SATELLITE – A PREVENTIVE MEASURE TO CYBERWAR BY HAMPO, JOHNPAUL ANENECHUKWU CHUKWUNONSO A GRADUATE OF COMPUTER SCIENCE, MATHEMATICS AND COMPUTER SCIENCE DEPARTMENT OF DELTA STATE UNIVERSITY, ABRAKA – NIGERIA OCTOBER, 2012 1 Table of Contents DEDICATION .................................................................................................................................... 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .................................................................................................................. 4 SATELLITE: A PREVENTIVE MEASURE TO CYBERWAR ....................................................... 5 ABSTRACT........................................................................................................................................ 5 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 6 AIMS .................................................................................................................................................. 9 SCOPE ................................................................................................................................................ 9 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY.................................................................................................... 9 MOTIVATION OF STUDY............................................................................................................... 9 SATELLITE: .................................................................................................................................... 10 HISTORY ......................................................................................................................................... 10 CLASSIFICATION OF SATELLITES ............................................................................................ 12 CATEGORIZATION ....................................................................................................................... 12 TYPES AND FUNCTIONS OF SATELLITES ............................................................................... 13 SIMILARITIES BETWEEN SATLLITES ...................................................................................... 14 HOW SATELLITES WORK............................................................................................................ 16 SATELLITE NAVIGATION ........................................................................................................... 21 SATELLITE INTERNET ACCESS ................................................................................................. 21 SATELLITE TELEVISION ............................................................................................................. 21 SATELLITE COMMUNICATION .................................................................................................. 22 CYBERWAR (CYBERTERRORISM) ............................................................................................ 22 HOW SATELLITES HELP TO FIGHT CYBERWAR ................................................................... 25 ADVANTAGES OF SATELLITES ................................................................................................. 26 DISADVANTAGES/LIMITATIONS OF SATELLITES ................................................................ 27 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................. 29 SUMMARY ...................................................................................................................................... 29 RECOMMENDATION .................................................................................................................... 29 REFERENCE.................................................................................................................................... 30 2 DEDICATION This research work is dedicated first to Jehovah God and humanity especially those in computing and ICT, and related fields. 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I appreciate and gratefully acknowledge God Almighty for making me who I am today. Also for the intuition, life, Peace and every good thing God has been giving me; Lord you’re indeed wonderful. I salute my relatives, past and present friends (foes inclusive), lecturers back in school, bosses at past times and opponents for all their support and otherwise. More thanks to you, my readers. Continue the voyage on this work for better discoveries. 4 SATELLITE: A PREVENTIVE MEASURE TO CYBERWAR ABSTRACT In the context of spaceflight, a satellite is an object which has been placed into orbit by human endeavour. Satellites are sometimes called artificial satellites in order to distinguish them from natural satellites such as the Moon which is the earth original satellite. Spaceflight or space flight is a ballistic flight into or through outer space. Spaceflight can occur with spacecraft with or without humans on board. Artificial satellites which are also called man-made satellite and are usually closer to the earth; originate from more than 50 countries and have used the satellite launching capabilities of ten nations. A few hundred satellites are currently operational, whereas thousands of unused satellites and satellite fragments orbit the Earth as space debris. Satellites are used for a large number of purposes, notably military and civilian Earth observation satellites, communications satellites, navigation satellites, weather satellites, and research satellites. Space stations and human spacecraft in orbit are also satellites. Satellites are usually semi-independent computer-controlled systems. Satellite subsystems attend many tasks, such as power generation, thermal control, telemetry, attitude control and orbit control. Cyberwar (also known as Cyberterrorism motivated hacking to or Cyberwarfare) refers conduct sabotage and espionage. to It is politically a form of information warfare sometimes seen as analogous to conventional warfare, and in 2013 was, for the first time, considered a larger threat than Al Qaeda or terrorism, by many U.S. intelligence officials. This seminar work, outline the benefits of satellite and how it can be used (or how it is used) to prevent, track and monitor the activities of cyberterrorist. 