THEO 1000 - Faith and Critical
Reason Final Study Guide
Table of Contents
THEO 1000 - Faith and Critical Reason Final Study Guide
Table of Contents
Pre-midterm Readings
#1 Define the subtraction thesis.
#2 Define what Taylor means by “porous self” and “buffered self.”
#3 According to Taylor, secularization includes the emergence of _____ as an option? (Fill in the
blank).
#4 Define mere secularity, self-sufficient and exclusive secularity, and secularist secularity
Post-midterm Lectures and Readings
Appleby reading on Fundamentalism
Traits of Fundamentalism
History of American Christian Fundamentalism
3 Disestablishments of Fundamentalism
Fundamentals of Fundamentalism
Hanson: “Evil and the God of Love”
Two Kinds of Evil
Definition of Theodicies
Five Theodicies
Practical Approach (Evil as a Practical Challenge)
Theoretical Approach
Criticism of Theodicies
Dostoyevsky’s response
Wiesel’s response
Hanson: “Is Belief in God Reasonable?”
Three reasons for doubting God
3 Arguments for Existence of God
The Ground of Christian Faith
Does Jill need to defend her beliefs from people who don’t believe?
Characteristics of Basic Beliefs
Two Tests for Distinguishing Among Beliefs
Three Angles of Belief
Five Conceptions of Faith (Faith as…)
Constitutive Aspects of Faith
Pre-midterm Readings
#1 Define the subtraction thesis.
The subtraction thesis maintains that modernization and secularism will eventually result in the complete
subtraction of religion from society.
It holds that in the switch from enchantment to disenchantment, there is no epistemic loss in terms of
knowledge. It merely results in a change in sensibility, in which “false” beliefs, fears, and imagined
objects are cast aside and disproven. The only thing that is lost is a way in which we used to experience
the world. Religion experiences a transition from a culture to becoming privatized.
#2 Define what Taylor means by “porous self” and “buffered self.”
Buffered self:​ describes living with a firmer sense of the boundary between self and other. A buffered
self finds it harder to be frightened about the supernatural and easier to disengage from everything
outside of the mind. The buffered self might say: “I am sad due to neurotransmitters,” or “I see that ad,
and I like the item, so I will buy it.”
Porous self:​ is vulnerable, open to being enchanted. The porous self might say “I feel sad, so God must
be punishing me,” or “That ad is trying to control me and I must either ignore or succumb to it.”
#3 According to Taylor, secularization includes the emergence of _____ as an
option? (Fill in the blank).
A:​ unbelief as an option.
#4 Define mere secularity, self-sufficient and exclusive secularity, and secularist
secularity
mere secularity:​ Describes a secular world where being religious is a normal, viable option (United
States) ​You’re religious? Cool.
self-sufficient and exclusive secularity: ​Describes a world in which living without religion is normal and
taken for granted (United Kingdom/England) ​You’re religious? Weird.
secularist secularity:​ Describes living as liberated from religion as a condition for human autonomy and
flourishing (France) ​You’re religious? You’re a drain on society.
Post-midterm Lectures and Readings
Appleby reading on Fundamentalism
Traits of Fundamentalism
Fundamentalism is often misconstrued as “radical” or “unorthodox,” but it is really a modern,
anti-modern response that takes shape in the form of movements of opposition against the state.
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The five ideological traits of fundamentalism are split up into two categories: ideological and
organizational.
Ideological (five traits)
○ #1: ​reactivity to the marginalization of religion
○ #2: ​selective retrieval​ (taking certain pieces of religious tradition and certain pieces of
modernity in accordance to whatever is convenient—e.g. ignoring the parts that say you
shouldn’t eat shrimp or use wool but bring validity to saying that gay people shouldn’t
marry)
○ #3: ​absolutism ​(your beliefs are absolutely, irrevocably true, claiming inerrancy and
infallibility in religious knowledge)
○ #4: ​dualism/Manichaeism ​(idea that fundamentalists are set against everyone else, and
that God has chosen them to fight the dark forces in the world in a cosmic battle)
○ #5:​ millennialism​ (idea that we are in the end of days, time is not moving forward but the
apocalypse is looming, leading them to justify violence in religious terms)
Organizational (four traits)
○ #1: ​begins as an enclave​ (isolated from the rest of the population, set apart from society
both literally and ideologically, united through moral persuasion
○ #2: ​network of enclaves​ (moves from an enclave → network of enclave →
institutionalization, with own healthcare systems, political organizations, libraries, etc.)
