Journal of Advanced Laboratory Research in Biology
E-ISSN: 0976-7614
Volume 8, Issue 2, April 2017
PP 44-49
https://e-journal.sospublication.co.in
Research Article
Description of copulatory complex in relation to taxonomy in Gerridae
Jagvir Singh1*, Y.C. Gupta1 and H.N. Sharma2
1
2
Department of Zoology, B.S.A. College, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh 281004, India.
Department of Environmental Toxicology, School of Life Sciences, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar University, Agra-282002,
India.
Abstract: The family Gerridae is represented in India by 67 species (of which 4 are undescribed species and only
known by the nymphs) belonging to 20 genera and representing 7 subfamilies (10 new species are described in the
present work). The subfamily Charmatometrinae is not represented in India. The Gerrids or water striders are well
known aquatic insects and they are the most interesting and fascinating among all insects of the tropics and
subtropics. They skate, skip, glide or literally walk upon the surface of the water. The relation of copulatory
complex with taxonomy is described in this research article.
Keywords: Gerrids, Pygophore, Valvulae, Parameres, Phallotheca, Connexival spines, Suranal plate.
1.
Introduction
The Gerridae differ from the members of other
closely related families in having very long hind femora
which extend considerably beyond the apex of the
abdomen. The body is light in weight and usually
slender, covered with a waterproof coat of very fine
hairs. The head is elongated, pointed in front and wider
at the eyes with short, slender four-segmented antennae,
large eyes, ocelli present, greatly reduced rostrum with
four segments, wings absent, reduced or present even in
the members of the same species. The forelegs are
modified to hold the prey; the mid and hind legs are
very long, slender and are used in walking on the
surface of the water. The tarsus is two segmented and
clothed with fine hairs. Life history is very simple.
They lay their eggs in water, the eggs being inserted
into the plant tissues or attached to plants and other
objects in gelatinous masses. Development is direct.
The young hatch from submerged eggs and at once
begin life on the surface. There may be one to several
generations in a year. In cold, the adults hibernate under
stones, logs, and other debris around the margins of the
water, and in semi-arid regions.
They may even jump from the surface of the water
into the air to catch small insects. They chiefly inhabit
ponds, the margins of lakes, the more sluggish water
and edges of rivers, streams, and oceans. The Gerrids
*Corresponding author:
E-mail: drhnsharma2015@gmail.com.
are predacious in habits and they prey upon such small
insects etc. that fall into the water. They also feed on
dead insects and other available small animals.
2.
Materials and Methods
The material for the present study was collected
from the various localities of Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana,
West Bengal, Assam, Delhi, Kashmir and South India.
The Gerrids were easily recognized by their long hind
femora which extend considerably beyond the apex of
the abdomen and collected by using an ordinary pond
net from various habitats such as ponds, margins of
lakes, edges of rivers, streams, and estuaries. A few
species were also procured at the light. They were killed
immediately on collection in 90 percent alcohol, which
was found to be a very good preservative. A large
number of specimens of unnamed Gerridae, I also
received from the University of Michigan, U.S.A.,
Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie (National
Museum of Natural History) Leiden, Z.S.I. (N.R.S.)
Dehradun, Z.S.I. (H.A.Z.F.S.) Solan, F.R.I. Dehradun,
India Biologic: Products, Madras for the present works.
The opportunity was also availed to study the national
collections of Gerridae maintained at the Indian
Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi; Zoological
Survey of India, Calcutta; Zoological Survey of India
Description of copulatory complex in relation to taxonomy in Gerridae
(N.R.S.) Dehradun; Zoological Survey of India,
(H.A.Z.F.S.) Solan and at F.R.I. Dehradun. The types of
Gerridae available at Z.S.I. Calcutta were also studied
and assessed.
After determination, most of the specimens were
preserved in 90 percent alcohol and the representative
specimens were pinned as usual and kept in
entomological boxes. The genitalia were taken out with
the help of forceps. From the dry specimens, the
genitalia were similarly taken out after the insects were
softened in desiccators. The genitalia were then
mounted on D.P.X. after processing as usual. By the
courtesy of the Director, Z.S.I., Calcutta, the genital
preparation of some of the species were made, studied
and deposited at Z.S.I., Calcutta.
All the drawings were made with a camera Lucida.
The colour patterns were drawn from entire specimens.