5 INTRODUCTION Satellites which are semi- independent computer-controlled systems and used for a large number of purposes, remarkably military and civilian Earth observation, communications, navigation, weather monitoring and forecasting, and research, have been a big plus to technology and has simplified many complex areas of profession. These satellites are put in place in the orbit or space by human efforts, hence they are termed artificial satellites against natural satellites – Sun, Moon and so on; that are naturally in the orbit, (among the orbit system). An orbit is the path which a satellite follows. Although anything that is in orbit around Earth is technically a satellite, the term "satellite" is typically used to describe a useful object placed in orbit purposely to perform some specific mission or task. We commonly hear about weather satellites, communication satellites and scientific satellites. According to Wikipedia.org via www.en.wikipedia.org/Satellite, “The world's first artificial satellite, the Sputnik 1, was launched by the Soviet Union in 1957. Since then, thousands of satellites have been launched into orbit around the Earth. Some satellites, notably space stations, have been launched in parts and assembled in orbit. A few space probes have been placed into orbit around other bodies and become artificial satellites to the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the Sun.” Satellite orbits vary greatly, depending on the purpose of the satellite, and are classified in a number of ways. Well-known (overlapping) classes include low Earth orbit, polar orbit, and geostationary orbit. Geostationary orbit - A geostationary orbit, or Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO), is a circular orbit 35,786 kilometres (22,236 mi) above the Earth's equator and following the direction of the Earth's rotation. (Source: A geostationary Earth orbit satellite model using Easy Java 6 Simulation Loo Kang Wee and Giam Hwee Goh 2013 Phys. Educ. 48 72 in http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geostationary_orbit#cite_ref-1). Polar orbit - A polar orbit is an orbit in which a satellite passes above or nearly above both poles of the body being orbited (usually a planet such as the Earth, but possibly another body such as the Sun) on each revolution. It therefore has an inclination of (or very close to) 90 degrees to the equator. (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_orbit) Low Earth orbit - A low Earth orbit (LEO) is generally defined as an orbit below an altitude of approximately 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) said, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit. Fig 1: An animation depicting the orbits of GPS satellites in medium Earth orbit. (Source: en.wikipedia.org/satellite) Fig 2: A full-size model of the Earth observation satellite ERS 2. (Source: en.wikipedia.org/satellite) 7 According to Wikipedia.org, Richard A. Clarke, in his book Cyber War (May 2010), defines "cyberwarfare" as "actions by a nation-state to penetrate another nation's computers or networks for the purposes of causing damage or disruption." (See; www.en.wikipedia.org/cyberwarfare). Cyberwar, consist of different attacks done on a computer system or network. This attack can be averted, monitored and tracked done using surveillance satellites and earth monitoring satellites. Cyberterrorism can also be checked by the aid of communication satellites. Of latest, terrorist has evolved to using the cyberspace for their activities, for instance, the Al Qaeda treat to the United States of America this year, 2013. This makes the cyberwar a big issue that has to be tamed as neglecting it might result to normal war and terrorism. In www.en.wikipedia.org/cyberwarfare, ‘The Economist describes cyberspace as "the fifth domain of warfare,” and William J. Lynn, U.S. Deputy Secretary of Defense, states that "as a doctrinal matter, the Pentagon has formally recognized cyberspace as a new domain in warfare which has become just as critical to military operations as land, sea, air, and space.” Also on the aforementioned website, In February 2010, a top American lawmakers warned that the "threat of a crippling attack on telecommunications and computer networks was sharply on the rise.” According to The Lipman Report, numerous key sectors of the U.S. economy along with that of other nations, are currently at risk, including cyber threats to public and private facilities, banking and finance, transportation, manufacturing, medical, education and government, all of which are now dependent on computers for daily operations. Moreover, President Obama in 2009 confessed by stating that "cyber intruders have probed our electrical grids." With the advancement of technology is used by the ‘black mind technocrats’ for cyberwar and like crimes. This phenomenon – cyberwar; is o 8 the rise as it is done not only by individuals or terrorist but also nation indulge in it. Sadly, satellites that were lunched at the low earth orbit have been destroyed by ballistic missiles launched from earth by some countries conspicuously Russia, the United States and China. “In 2007 the Chinese military shot down an aging weather satellite, followed by the US Navy shooting down a defunct spy satellite in February 2008. ”, reports www.en.wikipedia.org/Satellite. