons pocketbook more than a richer person even though they are
paying a flat rate (or the same percent). Example: Person A and Person B are both paying
an excise tax on cigarettes. If Person A makes 100 dol ars a year and spends 1 dol ar on
cigarette tax that is 1% of their income. But if Person B makes 10 dol ars a year and spends
1 dol ar on cigarette tax that is 10% of their income.
TAX POLICIES (FISCAL POLICY)
TAX ORIGIN
TYPE OF TAX
DESCRIPTION
Income Tax
Tax on money earned from working.
Also known as death tax. When people inherit
Estate Tax
money from a relative it can be taxed.
NATIONAL
(Federal)
Companies pay money for obtaining profits.
Corporate Tax
(varies between 15-­35%)
Pay money to purchase certain items like alcohol,
Excise Tax
tobacco, gasoline, and airline fees.
Sales Tax
Pay money to purchase something.
Pay money to have your property (even if you own
Property Tax
your house) (This is how a State raises largest
amount of revenue)
STATE
Business License
Pay money to operate a business.
Pay money to take test and have permission to
Drivers License
drive.
Marriage License
Pay money to legal y wed to another.
Hunting & Fishing Permits Pay for the right to hunt or fish for a period of time.
-­The United States did not have the right col ect income tax until the 16th Amendment in
1913. This amendment also al ows the government to tax incomes from successful
investments, gambling winnings, earned interest, and stock dividends.
-­The average U.S. citizen pays about 25.4% of income in various taxes (combining Federal
and State)
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PUBLIC POLICY
DOMESTIC POLICY
THE FEDERAL BUDGET (FISCAL POLICY)
BRANCH OF
SPECIFIC AREA
DESCRIPTION
GOVERNMENT
Federal Agencies
Submit spending desire to
department secretaries.
Department Secretaries
Department heads may tweak
requests and send them to OMB.
Headed by a director (Presidents
EXECUTIVE
Office of Management and
accountant) considers that needs
BRANCH
Budget (OMB)
and wants of al the federal
departments and agencies.
● The Budget Director
(in consultation with the President)
They finalize and submit the
● Council of Economic
President's budget proposal to
Advisors
Congress.
● Treasury Secretary.
sets overal levels or revenues and
Congress
expenditures, the size of the budget
surplus or deficit, and spending
priorities.
Congressional Budget Office
Nonpartisan accountants which
examines and analyzes the budget
(CBO)
proposal.
Independent and nonpartisan acts
LEGISLATIVE
Government Accountability
as watchdog of congressional funds
BRANCH
Office (GAO)
and keeps track of where and how
money is spent (headed by U.S.
Comptrol er General)
They examine the President’s
Congressional Committees
budget. They take up & pass
appropriation bills (spending bil s).
Passes the overal budget bil then
Congress
goes to the President for a
signature.
-­In summary the President submits a budget to Congress who controls the purse strings.
-­Budgets have been done in this matter since the Congressional Budget and
Impoundment Control Act (1974). This law also makes it il egal for a President to
impound funds (not spend them).
-­The fiscal year is October 1 through September 30.
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PUBLIC POLICY
DOMESTIC POLICY
DEBT AND DEFICITS (FISCAL POLICY)
TERM
DESCRIPTION
DEBT
(NATIONAL DEBT)
The grand total that the United States owes at any one time.
(PUBLIC DEBT)
DEFICIT
When the United States spends more than it takes in as revenue.
SURPLUS
When the United States spends less than it takes in as revenue.
-­The United States owes money in the forms of bonds and securities (treasury notes) to
American citizens and foreign governments.
-­The United States is seen as a good investment because it has a strong economy and it
pays it debts. It is sort of like the United States has a huge credit card bil but it always
makes some payments (when someone pays the minimum payment every month VISA is
happy).
-­The United States has been in debt since 1836. It owed over 18 tril ion in 2015.
-­in 2006 the United States paid 226 bil ion for interest on the debt (this was the 3rd largest
area of spending).
-­The last budget surplus was under Bil Clinton (and that was super rare).