All the measurements were taken by using an eyepiece
micrometer. Length of insects was measured from the
tip of the head to the tip of the abdomen and breadths
were measured across the head including the eyes, and
across humeri, and across mesoacetabula; the leg
segments were measured from end to end, so were the
antennal segments. The small joints between the
segments of the antenna were not included in the
antennal segment measurements. The material collected
during the present studies is in the author's possession
and will be deposited in National collections at the
Zoological Survey of India.
3.
Results and Discussion
The research article is an attempt to elucidate the
structural evolution of copulatory complex of the
Gerridae of India and to establish its relation to the
taxonomy. To attain these objectives the structure of
copulatory complex of the species of Gerridae of India
was studied in frequent comparison with other
Hemiptera and other major groups of insects to
establish homologies and terminology of structures.
3.1 Origin of male copulatory complex in
Hemiptera
Before studying the copulatory complex of the
Gerridae, it is worthwhile to mention recent opinions in
regard to the origin of copulatory complex of insects
with special reference to Hemiptera. The copulatory
complex of insects mare generally concerned to be the
derivatives of segmental limbs i.e., coxal in origin.
Dupuis suggested that the male copulatory complex of
Insects are the derivatives of tenth abdominal limbs,
and coined the term euphallic and pseudophallic organs
to the phallic organs including parameres i.e. the tenth
coxites and to the structure from the ninth coxites
respectively, and applied his theory to Heteroptera.
Snodgrass suggested that the male copulatory complex,
including those of Heteroptera, is the derivatives of
ninth sternum. Matsuda attempted the origin of
copulatory complex in insects and supported the view
J. Adv. Lab. Res. Biol.
Singh et al
of Snodgrass. Woodland on the basis of embryological
studies on Thermobia domestica suggested that the
copulatory complex has nothing to do with the coxites
in their developmental mental origin. The foregoing
discussion on the development of opinions in regards to
the origin of copulatory complex of insects indicates
that the male copulatory complex of insects is not the
derivatives of the appendages. Dupuis contribution is
important in gathering the widely scattered information
about the male copulatory complex of Heteroptera and
provides basic concepts regarding the origin of male
copulatory complex. Snodgrass & Matsuda derive the
male copulatory complex from the tenth abdominal
appendages which are not well founded and harbour
many contradictions. In the opinion of Bonhag & Wick,
the ninth sternite has given rise to the male copulatory
complex. Quadri suggested on the basis of the
innervations of the copulatory complex in Dysdercus
that the tenth abdominal nerves innervate the accessory
gland to the median ejaculatory duct and intromittent
organ. A study of innervations is helpful in deciding the
segmentation. While the sternal origin of male
copulatory complex is well supported by evidence,
whether they are derived from ninth or tenth segment.
In the present distribution, Bonhag and Wick's finding
and interpretations are followed.
3.2 The male copulatory complex of the Gerridae
The pygophore is the fusion product of the 9th
coxites. It covers ventrolaterally the genital chamber
and excises the invaginated phallic organs. The
pygophore is dorsally fused at its base, forming a
narrow sclerotized bridge. The suranal plate is usually
considered to be the 10th segment or 10th tergum by
morphologists, as well as by taxonomists. Bonhag and
Wick, however, found this to be the 9th tergum in
Oncopeltus. One great advantage attached to Bonhag
and Wick's interpretation is that it is the 9th tergum in
the male that bears apically the anus and this is the
condition in the female in the Gerridae. Thus, if Bonhag
and Wick are followed, the homology of the genital
segments between the two sexes becomes much easier
than in other theories. Bonhag and Wick's findings and
their interpretations are followed in the present work
and so labelled.
The male phallic organs of the Gerridae were
studied by Poisson, Singh-Pruthi, Schroeder etc. Dupuis
also summarized the male genitalia in various group of
Heteroptera. The basal plate is attached laterally to the
pygophore, sustaining the phallotheca within the genital
chamber. The parameres arise from the point of
connection of the basal plate to the pygophore. The
phallotheca lies in the genital cavity with the basal end
caudad and resting on and partly surrounded by the
basal plate. During the copulation, the phallotheca is
raised and pushed backward, then down, transcribing
almost a complete circle. The phallotheca contains the
invaginated endosoma within. The endosoma is further
divided into the proximal and distal membranous
45
Description of copulatory complex in relation to taxonomy in Gerridae
segments, and the conjunctiva, its base attached to the
basal plates and communicating with the body cavity
through the basal foramen. The phallotheca is barrel
shaped, open at the distal end, through which the
endosoma is extruded. The conjunctiva joins the distal
end of phallotheca to the basal part of the endosoma.
The distal segment of the endosoma is usually provided
with three pairs of sclerotized plates. These are:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
The median dorsal plate;
The ventral plates, and
The lateral plates.