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES SCOPE OF THE STUDY This work is limited to the satellites as an aid to prevent cyberwar. The literatures gotten are well utilized and the point of discussion is not satellites but the way they help to prevent cyberwar, through their mode of communication. The basis of this work would be on the information technological aspect of satellites and not its mechanical or electrical mode of operation. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY MOTIVATION OF STUDY 9 SATELLITE: AN OVERVIEW According to http://www.howstuffworks.com/satellite.htm, a satellite is basically any object that revolves around a planet in a circular or elliptical path. Satellites are objects that are placed or seen in the space – a vacuum or void that is not necessary empty but it’s outside the planet. There are natural and artificial satellites. The sun, moon and stars are classified under the natural satellites or mostly called the Celestine bodies. Others satellites that are place in the space by human’s endeavour are artificial satellites or just called satellites. There various types of artificial satellites and they are classified according to their usage, such as communication, weather forecasting, broadcasting and television programming, earth surveillance and so on. HISTORY OF SATELLITES The desire and inquisitiveness of human to break into space, have a space station and to bridge the gap of communication between the space and the ground prompt many into research as to having a geostationary orbit. The idea of geostationary satellites was first put forward by Tsiolkovsky. Mathematically, calculations were done by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857– 1935), In 1903, who published Means of Reaction Devices - a plan for a breakthrough into space and a permanent human presence there. In 1928 Slovenian Herman Potočnik (1892–1929) published his sole book, The Problem of Space Travel — The Rocket Moto. In a 1945 Wireless World article the English science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke (1917–2008) described in detail the possible use of communications satellites for mass communications. 10 Fig 3: Sputnik 1: The first artificial satellite to orbit Earth. (Source: en.wikipedia.org/satellite) The first artificial satellite was Sputnik 1, launched by the Soviet Union on October 4, 1957, and initiating the Soviet Sputnik program, with Sergei Korolev as chief designer (there is a crater on the lunar far side which bears his name). This in turn triggered the Space Race between the Soviet Union and the United States. Sputnik 1 helped to identify the density of high atmospheric layers through measurement of its orbital change and provided data on radiosignal distribution in the ionosphere. Sputnik 2 was launched on November 3, 1957 and carried the first living passenger into orbit, a dog named Laika. Early satellites were constructed as "one-off" designs. Explorer 1 became the United States' first artificial satellite on January 31, 1958. With growth in geosynchronous (GEO) satellite communication, multiple satellites began to be built on single model platforms called satellite buses. The first standardized satellite bus design was the HS-333 GEO commsat, launched in 1972. (History source is gotten from: www.en.wikipedia.org/satellites, accessed on: 13/06/2013) Fig 4: CubeSat ESTCube-1, developed mainly by the students from the University of Tartu, carries out a tether deployment experiment on the low Earth orbit. (Source: en.wikipedia.org/satellite) 11 CLASSIFICATION OF SATELLITES Satellites are broadly classified into two, which are military satellite and non military satellites. Here, the latter will be discussed in details. Military satellites are purely and specifically used for military purposes and functions. Non military satellites are used for mainly for non military functions and purposes but for other purposes. CATEGORIZATION OF NON SATELLITES These class of satellites are categorized into three (3). They are: Fixed satellite services Fixed satellite services handle hundreds of billions of voice, data, and video transmission tasks across all countries and continents between certain points on the Earth's surface. Mobile satellite systems Mobile satellite systems help connect remote regions, vehicles, ships, people and aircraft to other parts of the world and/or other mobile or stationary communications units, in addition to serving as navigation systems. Scientific research satellites (commercial and non-commercial) Fig 5: MILSTAR: A communication satellite. (Source: en.wikipedia.org/satellite) Scientific research satellites provide us with meteorological information, land survey data (e.g. remote sensing), Amateur (HAM) Radio, and other different 12 scientific research applications such as earth science, marine science, and atmospheric research. TYPES AND FUNCTIONS OF SATELLITES Anti-Satellite weapons/"Killer Satellites" are satellites that are designed to destroy enemy warheads, satellites, and other space assets. Astronomical satellites are satellites used for observation of distant planets, galaxies, and other outer space objects. Biosatellites are satellites designed to carry living organisms, generally for scientific experimentation. Communications satellites are satellites stationed in space for the purpose of telecommunications. Modern communications satellites typically use geosynchronous orbits, Molniya orbits or Low Earth orbits. Miniaturized satellites are satellites of unusually low masses and small sizes. New classifications are used to categorize these satellites: minisatellite (500–100 kg), microsatellite (below 100 kg), nanosatellite (below 10 kg). Navigational satellites are satellites which use radio time signals transmitted to enable mobile receivers on the ground to determine their exact location. The relatively clear line of sight between the satellites and receivers on the ground, combined with ever-improving electronics, allows satellite navigation systems to measure location to accuracies on the order of a few meters in real time. Reconnaissance satellites are Earth observation satellite or communications satellite deployed for military or intelligence applications. Very little is known about the full power of these satellites, as governments who operate them usually keep information pertaining to their reconnaissance satellites classified. 