○ #3 ​hierarchical leadership​ (usually one charismatic male individual at the top with
absolute authority, authoritarian, patriarchal)
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#4 ​distinctive behavioral codes​ (everyone is mandated to dress and act a certain way,
exaggerating traditional values, dietary and sexual restrictions)
History of American Christian Fundamentalism
#1 Beginning - turn of the 20th century
● This period was characterized by an intra-Christian debate, catalyzed by a book called the
Fundamentals. T
​ he debate occurred between:
○ “liberal Christians” (correlationists) who tried to correlate traditional Christian beliefs
with new science (e.g. evolution)
○ “conservative Christians” (non-correlationists) literalists who did not feel like they had to
correlate beliefs to modern forms of knowing
#2 Withdrawal - 1920s–1970s
● During this period, fundamentalists were known to withdraw from public life
● Happened after the Scopes trial about evolution
○ those who opposed Scopes were portrayed as “backwards,” leading to withdrawal
#3 Political activism - 1970s onward
● During this period, fundamentalists were more active and politically engaged.
● They had an evangelical Christian base.
● The increased involvement was due to Roe v. Wade.
3 Disestablishments of Fundamentalism
#1 Constitutional
● Establishment cause in Constitution (“We shall not establish any religion as the religion of the
United States”)
● Note: this was a disestablishment ​on paper b​ ut it did not necessarily occur societally, culturally,
and politically, since 95% of people were Protestant.
#2 Cultural (mid-19th c.)
● Pluralism was injected into the country through immigration (influx of Catholics and Jews raised
questions about the church and the establishment of a state religion)
● Civil War resulted in more higher education and the development of a common moral perspective
● Featured the disestablishment of Protestant Christianity of from its cultural hegemony
#3 Moral (1970s)
● Featured a “crack in moral code hovering over America”—sex, drugs, and rock and roll!
(meaning that not everyone had the same moral standards)
● This disestablishment introduced the possibility of a plurality of moralities
● Led to an increase in political activism (see first list)
Fundamentals of Fundamentalism
These three things were a reaction to the emergence of the secular, modern thought. These things were
not fundamentals from the time of Jesus, but rather attempts at trying to counter what fundamentalists
viewed as attacks on Christianity.
#1 Biblical literalism (all aspects of the Bible are literally true)
#2 Anti-evolution
#3 Millennial view on the end of history (thousand-year rule of Christ)
● Held that the end of time will come, and some will be damned
● Fought against the idea of “exclusive humanism” (Taylor), which held that humans can flourish
and create a “heaven on Earth”
○ Relates to “liberal/conservative” views of history: “Everyone is terrible, but if we try
really hard with our little group we might die together. Everyone else will die, though”
Hanson: “Evil and the God of Love”
Two Kinds of Evil
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Moral evil - the evil that human beings bring about
○ e.g. murder, slander, abuse of the environment
Natural evil - the evil that is not originated by humans
○ e.g. earthquakes, floods, viruses
Definition of Theodicies
Theodicies are ways in which one may theorize the existence of God with the existence of evil, or how
one can reconcile evil with a supposedly omnipotent God.
The word literally means “justification of God.”
Five Theodicies
#1 Satan (Satan is the source of evil)
● Satan​ - old Hebrew word for “adversary” or “wicked opponent”
○ An angel who became evil and sought to disrupt the relationship of God and humans
○ God is a source of all beings, including the devil—Satan is an angel who fell from God
■ Moral evil:​ rooted in the sin of angels who fell from God and tempt humans
■ Natural evil: ​devil disrupting God’s creations
Criticism​ - Satan is ultimately under the power of God, so why does God allow Satan’s continued
existence and activity?
#2 Process theodicy​ ​- (God’s power is limited)
● God is not fully responsible for everything, and may only merely lure people toward what is best
● Limits the power of God and rejects traditional Christian teachings
#3 Augustinian (evil is derived from the free will of finite beings)
● As originally created by God, angels and humans were good and had no natural evils.
● Eventually, they made the fundamentally wrong choice of turning away from God.