The median dorsal plate is the fusion product of
originally paired plates; the ventral plates carry the
ejaculatory duct. The shape, size, and number of plates
very much vary in Gerridae, due to loss and fusion of
plates.
3.3 Origin of female copulatory complex in
Hemiptera
Matsuda on the basis of contribution of Christopher
and Cragg on the development of female copulatory
complex in Cimex supported the view expressed by
Heymons that the gonapophysis arises from the primary
sternum and the valvifer is the modified sternum. Gillet
on the basis of post-embryonic development of female
copulatory complex in Rhodnius suggested that a pair of
buds arise on the 8th & 9th sternites. Each pair
differentiates into outer and inner pairs, the inner pair
on the 8th segment during into first valvular, while the
outer pair remains and forms only the first valvifers.
The inner pair of buds on the 9th segment develops into
second pairs of valvulae while the outer pair develops
into the 3rd pair of valvulae and their bases from the
second valvifers. These structures are the gonocoxites
of eighth & ninth segments. The foregoing discussion
makes it clear that there is no factual evidence to
support the theory of appendicular origin of female
copulatory complex in Heteroptera. The valvulae are
the valvifers and therefore regarded as sternal striders in
the present work.
3.4 The female copulatory complex of the Gerridae
The gonapophyses (Valvulae) arise from the
primary sternum and the valvifer is modified sternum.
Snodgrass (431) summarized the basic structural pattern
of the female external genitalia of Hemiptera.
According to him, the shaft of the ovipositor is formed
of the first and second valvulae, the first being external
and ventral, the second internal and dorsal. The second
valvulae are usually united with each other, either for a
part or for most of their length. The first valvifers have
a plural position below the tergum on the sides of the
eighth segment, through their posterior angles may be
flexibly attached to the ninth tergum. The dorsal
muscles of the first valvifers arise on the eighth tergum.
The first valvulae have each two proximal rami. The
outer ramus is flexibly attached to the ventral angle of
J. Adv. Lab. Res. Biol.
Singh et al
the first valvifer; the inner ramus is united with the
anterior inner angle of the ninth tergum. The ninth
tergum is exposed and often large in size and its
anterior ventral angles are produced, forward as
extensions to which are united the rami and first
valvulae. The second valvifers have a plural position on
the sides of the ninth segment beneath the lateral
margins of the ninth tergum. The second valvulae are
attached proximally to the anterior end of the second
valvifer and the ramus slides on the concave margin of
the inner ramus of the corresponding first valvula. The
third valvulae are well differentiated from the second
valvifers; they form a pair of lobes ensheathing the
distal end of the shaft of the ovipositor; sometimes they
are absent. The third valvulae and the second valvifers
are often absent in Gerridae. In Gerris adelaidis Dohrn
the first valvula is divided into inner short and outer
longer lobes being directly connected with the first
valvifer, which is a broad sclerite behind the seventh
sternite. The vulva is situated between the inner lobes of
first valvulae. The second valvulae are connected by the
intervalvular membrane. The apical end of the ramus is
loosely attached to the inner margin of the ramus of the
first valvula due to loss of the second valvifer.
3.5 The Copulatory complex and its bearing on the
taxonomy in Gerridae
The study of the copulatory complex in the species
of the Gerridae of India has brought to the notice a large
number of significant points to the knowledge. In
primitive insects of the seventh abdominal segment is
supposed to be similar in form to the preceding
segment, but this primitive condition in Gerridae
encountered the difficulty that no species of the
Gerridae is the posterior margin of the seventh segment
of the ventral surface straight as is the sixth. It is either
broadly concave or curiously modified and often the
seventh segment is strongly produced posterior as the
connexival spines. The posterior margin is usually
concave and the segment has a strong tendency to
produce lateral caudally. This condition was observed
in primitive species of primitive genera of Gerrinae
such as Eotrechus, and more primitive species Aquarius
and Limnometra. In these species, the second to sixth
segment is long and sux equal to each other and lateral
projections of seventh segment are more or less
conspicuous. In the primitive Gerrids, the seventh
segment on its median longitudinal axis is about 2/3 to
3/4 as long as sixth segment ventrally and the posterior
margin is strongly concave. From this primitive
condition, the seventh segment has undergone various
modifications in different species of Gerridae.
