CHAPTER 9
Motivation
Learning Objectives
9-1.
Explain what mo.va.on is and why managers need to be
concerned about it.
9-2.
Describe from the perspec.ves of expectancy theory and
equity theory what managers should do to have a highly
mo.vated workforce.
9-3.
Explain how goals and needs mo.vate people and what
kinds of goals are especially likely to result in high
performance.
9-4.
Iden.fy the mo.va.on lessons that managers can learn
from operant condi.oning theory and social learning
theory.
9-5.
Explain why and how managers can use pay as a major
mo.va.on tool.
The Nature of Motivation (1 of 4)
Mo+va+on
The psychological forces that determine the
direc.on of a person’s behavior in an organiza.on, a
person’s level of effort, and a person’s level
of persistence
© LWA/Dann Tardif/Blend Images/ Corbis RF
The Nature of Motivation (2 of 4)
Direc+on
Possible behaviors an individual could engage in
Effort
How hard an individual will work
Persistence
Whether an individual will keep trying or give up
The Nature of Motivation (3 of 4)
Intrinsically Mo+vated Behavior
Behavior that is performed for its own sake
Extrinsically Mo+vated Behavior
Behavior that is performed to acquire material or
social rewards or to avoid punishment
Prosocially Mo+vated behavior
Behavior performed to benefit or help others
The Nature of Motivation (4 of 4)
Outcome
• Anything a person gets from a job or an
organiza.on
• Pay, job security, autonomy, accomplishment
Input
• Anything a person contributes to his or her job or
organiza.on
• Time, effort, skills, knowledge, work behaviors
The Motivation Equation
Figure 9.1
Expectancy Theory
Expectancy Theory
The theory that mo.va.on will be high when
workers believe that high levels of effort lead to high
performance and high performance leads to the
aNainment of desired outcomes
Expectancy Theory (1 of 2)
Expectancy
A percep.on about the extent to which effort will
result in a certain level of performance
Instrumentality
A percep.on about the extent to which
performance results in the aNainment of outcomes
Valence
How desirable each of the available outcomes from
a job or organiza.on is to a person
Topics for Discussion (1 of 5)
Discuss why two people with similar abili.es
may have very different expectancies for
performing at a high level. [LO 9-2]
Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valence
Figure 9.2
Topics for Discussion (2 of 5)
Describe why some people have low
instrumentali.es even when their managers
distribute outcomes based on performance.
[LO 9-2]
Expectancy Theory (2 of 2)
Figure 9.3
Need Theories
Need
A requirement or necessity for survival and wellbeing
Need Theories
• Theories of mo.va.on that focus on what needs
people are trying to sa.sfy at work and what
outcomes will sa.sfy those needs
• Basic premise is that people are mo.vated to
obtain outcomes at work to sa.sfy their needs
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Level
Needs
Descrip+on
Examples of How Managers
Can Help People Sa+sfy These
Needs at Work
Highest-level needs
Self-actualiza+on needs
The needs to realize one’s full
poten.al as a human being.
Giving people the opportunity
to use their skills and abili.es to
the fullest extent possible.
Next to highest-level needs
Esteem needs
The needs to feel good about
oneself and one’s capabili.es, to
be respected by others, and to
receive recogni.on and
apprecia.on.
Gran.ng promo.ons and
recognizing accomplishments.
Medium-level needs
Belongingness needs
Needs to social interac.on,
friendship, affec.on, and love.
Promo.ng good interpersonal
rela.ons and organizing social
func.ons such as company
picnics and holiday par.es.
Next to lowest-level needs
Safety needs
Needs for security, stability, and
a safe environment
Providing job security, adequate
medical benefits, and safe
working condi.ons.
Lowest-level needs (most basic
or compelling)
Physiological needs
Basic needs for things such as
food, water, and shelter that
must b met in order for a person
to survive.
Providing a level of pay that
enables a person to buy food
and clothing and have adequate
housing.
The lowest level of unsa+sfied needs mo+vates behavior; once this level of needs is sa+sfied, a
person +res to sa+sfy the needs at the next level.
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory (1 of 2)
Herzberg’s Mo+va+on-Hygiene Theory
A need theory that dis.nguishes between mo.vator
needs (related to the nature of the work itself) and
hygiene needs (related to the physical and
psychological context in which the work is
performed) and proposes that mo.vator needs
must be met for mo.va.on and job sa.sfac.on to
be high
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory (2 of 2)
Mo+vator needs relate to the nature of the
work itself and how challenging it is.
Hygiene needs are related to the physical and
psychological context in which the work is
performed.
