Journal of Vocational Behavior 54, 259 –278 (1999)
Article ID jvbe.1998.1667, available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on
Role Stressors, Interrole Conflict, and Well-Being: The
Moderating Influence of Spousal Support and Coping
Behaviors among Employed Parents in Hong Kong
Samuel Aryee, Vivienne Luk, Alicia Leung, and Susanna Lo
Department of Management, School of Business, Hong Kong Baptist University,
Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong
This study examined the relationship between role stressors, interrole conflict, and
well-being and the moderating influences of spousal support and coping behaviors among
a sample of Hong Kong Chinese employed parents in dual-earner families (N 5 243). The
results revealed that while parental overload was related to family–work conflict (FWC),
work overload was related to both work–family conflict (WFC) and FWC. Spousal
support moderated the effect of parental overload on FWC. The findings further revealed
that FWC was negatively related to job and life satisfaction, but neither WFC nor FWC
was related to family satisfaction. Emotion- and problem-focused coping were related to
job and family satisfaction, but only emotion-focused coping was related to life satisfaction. However, with the exception of the moderating influence of emotion-focused coping
on the relationship between FWC and job satisfaction, the coping behaviors were largely
ineffective. Limitations of the study and an organizational role in managing the work–
family interface of employed parents are discussed. © 1999 Academic Press
The growing number of women in the labor force, particularly those who are
married and/or with children, has led to a recognition of the interdependence of
work and family and an interest in understanding how individuals coordinate
their work and family roles. Perhaps because of the different expectations that
underpin role performance in the work and family domains, much of the extant
research has focused on the conflict that individuals experience as they attempt
to simultaneously perform their work and family roles. Two forms of interrole
conflict noted in the literature are work–family and family–work conflict (Gutek,
Searle, & Klepa, 1991). Work–family conflict (WFC) stems from the interference
of events in the work role with performance of the family role. For example, long
work hours may prevent one from helping a child with his/her schoolwork,
precipitating WFC. Family–work conflict (FWC), on the other hand, stems from
the interference of events in the family role with performance of the work role.
For example, a child’s illness may prevent attendance at work, precipitating
Address correspondence and reprint requests to Samuel Aryee, Department of Management,
School of Business, Hong Kong Baptist University, 224 Waterloo Road, Kowloon Tong, Hong Kong.
Fax: (852) 2339-5583. E-mail: saryee@hkbu.edu.hk.
259
0001-8791/99 $30.00
Copyright © 1999 by Academic Press
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
260
ARYEE ET AL.
FWC. Regardless of the direction of the interference, interrole conflict indicates
an absence of fit between the work and family roles. Research interest in interrole
conflict may stem from the demonstrated negative consequences of these forms
of stress on the quality of life in both the work and family domains and on one’s
well-being in general (Frone, Russell, & Cooper, 1992; Parasuraman, Greenhaus,
& Granrose, 1992).
Despite awareness of the negative consequences for individuals resulting from
simultaneous involvement in the work and family roles in emergent family forms
(such as dual-earner and single-parent families), the rising level of education in
women, and the greater awareness of sex-role equality (factors that have influenced the participation of women in the workforce), it is unlikely that the
demonstrated stresses inherent in these emergent family forms, particularly the
dual-earner family, will dissipate. While previous research has enhanced our
understanding of the dynamics in this type of family form, a limitation of much
of this research is that it has focused on the dual-career family, where the
members tended to be involved in professional or managerial careers. Consequently, this study focused on the dual-earner family, where each partner is a
member of the general workforce and the partners share a common residence
(Parasuraman et al., 1992). Pleck (1987) noted in his comment on an article by
Gilbert and Rachlin (1987) that the work–family interface has received increased
attention not because of any increase in the proportion of dual-career families,
but rather because of the significant increase in the presence of dual-earner
families. He further noted that members of such families tend to have weak or
lesser bargaining power with employers, fewer resources to help with their
(work–family interface) problems, and to experience more severe economic
consequences when the wife leaves the labor force (Pleck, 1987, p. 132).
Although Pleck’s observations on the work–family interface were specific to the
United States, they are equally applicable in Hong Kong. For example, while
financially well-off families (primary dual-career families) are able to afford the
services of paid live-in help, the typical dual-earner family in Hong Kong (in
which the wife works out of economic necessity and often for long inflexible
hours) tends to depend on members of the extended family, neighbors, or their
own resourcefulness to manage the work–family interface. Thus, for couples in
which both members are employed and maintain a family life (Hammer, Allen,
& Grigsby, 1997), research on dual-earner families should provide a more
complete understanding of the dynamics involved in this emergent family form.
A second limitation of the extant research is that, in spite of the global
prevalence of the dual-earner family, much of it has been based on samples in the
industrialized West. It has been noted that cultural norms underpin the operation
of the work–family interface (Aryee, Fields, & Luk, in press). In addition to its
collectivist orientation (Hofstede, 1980), daily life in Hong Kong, a Chinese
society, is influenced by the philosophical traditions of Confucianism. Consequently, the family is considered a fundamental unit of society and it takes
precedence over its individual members. The most important function of the
INTERROLE CONFLICT AND WELL-BEING
261
individual is in the maintenance and preservation of the household. While life in
Hong King is anchored in Confucian traditions, it is also a modern, industrial city
with a per capita income comparable to some of the industrialized economies of
the West such as the United States, Great Britain, and Canada. This coexistence
of traditionalism and modernism is said to create an inner tension in the people
of Hong Kong, which is resolved through a family ideology called “utilitarianistic familism.” Lau (1981) described utilitarianistic familism as a tendency to
place family interests above those of the individual and to structure social
relationships so that furtherance of one’s familial interests is a primary consideration. As Aryee et al. (in press) noted, the economic realities of life in Hong
Kong (for example, the high cost of living) engender an orientation to work
whereby work is perceived primarily as an instrument for obtaining the economic
means to maintain the family. To ensure the family’s financial security, the Hong
Kong Chinese family endorses and, indeed, requires a strong commitment to the
work role. The motivational underpinnings of the commitment to work among
Hong Kong Chinese employees result in a blurring of the work and family roles.