13 Earth observation satellites are satellites intended for non-military uses such as environmental monitoring, meteorology, map making etc. (See especially Earth Observing System.) Tether satellites are satellites which are connected to another satellite by a thin cable called a tether. Weather satellites are primarily used to monitor Earth's weather and climate. Recovery satellites are satellites that provide a recovery of reconnaissance, biological, space-production and other payloads from orbit to Earth. Manned spacecraft (spaceships) are large satellites able to put humans into (and beyond) an orbit, and return them to Earth. Spacecraft including space planes of reusable systems have major propulsion or landing facilities. They can be used as transport to and from the orbital stations. Space stations are man-made orbital structures that are designed for human beings to live on in outer space. A space station is distinguished from other manned spacecraft by its lack of major propulsion or landing facilities. Space stations are designed for medium-term living in orbit, for periods of weeks, months, or even years. SIMILARITIES BETWEEN SATLLITES Not so long ago, satellites were exotic, top-secret devices. They were used primarily in a military capacity, for activities such as navigation and espionage. Now they are an essential part of our daily lives. We see and recognize their use in weather reports, television transmission by DIRECTV and the DISH Network, and everyday telephone calls. In many other instances, satellites play a background role that escapes our notice: Some newspapers and magazines are timelier because they transmit their text and images to multiple printing sites via satellite to speed local distribution. 14 Before sending signals down the wire into our houses, cable television depends on satellites to distribute its transmissions. The most reliable taxi and limousine drivers are sometimes using the satellite-based Global Positioning System (GPS) to take us to the proper destination. The goods we buy often reach distributors and retailers more efficiently and safely because trucking firms track the progress of their vehicles with the same GPS. Sometimes firms will even tell their drivers that they are driving too fast. Emergency radio beacons from downed aircraft and distressed ships may reach search-and-rescue teams when satellites relay the signal. Despite the significant differences between all of these satellites, they have several things in common. For example: All of them have a metal or composite frame and body, usually known as the bus. The bus holds everything together in space and provides enough strength to survive the launch. All of them have a source of power (usually solar cells) and batteries for storage. Arrays of solar cells provide power to charge rechargeable batteries. Newer designs include the use of fuel cells. Power on most satellites is precious and very limited. Nuclear power has been used on space probes to other planets. Power systems are constantly monitored, and data on power and all other onboard systems is sent to Earth stations in the form of telemetry signals. All of them have an onboard computer to control and monitor the different systems. All of them have a radio system and antenna. At the very least, most satellites have a radio transmitter/receiver so that the ground-control crew can request status information from the satellite and monitor its health. Many satellites can 15 be controlled in various ways from the ground to do anything from change the orbit to reprogram the computer system. All of them have an attitude control system. The ACS keeps the satellite pointed in the right direction. The Hubble Space Telescope has a very elaborate control system so that the telescope can point at the same position in space for hours or days at a time (despite the fact that the telescope travels at 17,000 mph/27,359 kph!). The system contains gyroscopes, accelerometers, a reaction wheel stabilization system, thrusters and a set of sensors that watch guide stars to determine position. HOW SATELLITES WORK Satellite Internet generally relies on three primary components: a satellite in geostationary orbit (sometimes referred to as a geosynchronous Earth orbit, or GEO), a number of ground stations known as gateways that relay Internet data to and from the satellite via radio waves (microwave), and a VSAT (verysmall-aperture terminal) dish antenna with a transceiver, located at the subscriber's premesis. Other components of a satellite Internet system include a modem at the user end which links the user's network with the transceiver, and a centralized network operations centre (NOC) for monitoring the entire system. Working in concert with a broadband gateway, the satellite operates a Star network topology where all network communication passes through the network's hub processor, which is at the centre of the star. With this configuration, the number of remote VSATs that can be connected