-­It is difficult to compare deficits from budgets through history because of inflation. This is
why economists compare this as a percentage of the U.S GDP (gross domestic product:
the total value of al goods and services produced in the United States in one year).
-­Budget related legislation:
Gramm-­Rudman-­Hollings Act (1985): initial deficit reduction effort (not effective).
Budget Enforcement Act (1990): Set limits on discretionary spending and created a “pay
as you go system”.
Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act (1993): incorporated a mix of tax increases and
entitlement reductions.
-­9/11 retaliation and housing col apse in recent history has appeared to justify deficit
spending again.
ENTITLEMENT PROGRAMS (FISCAL POLICY)
DEFINITION
Government services Congress has promised to citizens that meet
a requirement.
Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid, block grants, financial aid,
EXAMPLES
food stamps, money owed on bonds and other contractual
obligations.
PERCENT
This makes up ⅔ of the budget.
OF BUDGET
There is no way to know for sure how many people wil meet the requirement that qualifies
them for food stamps in January versus February, or March. The point is the government
cannot possible know how much money it wil need to pay the benefits to these recipients.
Thus spending becomes mandatory and uncontrol able.
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PUBLIC POLICY
DOMESTIC POLICY
TYPES OF SPENDING IN THE BUDGET (FISCAL POLICY)
AMOUN
TYPE
ALSO KNOWN AS
T OF
DESCRIPTION
BUDGET
Entitlement programs must
be funded according to
federal law. (Lawmakers do not
UNCONTROLLABLE
MANDATORY
2/3
know how many people wil qualify
SPENDING
SPENDING
month to month so they do not
actual y know how much money
they are al ocating to each
program)
Government writes checks
for specific items that could
CONTROLLABLE
DISCRETIONARY
alway be altered or
1/3
SPENDING
SPENDING
decreased. (Lawmakers have
complete control over how much
money they are al ocating to each
program)
-­Social Security makes up 20% of budget. Medicare and Medicaid make up nearly 20%.
Although Congress could change the requirements to qualify for benefits it is considered
political y unsafe to suggest or make such changes.
-­Defense spending makes up 20% of budget and is considered discretionary spending.
-­One study claims there are reasons money is unnecessarily spent: 1) fraud and abuse 2)
waste 3) pork
GLOBALIZATION
ITEM
DESCRIPTION
EFFECT OF IT
TRADE SURPLUS
When a country exports (sel s)
Wealth from other nations
(FAVORABLE TRADE BALANCE)
more than it imports (purchases). enters the economy.
When a country imports
The wealth leaves your
TRADE DEFICIT
(purchases) more good than it
economy to enter another
exports (sel s).
country’s economy.
An agreement between the
NORTH AMERICAN
This created a battle
United States, Mexico, and
FREE TRADE
between corporations and
Canada (it basical y removes al
AGREEMENT (NAFTA)
labor unions.
import taxes).
-­Globalization: is the process of an ever-­expanding and increasingly interactive world
economy.
-­The business community favors free trade to create a free flow of goods and services on a
global scale. They also believe that the process has decreased poverty and enhances the
general quality of life in foreign nations.
-­Laborers fear that American firms wil outsource their labor requirements (which many
have done)
144
FOREIGN
&
MILITARY
POLICY
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AP AMERICAN GOVERNMENT STUDY GUIDE
PUBLIC POLICY
FOREIGN POLICY
CONSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK REGARDING FOREIGN POLICY
BRANCH
FOREIGN/MILITARY POWERS
Congress has the power to declare war.
Congress funds the military, foreign endeavors, and foreign aid.
The Senate must approve appointed ambassadors and high-­ranking military personnel.
CONGRESS The Senate must ratify treaties with other nations by a two-­thirds vote.
Congress has oversight of the State and Defense Departments and relevant agencies.
Congress can institute a mandatory military draft to staff the Armed forces.
The president is commander in chief of the Armed Forces.
The president appoints ambassadors and receives foreign ministers.
THE
The president negotiates treaties with other nations.
PRESIDENT The president issues executive orders that can impact foreign policy.
The president makes executive agreements with other heads of state.
The president commissions the military officers of the United States.
Due to constitutional principles: separation of powers and checks & balances the
powers regarding foreign policy are spread out over numerous branches. These powers
has had a tremendous impact on foreign policy in the United States.