The connexival spines are not found in Eotrechinae
and Charmatometrinae but are present in more primitive
species of more primitive genera of Gerrinae and
Cylindrostethinae. The absence of connexival spines in
the more specialized genera simulates the condition in
Eotrechus. In Eotrechus the abdominal segment is
generalized and long, while in the species without
46
Description of copulatory complex in relation to taxonomy in Gerridae
connexival spines in Gerrinae and Cylindrostethinae,
the abdominal segment is greatly reduced. The
reduction of abdominal segment reflects the progressive
reduction of the connexival spine in Gerrinae and
Cylindrostethinae. It is likely that connexival spine
never occurred in Eotrechinae and Charmatometrinae
and the absence of connexival spines in more
specialized species of Gerrinae and Cylindrostethinae is
the result of the secondary lost. It is thus impossible to
say that the absence or presence of connexival spine is a
primitive or specialized condition in the Gerridae. The
evolution of the seventh segment is somewhat different
in two sexes. In male Gerrinae the connexival spine
occurs in Limnometra, Tenagogonus (s.str.) complex
and in Cylindrostethus. In these genera, the connexival
spines gradually obliterated with the specialization of
the abdominal segment. The degree of prolongation is
indicated by the length of the seventh segment on the
median ventral longitudinal axis. In the primitive
Gerridae, the seventh segment is shorter than the sixth.
The seventh segment has prolonged simultaneously
with the reduction of second to sixth ventral abdominal
segment. This was observed at both the specific and
generic level within the subfamily Gerrinae. The
greatest prolongation of the segment was observed in
Amemboa and Chimarrhometra. In Charmatometrinae
the ventral posterior margin of seventh segment has
become emarginate in the middle. The modification of
seventh segment. Limnometra, Tenagogonus (s.str.)
complex is peculiar. In this species, the connexival
spines are progressively reduced with the specialization
of the abdominal. In Ptilomerinae the seventh segment
has undergone conspicuous modification in males. The
same applies to Rhagodotarsinae and Halobatinae and
in some genera of Gerrinae and Ptilomerinae. The
connexival spines are more conspicuous in females than
in males and are often retained in females when they are
completely lost in the male of the same species as is
observed in some species Limnometra and Gerris
(s.str.). In Ptilomerinae the 7th segment has undergone
drastic modification. In primitive form, such as the
subgenus Ptiomera of the genus Ptilomera and
Rheurnatogonus these occur no connexival spine. The
absence of connexival spine appears to be a primitive
condition in the subfamily. In Rhagodotarsinae the 7th
segment is simply prolonged and without connexival
spines and the ventral apical margin is concave. In
Halobatinae the connexival spines are absent and
ventral apical margin is simply concave in all genera
except for Metrocoris in which a lobate structure occurs
on the ventral apical margin. The curious modification
in the female of the ventral apical margin in some
genera of Gerrinae, Ptilomerinae, and Halobatinae
provides a good generic as well as specific character.
The absence of this modification even in specialized
genera of Rhagodotarsinae suggests a difference from
other subfamilies. Since the female genitalia partly
occurs in the eighth abdominal segment, the study of
evolution of this segment is very important.
J. Adv. Lab. Res. Biol.
Singh et al
In males, the most important evolutionary tendency
of the eighth segment is its prolongation. This is true of
all the groups of Gerridae. In some of the more
primitive genera of Gerridae and Eotrechinae such as
Charmatometrinae and Eotrechus the 8th segment itself
has never become appreciably prolong. In
Onychotrechus, Chimarrhometra, and Amemboa the
seventh segment is not greatly modified in shape, the
eighth segment has also not much modified apart from
its prolongation. A similar condition is also observed in
Limnometra, Tenagogonus (s.str.) complex. In other
genera of Gerrinae evolution has proceeded further to
the point where the ventral surface of the segment is
more or less greatly modified. In Cylindrostethinae the
basal ventral region has become more and more
depressed and the ventral apical margin has become
progressively asymmetrical with the development of a
process on the one side of the apical margin. In Gerris
s.str. the ventral surface of the 8th segment has become
more and more longitudinally elevated in the middle in
more specialized species. In Limnogonus the ventral
apical margin has undergone modification with the
formation of the processes of various shapes in the
middle. In Tenagogonus s.str. the ventral surface, as
well as the ventral apical margin, is curiously modified.
In Ptilomerinae the most primitive 8th segment is found
in Rheurnatogonus in which the segment is not
appreciably prolonged in the species examined.
In Ptilomera and Heterobates there is found a
depression in the basal region of the ventral surface as
in some genera of Gerrinae. In Heterobates found a
median longitudinal elevation which is comparatively
more pronounced in Gerris s.str. of Gerrinae. In
Rhagodotarsinae the 8th segment is greatly prolonged
and possesses a longitudinal sulcus in the middle. In
Halobatinae, two pairs of processes dorsolaterally and
ventrolateral have become more and more conspicuous
in Asclepios and Halobates.