Schein (1984), cited in Aryee et al. (in press), observed that such a blurring of the
work and family roles is less likely to exist in the United States and perhaps in
other European countries where the work ethic has been challenged and where
self-development and family development are posed as counter to the demands
of work. We would expect reactions to within-domain stressors to be similar
across cultures. For example, we would expect work overload to precipitate WFC
among both Western and non-Western employed parents. However, because
cultures differ in the extent to which work and family are perceived as distinct
domains, we would expect reactions to cross-domain stressors to differ cross
cultures. For example, the effect of work overload on WFC and FWC may be
culture specific. While work overload may affect WFC and FWC among employed parents in both collectivist Hong Kong and in the individualist West, it
may more strongly affect FWC among employed parents in the former than in the
latter. Thus, it is critical to examine WFC and FWC within cultures other than
that of the United States.
A third limitation of previous research is that, although the model linking
stress and well-being (Cohen & Wills, 1985) has been employed as a conceptual
framework, few studies have examined the stress-buffering effect of social
support and coping behaviors in a single study (Matsui, Oshawa, & Onglatco,
1995). This study was designed to address some of the limitations of the extant
research. It examined, first, the moderating effect of spousal support on the role
stressors–interrole conflict relationship and, second, the effectiveness of coping
behaviors in attenuating the effects of interrole conflict on the well-being of
Hong Kong Chinese employed parents in dual-earner families.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW
Figure 1 presents a conceptual model relating work overload, parental overload, social support, WFC, FWC, and emotion- and problem-focused coping
262
ARYEE ET AL.
FIG. 1. A hypothesized model of stressors, social support, stress, coping behavior and wellbeing.
behaviors to job, family, and life satisfaction. The model posits that the effects
of the role stressors of work and parental overload on WFC and FWC would be
moderated by spousal (social) support. This represents the first point in the model
linking stress and well-being as outlined by Cohen and Wills (1985). At this
point, spousal support intervenes between the stressful events of work and
parental overload and the stress reactions of WFC and FWC by attenuating a
stress appraisal response. The model also posits that the effects of WFC and
FWC on the indicators of well-being would be moderated by emotion-focused
and problem-focused coping behaviors. The second point in the model linking
stress and well-being outlined by Cohen and Wills (1985) suggests that adequate
support intervenes between the experience of stress and well-being by reducing
the stress reaction. The rest of this section is devoted to reviewing the literature
that examined the hypothesized relationships depicted in Fig. 1.
Inherent in performing the dual roles of parenting and working is the tendency
to be overwhelmed by the demands of the two roles. Role overload has been
defined as a perception of having too many things to do and not enough time to
do them (Caplan, Cobb, French, Harrison, & Pinneau, 1975). Work overload has
been reported to be related to WFC and FWC (Parasuraman, Purohit, Godshalk,
& Beutell, 1996; Frone, Yardley, & Markel, 1997). Parental overload has also
been found to be related to WFC and FWC (Frone et al., 1997). Greenhaus and
Beutell (1985) suggested that role overload affects WFC through psychological
preoccupation with a role. As high levels of role overload suggest that one has
too much to accomplish in an inadequate period of time, it may lead to psychological preoccupation with uncompleted tasks even while responding to the
demands of another role. The effect of role overload on interrole conflict would
be buffered by spousal support. There is consensus in the literature that social
support can come from either work or family domains. Prominent among the
sources of family or nonwork social support is spousal support. Previous research
has documented the stress-buffering role of spousal support (Beutell & Green-
INTERROLE CONFLICT AND WELL-BEING
263
haus, 1983; Suchet & Barling, 1986; Matsui et al., 1995). In their study of
Japanese working women, Matsui et al. (1995) reported that support from the
husband buffered the effects of parental demands on FWC. Beutell and Greenhaus (1983) also suggested that a supportive husband who has proliberal or
nontraditional sex-role attitudes would buffer his wife from the competing
demands of work and family. This may take the form of a husband’s acceptance
of his wife’s participation in the workforce and/or assistance with child and
homecare responsibilities. Thus, it is expected that spousal support would moderate the relationship between work and parental overload and WFC and FWC.
In addition to examining the antecedents of interrole conflict, this study also
examined the processes through which interrole conflict affects well-being.
The experience of interrole conflict has been shown to have negative implications for well-being, which is usually defined in terms of satisfaction in major
realms of an individual’s life. Kline and Cowan (1988) suggested that well-being
should be investigated in a differentiated manner that reflects the domains in
which it is experienced. Following previous research (Parasuraman et al., 1992),
we examined the effects of WFC and FWC on job, family, and life satisfaction.
Both WFC and FWC have been reported to be related to life stress (Parasuraman
et al., 1992), WFC to life satisfaction (Aryee et al., in press), and FWC to
depression (Frone et al., 1992). However, research has usually examined the
crossover effect of WFC and FWC on domain satisfaction. The WFC has been
reported to be related to family satisfaction (O’Driscoll, Ilgen, & Hildreth, 1992;
Aryee et al., in press) and FWC to job satisfaction or distress (Frone et al., 1992)
and career satisfaction (Parasuraman et al., 1996). In addition to examining their
crossover effects, we also examined the effect of WFC and FWC on withindomain satisfaction. Consistent with previous findings, WFC and FWC were
predicted to be negatively related to the indicators of well-being.
Greenhaus and Parasuraman (1986) noted that since stress is ultimately based
on the focal person’s perception and interpretation of the environment, individual
actions are often required to manage stress and the resultant strain. Although
Cohen and Wills’ (1985) model focused on social support as an individual
intervention to manage stress, other types of coping behavior may similarly
function in the model linking interrole conflict and life strain. Indeed, social
support has been noted to be a subset of a broader domain of coping (Gore,
1987). Coping has been defined as the cognitive and behavioral efforts used to
contend with events appraised as stressful (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). In other
words, coping describes the things that individuals do to avoid being harmed by
life strain (Pearlin & Schooler, 1978). The relation between strain and coping has
been noted to be theoretically grounded in the motivational aspect of person–
environment transactions (Scheck, Kinicki, & Davy, 1997). In the view of
Scheck et al. (1997), strain creates disequilibrium in people’s lives thereby
motivating them to do something to restore equilibrium. Two types of coping
strategies identified in the literature are emotion-focused and problem-focused
coping. Emotion-focused coping refers to attempts to reduce emotional distress
264
ARYEE ET AL.
associated with a stressful situation through techniques such as avoidance and
distancing. In contrast, problem-focused coping refers to efforts directed at
defining the problem and acting to eliminate or circumvent the source of stress.