GENERAL PHASES OF FOREIGN & DEFENSE POLICY
PHASE OF POLICY
DESCRIPTION
ISOLATIONISM
The policy of avoiding participation in foreign affairs.
(Isolation was rarely absolute)
UNILATERALISM A national policy of acting without consulting others.
The policy of emphasizing morality in foreign affairs.
MORALISM
(Most americans believed their country had higher moral standards than other countries)
Taking advantage of a situation for national gain.
PRAGMATISM
(When European nations went to war, we sold arms to both sides. When opportunities to
acquire more land arose, it was aggressively pursued.)
-­The United States reasoning for invoking policy has shifted over the years.
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PUBLIC POLICY
FOREIGN POLICY
FOREIGN POLICY INFLUENCE FROM INSIDE THE GOVERNMENT
SPECIFIC
INFLUENCER
DESCRIPTION
SEGMENT
The president has exclusive sources of information (Department of State THE PRESIDENT
diplomats, military attaches working for the Department of Defense, CIA agents and satel
ites). The president has a lot of power when acting as the commander-­in-­chief.
30,000 people work gathering information on foreign political, economic, DEPARTMENT
social, and military situations. They also staff American embassies in OF STATE
over 180 countries. 30 bil ion was spent in 2008 in order to fund
(Primarily Diplomacy)
economic development, disease prevention, nuclear proliferation,
anti-­terrorism, the Peace Corps, and global peacekeeping capabilities.
DEPARTMENT
The Pentagon contributes to policy formulation and provided forces to
undertake military operations. Thousands of civilians and mil ions of
OF DEFENSE
active duty military. (Includes JCS, NSA, CIA, NSC, Dep of Homeland)
THE
JOINT CHIEFS
provides a link between senior civilian leadership in the Department of Defense and the
military. They also help coordinate between various
EXECUTIVE
OF STAFF
branches of military.
BRANCH
NATIONAL SECURITY
Intel igence agency responsible for gathering intel igence from electronic AGENCY (NSA)
and for breaking foreign information transmission codes
CENTRAL
INTELLIGENCE
Executive agency responsible for col ection and analysis of information
and intel igence about foreign countries and events.
AGENCY (CIA)
NATIONAL SECURITY
Executive agency responsible for advising the president about foreign
and defense policy and events. (include president, vice president, sec of COUNCIL (NSC)
state, sec of defense, joint chiefs of staff, and the CIA director.
DEPARTMENT OF
Cabinet department created after the 9/11 attacks to coordinate
domestic U.S. security efforts against terrorism. (Include Coast Guard, HOMELAND
SECURITY FEMA, TSA, Customs & Border Protection and Immigration Services)
CONGRESSIONAL
Congress usual y agrees/changes/rejects the president's policy.
LEADERSHIP
Congress decided Soviet’s Sputnik was a threat so they created NASA.
Congress conducts hearings on foreign policy. Trying to force President CONGRESSIONAL
and CIA to inform congressional committees on covert missions. Both
OVERSIGHT
houses have Foreign Relations Committees & Armed Services
Committees.
CONGRESS
TREATIES
⅔ of Senate approves treaties made by Department of State.
APPOINTMENTS
Majority of Senate must approve presidential appointments.
APPROPRIATIONS
Appropriation committees in Congress decide how much money
agencies and programs receive. (Step after authorization)
THE WAR POWERS ACT Limits the president (60 days) for troop deployment during
peacetime OF 1973
unless Congress approves an extension. Constitutional???
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PUBLIC POLICY
FOREIGN POLICY
FOREIGN POLICY INFLUENCE FROM OUTSIDE THE GOVERNMENT
INFLUENCER
DESCRIPTION
After World War II, the United States was in an arms
race and space race with the Soviet Union. This era lead
BUSINESS
to a relationship in which business and the military got
(AKA: MILITARY
very close (Like more than just friends) and is known as
INDUSTRIAL COMPLEX)
the Military-­Industrial Complex. Because of their
shared interests in money and power they have become
influential in foreign and military policy making.