to the hub is virtually limitless. Satellite At the centre of the new broadband satellite networks are a new generation of high-powered GEO satellites positioned 35,786 kilometres (22,236 mi) above 16 the equator, operating in Ka-band (18.3–30 GHz) mode. These new purposebuilt satellites are designed and optimized for broadband applications, employing many narrow spot beams, which target a much smaller area than the broad beams used by earlier communication satellites. This spot beam technology allows satellites to reuse assigned bandwidth multiple times, enabling them to achieve much higher capacity than conventional broad beam satellites. The spot beams also increase performance and consequential capacity by focusing more power and increased receiver sensitivity into concentrated areas. Spot beams are designated as one of two types: subscriber spot beams, which transmit to/from the subscriber-side terminal, and gateway spot beams, which transmit to/from a service provider ground station. In conjunction with the satellite’s spot-beam technology, a bent- pipe architecture is employed in the network in which the satellite functions as a bridge in space, connecting two communication points on the ground. The term “bent-pipe” is used to describe the shape of the data path between sending and receiving antennas, with the satellite positioned at the point of the bend. Simply put, the satellite’s role in this network arrangement is to relay signals from the end user’s terminal, to the ISP’s gateways, and back again. The satellite receives, amplifies, and redirects signals carried on a specific radio frequency through a signal path called a transponder. The satellite has its own set of antennas to receive communication signals from Earth and to transmit signals to their target location. These antennas and transponders are part of the satellite’s “payload”, which is designed to receive and transmit signals to and from various places on Earth. What enables this transmission and reception in the payload transponders is a repeater subsystem (RF (radio frequency) equipment) used to change frequencies, filter, separate, amplify and group signals before routing them to their destination address on Earth. The satellite’s high-gain receiving antenna passes the transmitted data to 17 the transponder which filters, translates and amplifies them, then redirects them to the transmitting antenna on-board. The signal is then routed to a specific ground location through a channel known as a carrier. Beside the payload, the other main component of a communications satellite is called the bus, which comprises all equipment required to move the satellite into position, supply power, regulate equipment temperatures, provide health and tracking information, and perform numerous other operational tasks. Gateways Along with dramatic advances in satellite technology over the past decade, ground equipment has similarly evolved, benefiting from higher levels of integration and increasing processing power, expanding both capacity and performance boundaries. The Gateway—or Gateway Earth Station (its full name)—is also referred to as a ground station, teleport or hub. The term is sometimes used to describe just the antenna dish portion, or it can refer to the complete system with all associated components. In short, the gateway receives radio wave signals from the satellite on the last leg of the return or upstream payload, carrying the request originating from the end-user’s site. The satellite modem at the gateway location demodulates the incoming signal from the outdoor antenna into IP packets and sends the packets to the local network. Access server/gateways manage traffic transported to/from the Internet. Once the initial request has been processed by the gateway’s servers, sent to and returned from the Internet, the requested information is sent back as a forward or downstream payload to the end-user via the satellite, which directs the signal to the subscriber terminal. Each Gateway provides the connection to the Internet backbone for the gateway spot-beam(s) it serves. The system of gateways comprising the satellite ground system provides all network services for satellite and corresponding terrestrial connectivity. Each gateway provides a multiservice access network for subscriber terminal connections to the Internet. 18 In the continental United States, because it is north of the equator, all gateway and subscriber dish antenna must have an unobstructed view of the southern sky. Because of the satellite’s geostationary orbit, the gateway antenna can stay pointed at a fixed position. Antenna dish/modem For the Customer Provided Equipment (i.e. PC, router) to access the broadband satellite network, the customer must have additional physical components installed: Outdoor Unit (ODU) At the far-end of the outdoor unit is a small (2–3 foot diameter), reflective dishtype radio antenna constructed from and coated with a variety of materials. As indicated earlier, like the antenna used by the gateway, the VSAT antenna must also have an unobstructed view of the southern sky to allow for proper Line-ofsight (L-O-S) to the satellite. There are four characteristic settings used to ensure that the antenna is configured correctly at the satellite, which are: Azimuth, Elevation, Polarization, and Skew. The combination of these settings gives the outdoor unit a L-O-S to the chosen satellite and makes data transmission possible. These parameters are generally set at the time the equipment is installed, along with a beam assignment (Ka-band only); these steps must all be taken prior to the actual activation of service. Transmit and receive components are mounted at the focal point of the antenna which receives/sends data