Coping strategies are defined independent of their outcomes; that is to say, they
refer to efforts to manage demands regardless of the success of these efforts
(Folkman, 1984; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984; Scheck et al., 1997). In this study,
we examined the extent to which emotion-focused and problem-focused coping
buffer participants in a dual-earner family from the effects of interrole conflict on
their well-being.
Increasingly, models of the stress process suggest an interaction of stress,
strain, and coping resources (Osipow & Spokane, 1984; Guelzow, Bird, &
Koball, 1991; McCubbin, 1979; Paden & Buehler, 1995; Greenhaus & Parasuraman, 1986). Osipow and Davis (1988) reported that use of coping resources
buffered the relationship between occupational stress and strain. Matsui et al.
(1995) reported that as a coping behavior, family role redefinition moderated the
relationship between FWC and life strain in their sample of Japanese working
women. While it has been noted in the literature (Skinner, 1980) that the absence
of institutionalized supports have forced individuals in dual-earner families to
come up with individualized coping strategies, there is a paucity of research that
has examined the effectiveness of some of these strategies in mitigating the effect
of interrole conflict on well-being. Consistent with the buffering hypotheses, we
expect that emotion-focused and problem-focused coping would moderate the
relationship between WFC and FWC and the well-being indicators of job, family,
and life satisfaction.
METHOD
Sample and Procedure
Data for this study were obtained as part of a project that examined employed
parents’ experience of the work–family interface in Hong Kong. Respondents
were Hong Kong Chinese employed parents involved in dual-earner families
drawn from three public-sector organizations and a local university. Respondents
from the local university were participants at a workshop for university employees who later referred additional respondents to the authors. Questionnaire
packages were sent to prospective respondents through each organization’s
internal mail. Each questionnaire was prefaced with a letter that explained the
objectives of the survey and emphasized the confidentiality of responses and the
voluntary nature of participation. Questionnaires were in Chinese but were
initially constructed in English and translated into Chinese by a professional
translator at the local university. To validate the Chinese version, a member of
the research team back-translated the questionnaire into English. This backtranslation procedure helped insure an accurate prose translation that was decentered from a literal English language translation (Werner & Campbell, 1970).
Completed questionnaires from respondents at the local university were returned
INTERROLE CONFLICT AND WELL-BEING
265
directly to the authors while those from the other organizations were returned to
a survey coordinator in each organization. In both cases, completed questionnaires were returned through each organization’s internal mail sealed in envelopes provided by the authors.
Of the 600 questionnaires distributed, 286 were returned but, 43 were discarded because respondents were not involved in dual-earner families. This study
was based on the 243 respondents who met our sampling criteria, representing an
effective response rate of 40.3%. We focused on parents in dual-earner families
because of the multiple roles (parent, spouse, and employee) in which they are
involved and the implications for difficulties in managing the work–family
interface. Of the 243 respondents, 55.6% were females and the bulk of them
(93%) were in the 30 – 49 age bracket and reported having an average of 1.5
children under the age of 15. In terms of educational attainment, 53% had
completed secondary education, 10% had an associate diploma or degree, 21.4%
had an undergraduate degree, and 15.6% had a postgraduate/professional qualification. Respondents reported a mean organizational tenure of 8.02 years and a
median monthly family income of 40,000 – 49,999 Hong Kong dollars (US$1 5
HK$7.74). Although we did not collect data on respondents’ careers, the demographic information on education and income suggest an occupationally diverse
sample.
Measures
Well-being indicators. Life satisfaction was measured with a 5-item Satisfaction With Life Scale developed by Diener, Emmons, Larsen, and Griffin (1985).
Sample items are “In most ways, my life is close to ideal” and “If I could live my
life over, I would change almost nothing.” The scale’s a reliability for the sample
is .83. There is evidence that Diener et al.’s scale has acceptable psychometric
properties (Pavot, Diener, Colvin, & Sandvik, 1991). A 5-item abbreviated
version of Brayfield and Rothe’s (1951) 18-item scale was used to measure job
satisfaction. Sample items are “Most days, I am enthusiastic about my job” and
“I am seldom bored with my job.” The scale’s a reliability for the sample is .88.
Agbo, Price, and Mueller (1992) provided validity and reliability evidence for a
6-item abbreviated version of Brayfield and Rothe’s (1951) job satisfaction scale.
Family satisfaction was measured using the abbreviated 5-item version of Brayfield and Rothe’s job satisfaction scale by substituting job with family. A sample
item is “Most days, I am enthusiastic about my family.” The practice of
substituting job with family in measures of family satisfaction is well established
in research on the work–family interface (Parasuraman et al., 1992; Kopelman,
Greenhaus, & Connolly, 1983). The scale’s a reliability for the sample is .84.
The indicators of well-being were measured on a 5-point response format that
ranged from (1) “strongly disagree” to (5) “strongly agree.”
Coping behaviors. An eight-item scale based on the work of Latack (1986),
Pearlin and Schooler (1978) and Steffy and Jones (1988) were used to measure
coping behaviors. Response options ranged from (1) “never” to (5) “always.” We
266
ARYEE ET AL.
performed a principal component factor analysis with varimax rotation, which
revealed two factor loadings (each with four items) that explained 58.3% of the
variance. The first factor, labeled “emotion-focused coping,” was made up of
such items as “Reminded yourself that work was not everything,” “Told yourself
that time takes care of situations like those,” and “Tried to see the positive side
of the situation.” The scale’s a reliability for the sample is .78. The second factor,
labeled “problem-focused coping,” was made up of such items as “Set priorities
so that the most important things get done,” “Tried to be very organized so that
you could keep on top of things,” and “Tried to manage household chores and
childcare efficiently.” The scale’s a reliability for the sample is .74. The validity
of our measures of coping behavior has not yet been investigated.