The media influences foreign policy but it does not
THE NEWS MEDIA determine it. Vietnam is the classic example in which as the war
continued on the Media coverage continued and
showed Americans the agony of war.
The american public affects foreign and military policy
THE PUBLIC
through expressions of public opinion, elections, and
public action. (Example of action: protesting the draft)
There are 2,000 U.S. think tanks (400 in Washington
NON-­GOVERNMENT D.C.) that deal with foreign policy. One of the most ORGANIZATIONS
influential is the Council on Foreign Relations, which is (ALSO THINK TANKS)
a nonpartisan think tank that studies issues of trade,
security, and relationships.
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PUBLIC POLICY
FOREIGN POLICY
FOREIGN POLICY INFLUENCE FROM OUTSIDE THE UNITED STATES
INTERNATIONAL
DESCRIPTION
ORGANIZATION
CAFTA
Free trade zone (no tariffs) for this region.
(Central Atlantic Free Trade Agreement)
EUROPEAN ECONOMIC UNION
Now the U.S. deals with a united Europe (They are united
(EEU, EU)
on policies that affect trade and defense)
Strong economic countries meet to improve
G-­8 SUMMITS
international cooperation and economic development
(countries include: the U.S., Great Britain, Russia, China, Germany, France, Japan, and
Canada)
Group attempts to promote stable currency exchange
INTERNATIONAL MONETARY
rates, favorable balances of payments, and economic
FUND (IMF)
development through the enforcement of economic
policies.
MULTINATIONAL
Multinational ownership of property, financial
CORPORATIONS
instruments, and companies is becoming influential.
NAFTA
Free trade zone (no tariffs) for Canada, Mexico, U.S.
(North American Free Trade Agreement)
NATO
Original y formed to protect the West from
(North Atlantic Treaty Organization)
Communism. Now includes former communist nations.
UNITED NATIONS
This attempts to promote world peace and human
rights. There are 192 nations in it.
WORLD BANK
This organization gives loans to developing nations.
WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION It’s main goal is to expand free trade.
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PUBLIC POLICY
FOREIGN POLICY
THE DEFENSE BUDGET
COMPONENT
DESCRIPTION
TRENDS IN SPENDING 1960’s: 40% 1980’s: 25% 1989: 20% (post cold war) (% of
budget)
GOLD PLATING
The pentagon pressures Congress for premium war
machines.
Private companies bid low so they can get the job. Then
EVIL COMPANIES
they are like, “oh sorry Sam, it cost more than I thought...so
here is your new bil ”
BASES
Al over the United States. They create jobs. Congress
members like bringing that pork home to their districts.
Today the partisan divide is more noticeable than during cold
PARTISAN DIVIDE
war for spending. Republican are more wil ing to spend on
military.
MILITARY CONFLICTS VERSUS DECLARATION OF WAR
WARS DECLARED BY
MILITARY CONFLICTS
CONGRESS
(NO DECLARATIONS OF WAR)
1801: Barbary Coast
1980: Iran (hostage crisis)
1812: Against the United
1817: Florida, Spain
1983: Grenada
Kingdom
1845: Mexico: Border Fight
1983: Lebanon
1861: Civil War
1987: Persian Gulf
1846: Against Mexico
1899: Philippines
1989: Panama (Noriega)
1899: Cuban insurgents
1991: Iraq/Kuwait
1900: China (Boxer Rebel ion)
1992: Somalia
1898: Against Spain
1917: Mexico (Pancho Vil a)
1999: Bosnia/Kosovo
1918: Russian Revolution
2001: Afghanistan
1917: Against Germany,
1950: Korea (until 1953)
2003: Iraq
Austro-­Hungary, Turkey
1954: Guatemala
1958: Lebanon
1941: Against Japan (Germany and 1961: Cuba (Bay of Pigs)
Italy declared on U.S. after December 8,
1962: Vietnam (until 1972)
1941)
1965: Dominican Republic
1970: Cambodia
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PUBLIC POLICY
FOREIGN POLICY
BRIEF HISTORY OF WAR AND DIPLOMACY (INDEPENDENCE-­WWI)
PHASE
EVENT/POLICY
DESCRIPTION
REVOLUTIONARY WAR
British colonies fought for independence. With the financial and
(1775-­1783)
military help of British enemies, the United States successful y
becomes a nation.