from/to the satellite. The main parts are: Feed – This assembly is part of the VSAT receive and transmit chain, which consists of several components with different functions, including the feed horn at the front of the unit, which resembles a funnel and has the task of focusing the satellite microwave signals across the surface of the dish 19 reflector. The feed horn both receives signals reflected off the dish’s surface and transmits outbound signals back to the satellite. Block upconverter (BUC) – This unit sits behind the feed horn and may be part of the same unit, but a larger (higher wattage) BUC could be a separate piece attached to the base of the antenna. Its job is to convert the signal from the modem to a higher frequency and amplify it before it is reflected off the dish and towards the satellite. Low-noise block downconverter (LNB) – This is the receiving element of the terminal. The LNB’s job is to amplify the received satellite radio signal bouncing off the dish and filter out the noise, which is any signal not carrying valid information. The LNB passes the amplified, filtered signal to the satellite modem at the user’s location. Indoor Unit (IDU) The Satellite Modem serves as an interface between the outdoor unit and customer provided equipment (i.e. PC, router) and controls satellite transmission and reception. From the sending device (computer, router, etc.) it receives an input Bitstream and converts or modulates it into radio waves, reversing that order for incoming transmissions, which is called Demodulation. It provides two types of connectivity: Coaxial cable (COAX) connectivity to the satellite antenna. The cable carrying electromagnetic satellite signals between the modem and the antenna generally is limited to be no more than 150 feet in length. Ethernet connectivity to the computer, carrying the customer’s data packets to and from the Internet content servers. Satellite modems employ either the DOCSIS (Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification) or WiMAX (World Interoperability for Microwave Access) telecommunication standard to communicate with the assigned gateway. 20 SATELLITE NAVIGATION A satellite navigation or sat nav system is a system of satellites that provide autonomous geo-spatial positioning with global coverage. It allows small electronic receivers to determine their location (longitude, latitude, and altitude) to within a few metres using time signals transmitted along alineof-sight by radio from satellites. Receivers calculate the precise time as well as position, which can be used as a reference for scientific experiments. A satellite navigation system with global coverage may be termed a global navigation satellite system or GNSS. SATELLITE INTERNET ACCESS Satellite Internet access is Internet access provided through satellites. Modern satellite Internet service is typically provided to users world-wide through geostationary satellites that can offer high data speeds, with the latest satellites achieving speeds up to 18 Mbps. SATELLITE TELEVISION Satellite television is television programming delivered by the means of communications satellite and received by an outdoor antenna, usually a parabolic reflector generally referred to as a satellite dish, and as far as household usage is concerned, a satellite receiver either in the form of an external set-top box or a satellite tuner module built into a TV set. Satellite TV tuners are also available as a card or a USB peripheral to be attached to a personal computer. In many areas of the world satellite television provides a wide range of channels and services, often to areas that are not serviced by terrestrial or cable providers. Direct-broadcast satellite television comes to the general public in two distinct flavors - analog and digital. This necessitates either having an analog satellite receiver or a digital satellite receiver. Analog satellite television is being 21 replaced by digital satellite television and the latter is becoming available in a better quality known as high-definition television. SATELLITE COMMUNICATION A communications satellite or comsat is an artificial satellite sent to space for the purpose of telecommunications. Modern communications satellites use a variety of orbits including geostationary orbits, Molniya orbits, elliptical orbits and low (polar and non-polar Earth orbits). For fixed (point-to-point) services, communications satellites provide a microwave radio relay technology complementary to that of communication cables. They are also used for mobile applications such as communications to ships, vehicles, planes and hand-held terminals, and for TV and radio broadcasting. CYBERWAR (CYBERTERRORISM) Actions by a nation-state, an individual or group of persons to penetrate another nation’s or human’s computers or networks for the purposes of causing damage or disruption are termed cyberwar. Moreover, according to Wikipedia.org, U.S. government security expert Richard A. Clarke, in his book Cyber War (May 2010), defines "cyberwarfare (also known as cyberwar)" as “actions by a nation-state to penetrate another nation's computers or networks for the purposes of causing damage or disruption.” Richard A. Clarke streamlined his definition to a nation. Cyberspace is recognised as a new domain in warfare which has become just as critical to military operations as on land, sea, air, and space. According to The Lipman Report in www.en.wikipedia.org/cyberwarfare, numerous key sectors of the U.S. economy along with that of other nations, are currently at risk, including cyber threats to public and private facilities, banking and finance, transportation, manufacturing, medical, education and government, all of which are now dependent on computers for daily