Interrole conflict. A 10-item scale developed by Netemeyer, Boles, and McMurrian (1996) was used to measure WFC and FWC. Response options ranged
from (1) “strongly disagree” to (5) “strongly agree.” Sample items for the 5-item
WFC scale are “The demands of my work interfere with my home and family
life” and “The amount of time my job takes up makes it difficult to fulfill family
responsibilities.” Sample items for the 5-item FWC scale are “The demands of
my family or spouse/parent interfere with work-related activities” and “I have to
put off doing things at work because of demands on my time at home.” The a
reliability of the WFC scale for the sample is .89 and of the FWC scale is .82.
Netemeyer et al. (1996) provided evidence for the scale’s construct validity and
reliability. Pertaining to reliability, they reported average a reliability of .88 for
WFC and .86 for FWC across samples, which are comparable with those reported
in the present study.
Spousal support. A five-item scale developed for this study but based on the
extant literature (Matsui et al., 1995; Frone & Yardley, 1996; King, Mattimore,
King, & Adams, 1995) was used to measure spousal support. Response options
ranged from (1) “strongly disagree” to (5) “strongly agree.” Sample items are
“My spouse understands that I have to accomplish both work and family duties,”
“My spouse looks after him/herself to reduce my share of household responsibilities,” and “If my job gets demanding, my spouse usually takes on extra
household and/or childcare responsibilities.” The scale’s a reliability for the
sample is .85. The validity of this instrument has not yet been investigated.
Role stressors. Work overload was measured with a five-item scale, two of
which were from Beehr, Walsh, and Taber (1976), and the remaining three were
developed by Cammann, Fichman, Jenkins, and Klesh (1979). Response options
ranged from (1) “strongly disagree” to (5) “strongly agree.” Sample items are “I
have too much work to do in my job to do everything well” and “I never seem
to have enough time to get everything done in my job.” The scale’s a reliability
for the sample is .84. Cook, Hepworth, Wall, and Warr (1981) reported adequate
psychometric properties for the two scales and our composite scale showed a
slightly higher a reliability relative to Cammann et al.’s (1979) three-item
measure (.79) reported by Frone et al. (1997). Parental overload was measured
with a five-item scale, one of which was developed by Frone et al. (1997), and
INTERROLE CONFLICT AND WELL-BEING
267
the remaining four were specifically developed for this study. Response options
ranged from (1) “never” to (5) “always.” Sample items are “How often do you
feel your child(ren) is/are making too many demands on you?” “How often do
you feel you have too much work to do as a parent?” and “In general, how often
do you feel overwhelmed by the demands of parenting?” The scale’s a reliability
for the sample is .85. The validity of our measure of parental overload has not yet
been established, but the a reliability is much higher than that reported by Frone
et al. (1997) for their four-item scale (.72).
Controls. Gender, age, education, and monthly family income were employed
as controls in the analysis. Gender was coded (0) “male” and (1) “female.” Age
was measured with a single, close-ended item with responses ranging from (1)
“below 30 years,” (2) “30 – 40 years.” (3) “41–50 years,” and (4) “over 50 years.”
Education was also measured with a single, close-ended item with responses
ranging from (1) “high school education,” (2) “polytechnic diploma/associate
degree,” (3) “undergraduate degree,” and (4) “postgraduate degree/professional
qualification.” Respondents were asked to indicate their monthly family income
by checking one of the nine brackets (1) “less than 20,000,” (2) “20 –29,999,” (3)
“30 –39,999,” (4) “40 – 49,999,” (5) “50 –59,999,” (6) “60 – 69,999,” (7) “70 –
79,999,” (8) “80 – 89,999,” and (9) “90,000 and above.” Family monthly income
was measured in Hong Kong dollars (US$1 5 HK$7.74).
Data Analysis
Moderated multiple regression (MMR) was the principal data analysis technique. To examine the stress-buffering function of social (spousal) support in the
first point in the model linking stress and well-being, WFC and FWC were
separately regressed on the demographic variables. The demographic variables
were entered into the regression equation first to control for their effects. Second,
the role stressors and spouse support were entered into the regression equation to
examine their main effects. Last, the interaction terms of WFC and FWC and
spousal support were entered into the regression equation. To examine the
buffering effect of coping behaviors on the relationship between WFC and FWC
and the well-being indicators (second point in the model linking stress and
well-being), we followed a similar procedure. Each of the three well-being
indicators was separately regressed first on the control variables. Second, WFC
and FWC and emotion-focused and problem-focused coping behaviors were
entered. Last, the interaction terms of WFC and FWC and coping behaviors were
entered into the regression equation.
RESULTS
The means, standard deviations, and zero-order correlations among the study
variables are presented in Table 1. The mean scores indicate that respondents
experienced moderate amounts of the study variables with the score for FWC
being only slightly above the midpoint mark of the 5-point scale. With the
exception of parental overload, gender was nonsignificantly related to the main
Gender (Female)
Age
Education
Monthly family income
Work overload
Parental overload
Spousal support
Work–family conflict
Family–work conflict
Emotion-focused
coping
Problem-focused
coping
Job satisfaction
Family satisfaction
Life satisfaction
3.46
3.95
3.20
3.87
2.28
1.99
4.50
3.19
3.29
3.88
3.00
2.69
3.70
Mean
SD
3
4
.11
.04
.14
.72 2.02
.64 2.02
.67 2.02
.04
.10
.12
.12
6
7
2.09
2.04
2.10
2.07
.10
—
.56**
2.01
8
—
.04
9
.10
2.08
.33** 2.19*
.29** 2.16*
.30**
—
10
2.18* .15
2.13
.12
2.22** .13
.33** 2.26** 2.18*
—
.14
—
.00
2.08
—
.52**
.05 2.11
.50**
.17* 2.02
.04
.09
.17*
5
.14
2.05
.01
2.11
.24** 2.12
.18*
—
.12
—
.21**
.55**
—
2.03
.18*
.09
2.14
2.20* 2.16*
.02
.10
.10
.03
.11
.09
2.06
.05
.04
2.01
.09
.07
2
.00
—
2.21**
2.15
2.04
2.10
.18*
2.00
2.06
2.15
.06
1
.11
.64
.59
.76
2.38
.78
.83
.74
.87
.79
.68
* p , .05; ** p , .01 (two-tailed).
12.
13.
14.