GAINING &
MAINTAINING
The United States fought against Britain (with Canadian colonies
INDEPENDENCE
and Indian support) Although the treaty (of Ghent) signed in
WAR OF 1812 (1812-­1814) December of 1814 ended the war the Battle of New Orleans
was fought in January of 1815 (no tech like cel phones). The United
States won defending its new(ish) sovereignty.
-­Louisiana Purchase (1803) from France 828,000 square feet
west of Mississippi River (15 mil ion, nearly tripled the size of the United States)
PURCHASING LAND
-­Texas (1845) annexed from Texas (considered a nation at time)
-­Florida (1819) from Spain
MANIFEST
-­Oregon (1846) from Great Britain
-­New Mexico & Arizona (1858) Gadsden Purchase from Mexico
DESTINY
(God wanted
Al owed President to put indians on unsettled lands west of the
America to spread
INDIAN REMOVAL ACT
mississippi river in exchange for their current land. Some tribes
across the continent)
(1830)
went peaceful y but most resisted. In 1838-­1839 Trail of Tears:
Cherokees were forced to relocate. 4,000 died on the trip.
MEXICAN AMERICAN
Mexico and the U.S. disagreed where Texas border ended. The
WAR (1846-­1848)
United States declared war and acquired not only the disputed
territory but also ost the land stretching from Texas to California.
The United States would continue to stay out of European affairs,
MONROE DOCTRINE
but Europe should also avoid further colonization of lands in the
Western Hemisphere.
SPANISH-­AMERICAN
Short war in which ended with Spain giving the United States
WAR (1898)
Puerto Rico, and Guam. It also gave Cuba independence.
IMPERIALISM
PHILIPPINES
The United States purchased the Philippines from Spain for 20
mil ion. People in Philippines did not like this.
Added on to Monroe Doctrine, specifical y, advocating a more
ROOSEVELT
interventionist posture for the United States. “Speak softly and
COROLLARY
carry a big stick” The U.S. would intervene in Latin American
affairs whenever it wanted.
A global conflict with Triple Entente versus the Central Powers in
WORLD WAR I
which over 9 mil ion military members and 7 mil ion civilians died.
(1914-­1918)
By the end of the war the German Empire, Russian Empire,
Austro-­Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire had ceased to
exist.
WORLD WAR &
LEAGUE OF NATIONS
Senate refused to sign treaty that would have made the United
ISOLATIONISM
States a member of the League of Nations (like United Nations).
ISOLATIONISM
The U.S. went back to wanting to stay out of European affairs
(last time thus far).
KELLOGG-­BRIAND PACT 65 countries (one being U.S.) agree to settle disputes peaceful y
(1928)
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PUBLIC POLICY
FOREIGN POLICY
BRIEF HISTORY OF WAR AND DIPLOMACY (WW2-­COLD WAR HEATS UP)
PHASE
EVENT/POLICY
DESCRIPTION
In 1941, U.S. declared war against Japan fol owing the bombing
of Pearl Harbor. The U.S. joined the al ies including the Soviet
WORLD WAR II
Union, the United Kingdom, France and China. Nazi Germany
(1939-­1945)
surrendered in 1945. Japan surrendered after President Truman
dropped atomic bombs in hiroshima and nagasaki. The United
WORLD WAR II
States emerged as the leader of the free world. The Soviet Union
was the other world superpower.
46 nations gathered to form group that focused on maintaining
UNITED NATIONS
peace while fostering cooperation but committed to using force if
necessary to stop aggressor nations.
CONTAINMENT
Committed to limiting Soviet Union influence (communism)
TRUMAN DOCTRINE
In 1947, A policy to halt Soviet Union expansion by providing aid
to al democratic nations threatened by communism.
DOMINO THEORY
If one country becomes communist adjacent countries would
fol ow.
COLD WAR
MARSHALL PLAN
European Recovery Act. Over 2 years the United States provided
(1948)
$12 bil ion in economic aid to Europe. Economic aid has become
the cornerstone of American foreign policy.