● Free will opens up the possibility of sinning.
● Moral evil​ is the result of humans making the wrong choices and turning away from God
● Natural evils​ such as disease, drought, and damaging storms were considered divine penalties for
sin
#4 Irenaean (human beings were not created perfectly)
● God created immature beings that are supposed to grow to spiritual and moral maturity
○ Supposed to go on a journey through life where they reach a perfect self
○ Natural evils: trials necessary for human development to mature. They provide changes
and challenges necessary for free beings to have a real choice, leading to greater spiritual
and moral maturity
#5 Liberation Theology (the suffering God)
● This God is not a dualist God, but one that is enmeshed and feels the pain of history.
● Evil should not be accepted and made peace with
● God struggles against evil and causes people to fight against it
● God is always actively fighting for the oppressed, and stands with those who are suffering
● Criticism​ - Just because God suffers too doesn’t make suffering okay.
Practical Approach (Evil as a Practical Challenge)
How do Christians deal with the problem of evil in their conception of God?
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#1 God shares the world’s suffering
○ Jesus Christ died on the cross (revealing depth of God’s involvement in human suffering)
○ Because of God’s deep bond and involvement in lives of creatures, he also suffers
○ God knows and shares your suffering and continues to love you
#2 God brings good out of evil
○ God specifically sends suffering for educational purposes
○ God’s providence (protective care) works through structures of nature, structures that
include both regularities (laws) and chance (e.g. contracting cancer is not directly willed
by God)
○ Calls on people to change their ways when he disapproves (i.e. of unjust social structures)
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The good​ is defined as the courage and compassion of those who resist evil and strive for
healing/justice
○ Steadfast love and strength of God help us work toward the good
#3 God will ultimately triumph over evil
○ Jesus’ resurrection symbolizes the fact that God will eventually triumph over both moral
and natural evil.
○ Believing in the notion that evil will be ultimately defeated is an act of faith
Theoretical Approach
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Holds that God’s intent is not necessarily to have a person be good-looking, successful, and
carefree
○ What he really cares about are Christlike qualities in those who hurt
○ In order for these people to arise, there must be hazards and trials in the world
God willingly pays a high price for creating finite free beings with the inherent capacity to misuse
freedom
Creating and guiding a richly diverse world toward ultimate harmony is costly, and thus a ​labor
of love
God who shares in sufferings and joys of creatures
Love, beauty, and good can’t be experienced fully in a world with no evil
A world with no evil requires manipulation of people to love/worship him, thus eliminating free
will
○ In this world, it's not that you can’t DO evil, it's that you can't even THINK evil
Criticism of Theodicies
Wiesel and Dostoyevsky rejected all theodicies because​:
○ Rationalizing the permission of evil betrays those who have experienced horror and
suffering
○ They result in implications that evil is okay, and this is dangerous because people become
complacent to evil/horror
○ To people who have experienced the horror, theodicies are irrelevant or repugnant
Dostoyevsky’s response
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Alyosha doesn’t defend God, he justs sits and accepts the anger, expressing his own conflict
The hope for humanity is the possibility of LOVE (Alyosha)
○ Most monks don’t try to argue/defend/offer an explanation
○ His way of teaching people’s lives (transformed by his goodness)
Wiesel’s response
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Keep the memory of evil alive—never forget the Holocaust so we learn from old mistakes
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Night​ is written as an immersive experience, with the goal of immersing the reader in pain
“To be silent is impossible, to speak is forbidden” the Wiesel
○ No words to describe how tragic it was, but if you study silently the pain is forgotten
Remembering suffering is the only way
Forgiveness is another option, because you carry the pain with you over time but it doesn’t not
necessarily damage your relationship
Hanson: “Is Belief in God Reasonable?”
Three reasons for doubting God
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#1 Increased awareness of plurality of religions
○ Due to the diversity of beliefs, how can Christians claim theirs as true?
#2 Experience of evil
○ Horrors such as the Holocaust
#3 Rising of modern scientific worldview
○ Reflected in philosophy, humanities, natural/social sciences
○ Belief in God was often portrayed in pedagogy as naïve and unreasonable
Reason
Faith
Universal Truth
Superstition
objectivity
tradition/subjective
necessity
feeling
fact/empirical
naive
science
mistaken
public
private
3 Arguments for Existence of God
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#1 Argument from contingency (Thomas Aquinas)
○ All persons and things we know in this world are contingent
○ Existence of everything is contingent of something else
○ The universe of dependent beings received its existence from a necessary being, a
non-contingent God
○ Criticism: Sets up an “either/or”: either there is a God, or no explanation.