11.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Variables
TABLE 1
Means, Standard Deviations, and Zero-Order Correlations among Study Variables
12
13
14
.25** —
.42** .29** —
.29** .34** .38** —
—
11
268
ARYEE ET AL.
INTERROLE CONFLICT AND WELL-BEING
269
study variables. Women perceived more parental overload than men did. Work
overload was positively related to both WFC and FWC while parental overload
was only positively related to FWC. Surprisingly, spousal support was unrelated
to neither WFC nor FWC. The intercorrelations also indicate that WFC and FWC
were both negatively related to life satisfaction while FWC was negatively
related to job satisfaction and WFC was negatively related to family satisfaction.
Interestingly, problem-focused but not emotion-focused coping was positively
related to all three indicators of well-being and negatively related to both WFC
and FWC.
Table 2 presents the results of the moderated multiple regression analysis that
examined the moderating effect of spousal support on the relationship between
role stressors and interrole conflict. The results indicate that the role stressors and
spousal support set made a significant contribution to the explained variance in
both WFC (D R 2 5 .28, FD 5 30.01, p , .001) and FWC (DR 2 5 .24, FD 5
26.21, p , .001). Pertaining to WFC, spousal support (b 5 2.12, p , .05) was
a negative predictor while work overload (b 5 .53, p , .001) was a positive
predictor. While both work (b 5 .47, p , .001) and parental (b 5 .13, p , .05)
overload were related to FWC, work overload appeared to be a stronger predictor
of FWC than parental overload. Interestingly, gender (b 5 2.13, p , .05) was
negatively related to FWC, suggesting that men did not experience as much FWC
as women. The results further show that the role stressors by spousal support
interaction terms did not make a significant contribution to the explained variance in WFC and spousal support did not moderate the effect of the role stressors,
particularly work overload on WFC. In contrast, the interaction terms made a
significant contribution to the explained variance in FWC (DR 2 5 .02, FD 5
3.89, p , .05). Spousal support moderated the effect of parental overload on
FWC (b 5 1.02, p , .01). To examine the nature of the interaction, we
performed subgroup correlational analyses. Based on the mean score for spousal
support, respondents were divided into low (n 5 115) and high (n 5 128) groups.
The results of the subgroup correlational analyses showed that the relationship
between parental overload and FWC was nonsignificant for the high spousal
support group (r 5 .04, p 5 n.s.) but significant for the low spousal support group
(r 5 .24, p , .01).
The results of the moderated multiple regression analysis that examined the
buffering effects of the coping behaviors on the relationships between WFC and
FWC and the well-being indicators are presented in Table 3. The main effects
indicate that WFC, FWC, and the coping behaviors made significant contributions to the explained variance in life satisfaction (DR 2 5 .11, FD 5 7.15, p ,
.001), job satisfaction (DR 2 5 .12, FD 5 7.89, p , .001), and family satisfaction
(DR 2 5 .15, FD 5 10.07, p , .001). Emotion-focused coping (b 5 .20, p , .01)
and FWC (b 5 2.21, p , .01) predicted life satisfaction. The significant
predictors of job satisfaction were emotion-focused (b 5 .19, p , .01) and
problem-focused (b 5 .19, p , .01) coping behaviors and FWC (b 5 2.23, p ,
.01). Surprisingly, and though in the expected direction, neither WFC nor FWC
Demographics
Gender (Female)
Age
Education
Monthly family income
Main effects
Work overload
Parental overload
Spousal support
Interaction terms
537
637
1
2.03
.01
.59
2.03
2.13
.01
.04
2.01
.02
B
a
Differences due to rounding.
* p , .05; ** p , .01; *** p , .001.
3
2
Variables
Step
2.12
.06
.53***
2.03
2.12*
.01
.02
2.02
.05
b
.29
.29 a
.02 a
R2
.00
.28
.02
DR 2
F(9, 233) 5 .06
F(7, 235) 5 30.01***
F(4, 238) 5 .77
F for DR 2
Work–family conflict (WFC)
2.05
.29
.48
.14
2.07
2.22
2.09
2.04
.02
B
2.26
1.02**
.47***
.13*
2.06
2.13*
2.07
2.05
.05
b
.30
.28 a
.03
R2
.02
.24
.03
DR 2
F(9, 233) 5 3.89*
F(7, 235) 5 26.21
F(4, 238) 5 1.59
F for DR 2
Family–work conflict (FWC)
TABLE 2
Moderated Regression of Spousal Support on the Relationship between Role Stressors and Interrole Conflict (N 5 243)
270
ARYEE ET AL.
1
a
3
DR 2
B
b
.09
2.93
1.12**
2.08
2.15
.19 .04
F(12, 230) 5
2.78*
DR 2
F(4, 238) 5
.83
F for DR 2
.18 .01
F(12, 230) 5
1.02
.25*** .16 .15 a F(8, 234) 5
10.07**
.02 .02
R2
Family satisfaction
.18**
2.07 2.41
.12
.67
.13
.69
2.11 2.58
.26
.19** .15 .12 a F(8, 234) 5
7.89***
.22
2.17
.22
2.02
2.03
.16
.19**
2.05 2.07
2.06 2.09
.19
2.21 2.23**
.08
.06
.05
.07
.12
2.02 2.09
F(4, 238) 5
1.84
F for DR 2
.08 .07
2.05 2.07
.07 .13 1
.04 .04
R2
2.04 2.03
b
2.07 2.05
B
Differences due to rounding.
p , .07; * p , .05; ** p , .01; *** p , .001.
Demographics
Gender
(Female)
Age
Education
Monthy family
income
Main Effects
Work–family
conflict
(WFC)
Family–work
conflict
(FWC)
Emotionfocused
coping
Problemfocused
coping
Interaction Terms
537
637
538
638
1
2
Variables
Step
Job satisfaction
b
R2
.08
.20**
.05
.30
.11
.62
2.02 2.10
2.06 2.30
.09
.19
2.18 2.21**
2.02 2.03
.19
.17 a
.09
.08
2.02 2.04
.07
.23** .07
2.05 2.03
B
F for DR 2
.02 F(12, 230) 5
1.11
.11 F(8, 234) 5
7.15***
.07 F(4, 238) 5
3.35**
DR 2
Life satisfaction
TABLE 3
Moderated Regression of Coping Behaviors on the Relationship between Interrole Conflict and Well-Being Indicators (N 5 243)
INTERROLE CONFLICT AND WELL-BEING
271
272
ARYEE ET AL.
was related to family satisfaction. The significant predictors of family satisfaction
were problem-focused (b 5 .25, p , .001) and emotion-focused (b 5 .18, p ,
.01) coping behaviors.