In 1949, the Soviet Union conducted its first successful detonation
MUTUALLY ASSURED
of a nuclear bomb. This lead to an arms race. Neither nation
DESTRUCTION (MAD)
wanted a catastrophe like hiroshima and nagasaki. Thus both
sides refrained from using such weapons.
KOREAN WAR
The United State is al ied with South Korea to defend south of the
(1950-­1953)
38th paral el from the communist North Korea. Today 25,000
help defend the line dividing North and South.
in 1962, there was standoff between the United States and Soviet
COLD WAR
CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS
Union when the Soviet Union had instal ed missiles in Cuba (90
HEATS UP
miles from the United States). It resulted in an executive
agreement and eventual treaties on disarmament.
North Vietnamese Communists defeated their colonial parent,
VIETNAM WAR
France. It was a long defensive war characterized by television
(1964-­1973)
coverage of deaths and public dissent back home. The U.S.
eventual y pul ed out and lost Vietnam to Communism.
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PUBLIC POLICY
FOREIGN POLICY
BRIEF HISTORY OF WAR AND DIPLOMACY (COLD WAR TO CONCLUSION)
PHASE
EVENT/POLICY
DESCRIPTION
DETENTE
A softening of tensions between the U.S. and the Soviet Union..
Cooperation instead of competition.
LIMITED NUCLEAR
In 1963, this treaty prohibited nuclear weapon tests under water,
TEST BAN TREATY
in the atmosphere, or in outer space.
NUCLEAR
NON-­PROLIFERATION
The United States and Britain agreed not to transfer nuclear
COLD WAR
technology from one country to another.
TREATY
COOLS BACK
DOWN
ANTI-­BALLISTIC MISSILE It barred the U.S. and the Soviet Union from deploying
nationwide (ABM) (1972)
defenses against strategic bal istic missiles.
SALT I (Strategic arms
It essential y froze the military balance between the two nations.
limitation talks I) (1972)
SALT II (Strategic arms
The Senate never ratified this treaty. The treaty cal ed for both
limitation talks II) (1979)
nations agreeing to to ban the manufacture of new weapons
systems and encourage more weapons reduction.
NORMALIZATION
By 1971, the United States began recognizing China as a country
instead of Taiwan and sent the Secretary of State Henry Kissinger.
NIXON & CHINA
It was a “One China” Policy. This refers to keeping a close bond
SHANGHAI
with the Republic of China (Taiwan) while cooperating with
COMMUNIQUE
mainland China. (Carter fol owed up by establishing ful
diplomatic relations with China) (1971)
In 1979, Carter brought Egyptian President Anwar al-­Sadat and
CAMP DAVID ACCORDS
Israeli Prime minister Menachem Begin together at Camp David.
Israel agreed to withdraw from the Sinai Peninsula.
The United States sided with the shah of Iran (dictator since
IRAN HOSTAGE CRISIS
1950’s). Radical revolutionaries overthrew the regime in 1979
and took members of U.S. embassy hostage. Al hostages were
COLD WAR
returned the day Reagan was sworn into office.
UNDER
CARTER &
STRATEGIC DEFENSE
Reagan had harsher rhetoric with Soviet Union. He want to
REAGAN
INITIATIVE (SDI)
spend more on arms. This multi-­bil ion dol ar plan was envisioned
(STAR WARS)
to intercept Soviet missiles for U.S. targets. It never happened.
A 1980 revolution in Nicaragua left a marxist regime, the
Sandanista government, in control. The Reagan administration
IRAN-­CONTRA SCANDAL helped the Contras overthrow this marxist government. The U.S.
was sold arms to Iran in exchange for American hostages in Iran.
The money from the sale went to the Contra rebels.
PERESTROIKA (1980’s)
Economic reconstruction in USSR (Premiere Mikhail Gorbachev)
FALL OF THE
GLASNOST (1980’s)
Understanding or openness between USSR and U.S.
SOVIET UNION
(USSR)
FALL OF BERLIN WALL
In 1989, the wal that separated East and West Berlin came down.
PEACE DIVIDEND
The payoff of peace after so much investment to win the
ideological and political struggle. U.S. can act as humanitarian.