McClelland’s Needs for Achievement, Affiliation, and Power (1 of 2)
Need for Achievement
A strong desire to perform challenging tasks well
and meet personal standards for excellence
McClelland’s Needs for Achievement, Affiliation, and Power (2 of 2)
Need for Affilia+on
Extent to which an individual is concerned about
establishing and maintaining good interpersonal
rela.ons, being liked, and having the people around
him or her get along with each other
Need for Power
Extent to which an individual desires to control or
influence others
Equity Theory (1 of 4)
Equity Theory
A theory of mo.va.on that focuses on people’s
percep.ons of the fairness of their work outcomes
rela.ve to their work inputs
Equity Theory (2 of 4)
Equity
Jus.ce, impar.ality, and fairness to which all
organiza.onal members are en.tled
Inequity
Lack of fairness
Equity Theory (3 of 4)
Table 9.2
Equity Theory (4 of 4)
Underpayment Inequity
Exists when a person perceives that his or her own
outcome–input ra.o is less than the ra.o of a
referent
Overpayment Inequity
Exists when a person perceives that his own
outcome–input ra.o is greater than the ra.o of a
referent
Topics for Discussion (3 of 5)
Analyze how professors try to promote equity to
mo.vate students. [LO 9-2]
Equity and Justice in Organizations (1 of 2)
Distribu+ve Jus+ce
A person’s percep.on of the fairness of the
distribu.on of outcomes in an organiza.on
Procedural Jus+ce
A person’s percep.on of the fairness of the
procedures that are used to determine how to
distribute outcomes in an organiza.on
Equity and Justice in Organizations (2 of 2)
Interpersonal Jus+ce
A person’s percep.on of the fairness of the
interpersonal treatment he or she receives from
whoever distributes outcomes to him or her
Informa+onal Jus+ce
A person’s percep.on of the extent to which his or
her manager provides explana.ons for decisions
and the procedures used to arrive at them
Goal-Setting Theory
Goal-Se_ng Theory
Focuses on iden.fying the types of goals that are
most effec.ve in producing high levels of mo.va.on
and performance and explaining why goals have
these effects
© Stockbyte/ Punchstock Images RF
Topics for Discussion (4 of 5)
Describe three techniques or procedures that
managers can use to determine whether a goal
is difficult. [LO 9-3]
Learning Theories (1 of 2)
Learning Theories
Theories that focus on increasing employee
mo.va.on and performance by linking the
outcomes that employees receive to the
performance of desired behaviors and the
aNainment of goals
Learning Theories (2 of 2)
Learning
A rela.vely permanent change in person’s
knowledge or behavior that results from
prac.ce or experience
Operant Conditioning Theory (1 of 3)
Operant Condi+oning
People learn to perform behaviors that lead to
desired consequences and learn not to perform
behaviors that lead to undesired consequences
Operant Conditioning Theory (2 of 3)
Posi+ve Reinforcement
Giving people outcomes they desire when they
perform organiza.onally func.onal behaviors
Nega+ve Reinforcement
Elimina.ng undesired outcomes when people
perform organiza.onally func.onal behaviors
Operant Conditioning Theory (3 of 3)
Ex+nc+on
Curtailing the performance of a dysfunc.onal
behavior by elimina.ng whatever is reinforcing
them
Punishment
Administering an undesired or nega.ve
consequence when dysfunc.onal behavior occurs
Topics for Discussion (5 of 5)
Discuss why managers should always try to use
posi.ve reinforcement instead of nega.ve
reinforcement. [LO 9-4]
Social Learning Theory (1 of 3)
Social Learning Theory
A theory that takes into account how learning and
mo.va.on are influenced by people’s thoughts and
beliefs and their observa.ons of other people’s
behavior
Social Learning Theory (2 of 3)
Vicarious Learning
• Learning that occurs when a learner is mo.vated
to perform a behavior by watching another person
perform and be reinforced for doing so
• Also called observa.onal learning
Social Learning Theory (3 of 3)
Self-Reinforcer
Any desired or aNrac.ve outcome or award that a
person can give himself or herself for good
performance
Self-Efficacy
A person’s belief about his or her ability to perform
a behavior successfully
Pay and Motivation (1 of 2)
Pay as a Mo+vator
• Expectancy: Instrumentality, the associa.on
between performance and outcomes (such as
pay), must be high for mo.va.on to be high.
• Need Theory: Pay is used to sa.sfy many needs.
• Equity Theory: Pay is given in rela.on to inputs.
Pay and Motivation (2 of 2)
Pay as a Mo+vator
• Goal-Secng Theory: Pay is linked to aNainment of
goals.
• Learning Theory: Outcomes (pay), is distributed
upon performance of func.onal behaviors.
Merit Pay and Performance
Merit Pay Plan
A compensa.on plan that bases pay on
performance
Salary Increase or Bonus?
Employee Stock Op+on
A financial instrument that en.tles the bearer to
buy shares of an organiza.on’s stock at a certain
price during a certain period of .me or under
certain condi.ons
Examples of Merit Pay Plans (1 of 2)
Piece-Rate Pay
Employee’s pay is based on the number of units that
the employee produces.
Commission Pay
Employee’s pay is based on a percentage of sales
that the employee makes.
Examples of Merit Pay Plans (2 of 2)
Scanlon Plan
Focuses on reducing expenses or cucng costs
Profit Sharing
A share of an organiza.on’s profits