Turning to the hypothesized buffering effects of coping behaviors on the
relationship between WFC and FWC on the well-being indicators, our results
indicate that the interaction terms of WFC, FWC, and the coping behaviors set
made a significant contribution only to the explained variance in job satisfaction
(DR 2 5 .04, FD 5 2.78, p , .05). Emotion-focused coping positively moderated
the effect of FWC on job satisfaction (b 5 1.12, p , .01). Subgroup correlational
analyses were again performed to examine the nature of the interactions. Respondents were divided into low (n 5 109) and high (n 5 134) groups based on
the mean score for emotion-focused coping behaviors. The results of the subgroup correlational analyses showed that the relationship between FWC and job
satisfaction was significant for the low emotion-focused coping behaviors group
(r 5 2.25, p , .01) but nonsignificant for the high emotion-focused coping
behaviors group (r 5 2.13, p 5 n.s.).
DISCUSSION
Underpinned by Cohen and Wills’ (1985) conceptualization of the role of
social support in the model linking stressors and well-being, this study examined,
first, the moderating influence of spousal support on the relationship between role
stressors (overload) and interrole conflict and, second, the moderating influence
of coping on the relationship between interrole conflict and the well-being
indicators of job, family, and life satisfaction. As one of the few studies that have
examined social (spousal) support and coping in a single study (Matsui et al.,
1995; Scheck et al., 1997), it contributes to the extant literature by more fully
exploring the processes through which stressors and strain operate to affect
well-being. Additionally, by using a sample of Hong Kong Chinese employed
parents involved in dual-earner families, this study helps to ascertain the generalizability of the Western findings on the dynamics in the work–family interface
in a non-Western context.
Consistent with findings of previous research (Parasuraman et al., 1996; Frone
et al., 1997; Eagle, Miles, & Icenogle, 1997), our findings revealed that respondents perceived higher levels of WFC relative to FWC. Regardless of the cultural
context, it appears that employed parents are more willing to allow work
responsibilities to interfere with family responsibilities, reflecting the asymmetrical permeability of the work and family domains (Pleck, 1977). However,
unlike Eagle et al. (1997), the negative effect of gender on FWC seems to suggest
that being male is associated with lower levels of FWC (Crouter, 1984). This
finding seems to offer tentative support for Pleck’s (1977) contention that
because of normative role expectations, women would experience greater influence from family to work than men. This may be particularly so in a Chinese
society like Hong Kong, where in spite of socioeconomic development, traditional Confucian values still prescribe a sharp sexual division of labor in which
INTERROLE CONFLICT AND WELL-BEING
273
men are primarily concerned with the breadwinning role and women, even when
they are involved in paid employment, are concerned with the roles of homemaker and child caretaker. The findings pertaining to the effect of role overload
on WFC and FWC revealed that while work overload was related to both WFC
and FWC, parental overload was related only to FWC. Interestingly, work
overload was even more strongly related to FWC than parental overload. This
may reinforce our earlier observation that the work and family domains may be
asymmetrically permeable, with events in the work role being allowed to spillover into the family role rather than vice versa. Our finding that work overload
was related to WFC and parental overload to FWC is consistent with previous
findings (Frone et al., 1997). However, our finding that work overload was
related to FWC has not been previously reported and therefore contributes to the
extant literature. This finding also appears to suggest that the reported effect of
FWC on work overload (Frone et al., 1997) may be reciprocal. The consistency
of our findings relating to the antecedents of interrole conflict (WFC and FWC)
with those reported in the extant Western literature seem to suggest that these
antecedents are not culture specific. However, and until replicated by a study
using a Western sample, the stronger effect of work overload on FWC relative to
the within-domain variable of parental overload found in this study suggests a
cultural effect. Perhaps for Hong Kong Chinese employed parents, taking on
more responsibilities at work may be indicative of one’s commitment to ensuring
the financial security of one’s family and, therefore, represents a blurring of the
family and work domains.
Regarding the role of support in the stress process, our findings revealed that
spousal support was negatively related to WFC, but not to FWC. Perhaps given
the greater tendency to experience higher levels of WFC relative to FWC,
respondents needed the spouse to provide enabling conditions at home to minimize the interference of work with family responsibilities. However, the predicted moderating effect of spousal support on the relationship between role
overload and interrole conflict was observed only for the effect of parental
overload on FWC. This finding is consistent with Matsui et al. (1995), who
reported that support by the husband moderated the effect of parental demands on
the perceived FWC of Japanese working women. Matsui et al. (1995) attributed
the differential ability of support by the husband to moderate the effect of
parental demands on WFC and FWC to a probable defect of their measure of
work–family spillover conflict. It is, however, our view that this finding may be
reflective of the effectiveness of within-domain support on the perceived spillover from that domain.
Pertaining to the effects of the interrole conflict and coping behaviors on the
well-being indicators, our findings revealed FWC but not WFC to be negatively
related to job and life satisfaction (Frone et al., 1992, 1997; Parasuraman et al.,
1992). Interestingly, both WFC and FWC were unrelated to family satisfaction
(Parasuraman et al., 1996). High levels of FWC may lead to job dissatisfaction
because such individuals may be more likely to feel overwhelmed by the
274
ARYEE ET AL.
difficulties involved in meeting work-related responsibilities. Frone et al. (1997)
reported that FWC is negatively related to work performance, which may,
therefore, affect an individual’s receipt of work rewards, resulting in reduced
levels of job satisfaction. Frone et al. (1992) explained the positive effect of FWC
on depression, a conceptual opposite of life satisfaction, in terms of it undermining an individual’s sense of self-efficacy or mastery. The effect of FWC on
job and life satisfaction may also be explained in terms of the fact that WFC is
almost a norm, whereas families are not supposed to interfere with work.