The ninth tergite in male in Gerridae is rather
Cylinder, and the lateral margins are parallel to one
another as they are in more primitive genera such as
Eotrechus. The tergite has undergone various
modifications. In Gerrinae the suranal plate is simple or
feebly widened basally in most genera. Conspicuous
modifications of the lateral margin are seen in
Amemboa. In Amemboa the basal lateral process has
become more and more conspicuous and in some
specialized species of the genus there occurs an
additional pair of processes inside the lateral pair of
spinous
processes.
In
Onychotrechus
and
Chimarrhometra no conspicuous modification of the
basal lateral margin of the suranal plate is observed.
The most distinct modification of suranal plate has
occurred in Cylindrostethinae in which the basal lateral
margin has become modified progressively with the
production of asymmetrical processes. In Ptilomerinae
the suranal plate is dilated behind its middle. The
dilation is more conspicuous in Ptilomera. In
Halobatinae the process of modification of the basal to
47
Description of copulatory complex in relation to taxonomy in Gerridae
lateral region of the suranal plate progresses gradually.
A highly generalized condition is observed in Asclepios
and Halobates. In Rhagadotarsinae the suranal plate is
somewhat dilated but no distinct modification is seen.
The loss of parameres has occurred independently
in some or all genera of all subfamilies except for
Ptilomerinae. In Cylindrostethinae the parameres have
virtually lost. In Eotrechinae the parameres are well
developed in Eotrechus short but robust in Onycho and
completely lost in Amemboa. The parameres are greatly
developed in Chimarrhometra. In Amemboa the basal
lateral region of suranal plate is modified into a
conspicuous process but the parameres are absent. In
Charmatometrinae the parameres are simple. In
Ptilomerinae the parameres have been retained in all
genera and have undergone modification apically. In
Halobatinae the parameres are distinctly retaining in
Asclepios but are reduced in unrecognizable in
Halobates. In general, the parameres in Gerridae have
an overall tendency to be lost. The shape of paramere
where present, offers an excellent specific character.
The presence and absence of parameres are constant in
most genera.
Prolongation of pygophore is one of the most
important aspects of Gerridae. In some species of
Halobatinae, the pygophore related laterally towards the
right. The apical margin of pygophore is modified in
various species of Amemboa and Chimarrhometra. In
the species of Metrocoris of Halobatinae, the apical half
of pygophore is greatly modified. The degree of
rotation and demodification of pygophore apical margin
varies considerably in various species even within the
seven genera and hence forms an important character at
the species level than at the generic level.
The styloid are found only in Eotrechus and their
presence represents a primitive condition because the
structure tends to be either fused to the pygophore or
lost in more specialized species of the Gerridae.
The endosoma showed well differentiated sclerized
plate in its apical plate in its apical segment. These
plates are dorsal, apical, lateral, basal and ventral. The
various plates and their sclerotization are quite a good
taxonomic character at the species level in the family.
A well-developed ovipositor is a primitive
condition in Heteroptera. In the Gerridae, the well form
long ovipositor is present in only Rhagadotarsinae in
which it serves for the insertion of eggs in the tissue of
the plant. In this subfamily, the first and Second
valvulae are greatly prolonged, but the basic structural
plate is the same as in other subfamilies of the Gerridae.
The rami of the first and second valvulae are attached to
the black subtriangular plate at the apex of the ninth
tergite. A second valvifer, as well as third valvulae,
have been lost as in the subfamilies. In all the
subfamilies of Gerridae, the first and second valvulae
are well developed than in Rhagadotarsinae. The first
valvulae either are not differentiated into an outer and
inner lobe or are so differentiated only apically. In
Gerrinae and Halobatinae they are well differentiated
J. Adv. Lab. Res. Biol.
Singh et al
into outer and inner lobes. The inner lobe is usually
attached with the vulva. The ramus of first valvulae has
shifted its point of attachment to the outer margin in
various species and genera in the family. Second
valvulae is usually pointed apically and form a sheath
H-above the first valvulae. The valvulae are often
apically being free from each other. The vestigial third
valvulae are retained only in Charamatometrinae. The
apical margin of intervalvular membrane is highly
sclerotized in Cylindrostethinae but membranous or
thickly sclerotized in Gerrinae. The study of the female
genitalia offers excellent taxonomic characters at the
subfamily level in the family Gerridae.
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