#2 Ontological argument (Anselm)
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God is “a being than which nothing greater can be conceived” (“greater,” i.e. “better” or
“more perfect”
○ Criticism: you can say there is something better than you, but it doesn’t necessarily mean
that it exists.
#3 Argument from Design
○ The natural world has designs in great variety and number; a particular cosmic order
makes life possible and any sight alteration world rule out life
○ This complex order was made by someone (like a watch with intricate gears has a
watchmaker) → that someone is God
○ Counter: Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution described an order created by evolution
(mutation, not selection), phenomena are explainable by science
The Ground of Christian Faith
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There is a distinction between becoming faithful through “training” vs. exposure to Christian
experiences (e.g. the dance example, or someone reading the Bible as if God is speaking to them
vs. an atheist reading the Bible)
Affirming Christian beliefs requires further training in the Christian story, hence the importance
of religious practices
○ Practices—such as praying—are developed as the core of religion for a goal, to reach a
certain state of being
■ Fasting: keeps God in everyday memory
■ Love thy neighbor: You cannot will yourself to love, so you must involve your
whole person in the name of tradition of love for God, yourself, and people.
Does Jill need to defend her beliefs from people who don’t believe?
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She doesn’t need to, because it is a “properly basic belief” for her belief system (held to be true
with argument or logic)
Characteristics of Basic Beliefs
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#1 Self-evident​ (seen as true once understood, e.g. 2+2=4)
#2 Evident to the senses​ (e.g. “I see a tree”) and ​#3 Incorrigibility
○ Modern critique clarifies this to say “immune from error,” as in “I seem to see a tree”
Foundationalists claim that God is not a “basic belief,” but Hanson is trying to argue that it is.
○ Jill’s experiences confirm her beliefs; she experiences a sense of God through Scripture.
○ She is mentally sound.
○ Asking her to give up that belief is like asking a scientist not to give up in science.
○ Make sure that you are not in a cult.
○ Criticism​ - “Memory beliefs”: our experiences of remembering justify beliefs as properly
basic in most circumstances
Two Tests for Distinguishing Among Beliefs
These tests can determine “intelligent behavior” and help ensure that you’re not in a cult.
● Fruitfulness of living
○ Do your beliefs enable people to deal constructively with diverse situations and produce
high character?
● Fruitfulness for understanding
○ Can you make connections between Christian faith and significant theories and ideas
from other fields?
○ This test also dictates that you don’t need to suspend belief until you can properly
respond to skeptics.
Three Angles of Belief
SHAKEN BELIEF​ - Peter (suspended between Christian and Freudian beliefs):​ Due to his
suspension between Christian and Freudian beliefs, should examine relevant arguments and strengthen his
understanding of the Christian faith through study and religious practice.
STRONG BELIEF​ - Jill (convinced Christian):​ It is reasonable for her to continue believing in God
even though she does not refute a skeptical objection, just as it is reasonable for her to believe in the
existence of perceptual objects without countering skeptical challenges to it.
LACK OF BELIEF​ - Jack (atheist and fan of Freudian conception of religion):​ Should connect with
believers and “try out” the Christian perspective, since the scientific approach might miss some
dimensions that religion makes accessible. He would have to do this through a “personal quest for
wholeness."
Five Conceptions of Faith (Faith as…)
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#1 Journey
○ This implies movement and an “end”
#2 Seeking
○ The ​phenomenology of faith​ holds that faith is not intrinsically tied to religion/God/a
higher power (i.e. the science of phenomena is distinct from that of the nature of being).
#3 Openness
○ Faith can be a way to demonstrate one’s open-mindedness and experiment with
porousness.
#4 Risk
○ Implies that we could be wrong
#5 Conversion
○ Assumes that faith is given to you
Constitutive Aspects of Faith
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Basic trust (as it relates to our ultimate concern)
Beliefs (things we put into sentences)
Commitments (which lead to actions)
Unity (as a result of those actions)