However, in a previous study that used a sample of Hong Kong Chinese
managerial employees, Aryee et al. (in press) reported that WFC and not FWC
was related to life satisfaction. They explained their findings in terms of the
centrality of the family in Chinese society which makes activities which interfere
with this facet of their lives to result in diminished levels of life satisfaction.
Given that respondents in this study were predominantly nonmanagerial employees, future research on the work–family interface in a Chinese context may need
to examine whether the effects of WFC and FWC on life satisfaction is explicable
in terms of respondent’s job type or the cultural emphasis on the family and its
implications for one’s psychological functioning.
The findings revealed that being able to regulate the distressing emotion
evoked from the appraisal of stressors (emotion-focused coping) and efforts to
remove the threatening impact of a stressor (problem-focused coping) appear to
positively influence job and family satisfaction. However, the absence of a
relationship between problem-focused coping and life satisfaction may stem
from its situationally specific nature, making it more relevant in the work and
family domains as opposed to a general sense of well-being. Lazarus and
Folkman (1984) suggested that problem-focused coping tends to be directed
toward specific stressors. The findings further revealed that, as moderators of the
interrole conflict–well-being relationship, the different facets of coping do not
operate in the same way. Problem-focused coping was ineffective in moderating
the effects of WFC and FWC on the well-being indicators, while emotionfocused coping only moderated the effect of FWC on job satisfaction. As noted
earlier, FWC has been shown to affect job performance and the consequent
receipt of job rewards leading to diminished levels of job satisfaction (Frone et
al., 1997). Emotion-focused coping may help to reduce one’s expectations
regarding the receipt of job rewards, which minimizes the extent of job dissatisfaction. In other words, emotion-focused coping helps to reduce the distress
associated with the receipt of reduced job rewards and the resulting diminished
levels of job satisfaction. The ineffectiveness of problem-focused coping in
buffering respondents from the negative effects of FWC and WFC on their
well-being may be attributed to the way it operates. It has been observed that
problem-focused coping tends to be used when individuals feel they can somehow influence or control the situation (Folkman & Lazarus, 1980; Lazarus &
Folkman, 1984). Consequently, it is important that for problem-focused coping
to moderate the effect of a stressor on well-being, individuals must feel they can
INTERROLE CONFLICT AND WELL-BEING
275
control the situation. Our respondents might have felt a sense of helplessness in
dealing with interrole conflict, resulting in the reduced effectiveness of problemfocused coping in moderating the effects of FWC and WFC on the well-being
indicators.
Although the findings of this study might have demonstrated the near generalizability of the interrelationships of stressors, social support, coping, and
well-being among employed parents to a different sociocultural context, it has a
number of limitations. The first is the cross-sectional, correlational data that
constrains our ability to make inferences regarding the causal status of the
findings reported in this study. A longitudinal study should be particularly helpful
for ascertaining the causal status of the variables examined in this study. The
second limitation is our inability to find support for the hypothesized moderating
influence of social (spousal) support and coping behaviors that may be indicative
of problems with our measures of these variables. Although our focus on spousal
support is consistent with a trend toward nuclear families in Hong Kong, the
extended family structure is still relatively strong and provides an option in
managing the work–family interface, particularly in providing alternative child
care arrangements. Further research, particularly in a Chinese society like that of
Hong Kong, should, as did that by Frone et al. (1997), examine both spouse and
family support. Although the two general types of coping behaviors identified by
Lazarus and his associates and used in this study have been extensively used in
the literature, emotion-focused and problem-focused coping entail several distinct responses or activities and may have different implications for an individual’s success in coping (Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub, 1989). Future research
may need to use more differentiated forms of emotion-focused (denial, positive
reinterpretation of events, etc.) and problem-focused (planning, taking direct
action, seeking assistance, etc.) coping behaviors.
In spite of the limitations of this study, our findings pertaining to the effects of
work overload on WFC and FWC, of FWC on job and life satisfaction, and the
general ineffectiveness of the coping strategies in moderating the effects of WFC
and FWC on well-being suggest implications for human resource management
policies and practices in local Chinese and international firms that operate in
Hong Kong. Although family-oriented policies are not prevalent in Hong Kongbased companies, companies of different national origins have been reported to
be more family oriented than Hong Kong Chinese companies (Ng & Chiu, 1997).
Given the growing recognition of employees as a competitive resource (Pfeffer,
1994) and the finding that work–family balance is positively related to employee
work performance (Tompson & Werner, 1977), Hong Kong-based companies
should make a concerted effort to assist their employed parents in managing the
work–family interface. This may entail the redesign of career development
policies to include those that recognize the different life circumstances of their
employees and to show a preference for work quality rather than the current
emphasis on excessive work demands and face time.
276
ARYEE ET AL.
REFERENCES
Agbo, A. O., Price, T. L., & Mueller, C. W. (1992). Discriminant validity of measures of job
satisfaction, positive affectivity and negative affectivity. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 65, 185–196.
Aryee, S., Fields, D., & Luk, V. (in press). A cross-cultural test of a model of the work-family
interface. Journal of Management.
Brayfield, A. H., & Rothe, H. F. (1951). An index of job satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology,
35, 307–311.
Beehr, T. A., Walsh, J., & Taber, T. (1976). Relationship of stress to individually and organizationally valued states: Higher order needs as a moderator. Journal of Applied Psychology, 61,
41– 47.
Beutell, N. J., & Greenhaus, J. H. (1983). Interrole conflict among married women: The influence of
husband and wife characteristics on conflict and coping behavior. Journal of Vocational
Behavior, 21, 99 –110.
Cammann, C., Fichman, M., Jenkins, D., & Klesh, J. (1979). The Michigan organizational assessment questionnaire. Unpublished manuscript, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI.
Caplan, R., Cobb, S., French, J., Harrison, R., & Pinneau, R. (1975). Job demands and worker health.
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (NIOSH) Publication No. 75-160.
Carver, C. S., Scheier, M. F., & Weintraub, J. K. (1989). Assessing coping strategies: A theoretically
based approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 267–283.
Cohen, S., & Wills, T. A. (1985). Stress, social support and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological
Bulletin, 98, 310 –357.
Cook, J. D., Hepworth, S. J., Wall, T. D., & Warr, P. B. (1981). The experience of work: A
compendium and review of 249 measures and their use. London: Academic Press.