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PUBLIC POLICY
FOREIGN POLICY
BRIEF HISTORY OF WAR AND DIPLOMACY (GULF WAR-­GEORGE W. BUSH) PHASE
EVENT/POLICY
DESCRIPTION
OPERATION
45 day war in which the United States forced Iraqi dictator
GULF WAR
DESERT STORM (1991)
Saddam Hussein to withdraw out of Kuwait.
(GEORGE H. W.
BUSH)
POWELL DOCTRINE
Have a clear objective, use overwhelming force, get out quickly.
Colin Powel (Joint Chiefs of Staff Chairman).
ENLARGEMENT
Providing diplomatic and humanitarian engagement in the world in
BILL CLINTON &
order to increase the zone of democracy.
ENLARGEMENT
DAYTON ACCORDS
A peace treaty between the presidents of Bosnia, Croatia, and
Serbia to end the conflict in the Balkans.
September 11th 2001, al Qaeda sought revenge on the United
States for its presence in the Middle East and its involvement in
the Muslim world. Four commercial planes were hijacked. Two
9/11
planes hit the Word Trade Center towers in New York City,
another hit the Pentagon in Washington, and the fourth crashed in
a field near Shanksvil e, Pennsylvania after passengers stormed
the cockpit. Nearly 3,000 people were kil ed in these attacks.
Unofficial “ War on Terror” declared by George W. Bush. He
WAR ON TERRORISM
blamed the taliban of Afghanistan for al owing al Qaeda to
operate there. He also expressed concern about the axis of evil
(Iran, Iraq and North Korea).
The U.S. military entered Afghanistan (October of 2001) and
OPERATION
quickly ousted the Taliban regime. Troops continue to look for
SEPTEMBER 11
ENDURING FREEDOM
enemies and rebuild the country. In December of 2014, U.S. and
AND AFTER
(2001-­2014)
NATO ended their combat mission. They were stil some troops
(GEORGE W.
training Afghanistan soldiers.
BUSH)
Saddam Hussein would refuse to al ow UN weapon inspectors
OPERATION
into Iraq. Iraq was bound to international treaties that did not
IRAQI FREEDOM
al ow that country to have weapons of mass destruction. Hussein
(2003-­2011)
did have a weapons program and he did have thousands of his
own people kil ed, but he ended his weapon program in the late
1990’s. But he would not let weapon inspectors in (to save face
SIDENOTE:
in his country???). The United States invaded in spring of 2003,
in September 2010 it was renamed:
took baghdad with a few months (mission accomplished banner).
OPERATION NEW DAWN Then Saddam’s troops went into hiding in civilian population. In
(2010-­2011)
2010, the last U.S. combat brigade leave Iraq In December of
2011, the last U.S. troops leave the nation to return home.
It defends the United States and U.S. interests at home and
BUSH DOCTRINE
abroad by identifying and destroying the threat before it reaches
U.S. borders. It also centers on preemption, nation building, and
humanitarian endeavors.
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PUBLIC POLICY
FOREIGN POLICY
BRIEF HISTORY OF WAR AND DIPLOMACY (OBAMA-­TODAY)
PHASE
EVENT/POLICY
DESCRIPTION
He was emptying Guantanamo Bay (a prison for suspected
REDUCING
terrorists in Cuba) In the election of 2008 Obama ran saying he
GUANTANAMO
would close it down completely. As of June of 2015 it was stil
open.
KILLING
Plan partly designed by CIA and carried out by Navy Seals, the
OSAMA BIN LADEN
United States kil ed Osama Bin Laden in Pakistan on May 2,
2011.
BARACK
OBAMA
The United States has hundreds of drones or UAVS (Unmanned
USE OF DRONES
Aerial Vehicles). They are either driven by a computer program
or a pilot on the ground in the United States.
This probably came into effect after 9/11 during the Bush
NATIONAL SECURITY
presidency. But there are reports that Obama’s administration
AGENCY SPYING
uses the program as wel . Defenders of the government say that
we must use information to protect the United States from
PROGRAMS
terrorists. Opponents of the program question if it violates our
civil liberties.
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