Diener, E., Emmons, R. A., Larsen, R. J., & Griffin, S. (1985). The Satisfaction With Life Scale.
Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 71–75.
Eagle, B. W., Miles, E. W., & Icenogle, M. L. (1997). Interrole conflicts and the permeability of
work-family domains: Are there gender differences? Journal of Vocational Behavior, 50,
168 –184.
Folkman, S. (1984). Personal control and stress and coping processes: A theoretical analysis. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 839 – 852.
Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1980). An analysis of coping in a middle-aged community sample.
Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 21, 219 –239.
Frone, M. R., Russell, M., & Cooper, M. L. (1992). Antecedents and outcomes of work-family
conflict: Testing a model of the work-family interface. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77,
65–78.
Frone, M. R., Yardley, J. K., & Markel, K. S. (1997). Developing and testing an integrative model
of the work-family interface. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 50, 145–167.
Gilbert, L. A., & Rachlin, V. (1987). Mental health and psychological functioning of dual-career
families. The Counseling Psychologist, 15, 7– 49.
Gore, S. (1987). Perspectives on social support and research on stress moderating processes. Journal
of Organizational Behavior Management, 8, 85–101.
Greenhaus, J. H., & Beutell, N. J. (1985). Sources of conflict between work and family roles.
Academy of Management Review, 10, 76 – 88.
Greenhaus, J. H., & Parasuraman, S. (1986). A work-nonwork interactive perspective of stress and
its consequences. Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 8, 37– 60.
Guelzow, M. G., Bird, G. W., & Koball, E. H. (1991). An exploratory path analysis of the stress
process for dual-career men and women. Journal of Marriage and Family, 53, 151–164.
Gutek, B. A., Searle, S., & Klepa, L. (1991). Rational versus gender role explanations for workfamily conflict. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76, 560 –568.
INTERROLE CONFLICT AND WELL-BEING
277
Hammer, L. B., Allen, E., & Grigsby, T. D. (1997). Work-family conflict in dual-earner couples:
Within-individual and crossover effects of work and family. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 50,
185–203.
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values.
Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
King, L. A., Mattimore, L. K., King, D. W., & Adams, G. A. (1995). Family support inventory for
workers: A new measure of perceived social support from family members. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 16, 235–258.
Kline, M., & Cowan, P. A. (1988). Rethinking the connections among “Work and Family” and
well-being: A model for investigating employment and family work contexts. Journal of Social
Behavior and Personality, 3, 61–90.
Kopelman, R., Greenhaus, J. H., & Connolly, T. F. (1983). A model of work, family and interrole
conflict: A construct validation study. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 32,
198 –215.
Latack, J. (1986). Coping with job stress: Measures and future directions for scale development.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 71, 377–385.
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal and coping. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Matsui, T., Oshawa, T., & Onglatco, M. L. (1995). Work-family conflict and the stress-buffering
effects of husband support and coping behavior among Japanese married working women.
Journal of Vocational Behavior, 47, 178 –192.
McCubbin, H. I. (1979). Integrating coping behavior in family stress theory. Journal of Marriage and
Family, 41, 237–244.
Netemeyer, R. G., Boles, J. S., & McMurrian, R. (1996). Development and validation of work-family
conflict and family-work conflict scales. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 400 – 410.
Ng, C. W., & Chiu, W. (1997). Women-friendly HRM good for QWL? The case of Hong Kong based
companies. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 8, 644 – 659.
O’Driscoll, M. P., Ilgen, D. R., & Hildreth, K. (1992). Time devoted to job and off-job activities,
interrole conflict and affective experiences. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77, 272–279.
Osipow, S. H., & Davis, A. S. (1988). The relationship of coping resources to occupational stress and
strain. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 32, 1–15.
Osipow, S. H., & Spokane, A. R. (1984). Measuring occupational stress, strain, and coping. In S.
Oskamp (Ed.), Applied social psychology annual (Vol. 5, pp. 67– 86). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Paden, S. L., & Buehler, C. (1995). Coping with the dual-income lifestyle. Journal of Marriage and
the Family, 57, 101–110.
Parasuraman, S., Purohit, Y. S., Godshalk, V. M., & Beutell, N. J. (1996). Work and family variables,
entrepreneurial career success, and psychological well-being. Journal of Vocational Behavior,
48, 275–300.
Parasuraman, S., Greenhaus, J. H., & Granrose, C. S. (1992). Role stressors, social support and
well-being among two-career couples. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 13, 339 –356.
Pavot, W., Diener, E., Colvin, C. R., & Sandvik, E. (1991). Further validation of the Satisfaction With
Life Scale: Evidence for the convergence of well-being measures. Journal of Personality
Assessment, 57, 149 –161.
Pearlin, L. I., & Schooler, C. (1978). The structure of coping. Journal of Health and Social Behavior,
19, 2–21.
Pfeffer, J. (1994). Competitive advantage through people: Unleashing the power of the workforce.
Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Pleck, J. H. (1987). Dual-career families: A comment. The Counseling Psychologist, 15, 131–133.
Pleck, J. H. (1977). The work-family role system. Social Problems, 24, 417– 427.
Scheck, C. L., Kinicki, A. J., & Davy, J. A. (1997). Testing the mediating process between work
stressors and subjective well-being. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 50, 96 –123.
Skinner, D. A. (1980). Dual-career family stress and coping: A literature review. Family Relations,
29, 473– 480.
278
ARYEE ET AL.
Steffy, B. D., & Jones, J. W. (1988). The impact of family and career planning variables on the
organizational, career and community commitment of professional women. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 32, 196 –212.
Suchet, M., & Barling, J. (1986). Employed mothers: Interrole conflict, spouse support and marital
functioning. Journal of Occupational Behavior, 7, 167–178.
Tompson, H. B., & Werner, J. M. (1997). The impact of role conflict facilitation on core and
discretionary behaviors: Testing a mediated model. Journal of Management, 23, 583– 601.
Werner, O., & Campbell, D. (1970). Translating, working through interpreters, and the problem of
decentering. In R. Naroll & R. Cohen (Eds.), A handbook of method in cultural anthropology
(pp. 398 – 420). New York: Natural History Press.
Received: December 29, 1997