operations. The 22 aforementioned education/research, Wikipedia.org, also states that, The Economist writes that China has plans of "winning informationised wars by the mid-21st century". They note that other countries are likewise organizing for cyberwar, among them Russia, Israel and North Korea. Iran boasts of having the world's second-largest cyber-army. It is the duty of every nation and individual to protect themselves from cyberwar as Michael Hayden - former deputy director of national intelligence on July 2010 Black Hat computer security conference, challenged thousands of attendees to help devise ways to "reshape the Internet's security architecture’. Methods of satellites attack Cyberwarfare consists of many different threats: Clapper divides these into cyber espionage and cyberattacks, the latter of which he defines as the top security threat to the United States. 1. Espionage and national security breaches Cyber espionage is the act or practice of obtaining secrets (sensitive, proprietary or classified information) from individuals, competitors, rivals, groups, governments and enemies also for military, political, or economic advantage using illegal exploitation methods on internet, networks, software and or computers. Classified information that is not handled securely can be intercepted and even modified, making espionage possible from the other side of the world. Specific attacks on the United States have been given codenames like Titan Rain and Moonlight Maze. General Alexander notes that the recently established Cyber Command is currently trying to determine whether such activities as commercial espionage or theft of intellectual property are criminal activities or actual "breaches of national security." 23 2. Sabotage Computers and satellites that coordinate other activities are vulnerable components of a system and could lead to the disruption of equipment. Compromisation of military systems, such asC4ISTAR components that are responsible for orders and communications could lead to their interception or malicious replacement. Power, water, fuel, communications, and transportation infrastructure all may be vulnerable to disruption. According to Clarke, the civilian realm is also at risk, noting that the security breaches have already gone beyond stolen credit card numbers, and that potential targets can also include the electric power grid, trains, or the stock market. In mid July 2010, security experts discovered a malicious software program called Stuxnet that had infiltrated factory computers and had spread to plants around the world. It is considered "the first attack on critical industrial infrastructure that sits at the foundation of modern economies," notes The New York Times. Denial-of-service attack In computing, a denial-of-service attack (DoS attack) or distributed denial-ofservice attack (DDoS attack) is an attempt to make a machine or network resource unavailable to its intended users. Perpetrators of DoS attacks typically target sites or services hosted on high-profile web servers such as banks, credit card payment gateways, and even root nameservers. DoS attacks may not be limited to computer-based methods, as strategic physical attacks against infrastructure can be just as devastating. For example, cutting undersea communication cables may severely cripple some regions and countries with regards to their information warfare ability. 24 Electrical power grid The federal government of the United States admits that the electric power transmission is susceptible to cyberwarfare. The United States Department of Homeland Security works with industry to identify vulnerabilities and to help industry enhance the security of control system networks, the federal government is also working to ensure that security is built in as the next generation of "smart grid" networks are developed. In April 2009, reports surfaced that China and Russia had infiltrated the U.S. electrical grid and left behind software programs that could be used to disrupt the system, according to current and former national security officials. The North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) has issued a public notice that warns that the electrical grid is not adequately protected from cyber attack. China denies intruding into the U.S. electrical grid. One countermeasure would be to disconnect the power grid from the Internet and run the net with droop speed control only. Massive power outages caused by a cyber attack could disrupt the economy, distract from a simultaneous military attack, or create a national trauma. Howard Schmidt, Cyber-Security Coordinator of the US, commented on those possibilities: It’s possible that hackers have gotten into administrative computer systems of utility companies, but says those aren’t linked to the equipment controlling the grid, at least not in developed countries. [Schmidt] has never heard that the grid itself has been hacked. HOW SATELLITES HELP TO FIGHT CYBERWAR From the aforementioned, the functions of satellites help to combat cyberwar. As said earlier, satellites that helps in communication and earth surveillance, reports through their signals any noticeable activities of 25 cyberterrorist. This calls for a strong space policing and a strong anti-cyberwar team. Also, anti-Satellite weapons/"Killer Satellites" are designed to destroy enemy warheads, satellites, and other space assets. Moreover, Space Surveillance Network is required. According to Wikipedia.org, ‘The United States Space Surveillance Network (SSN), a division of The United States Strategic Command, has been tracking objects in Earth's orbit since 1957 when the Soviets opened the space age with the launch of Sputnik I. Since then, the SSN has tracked more than 26,000 objects. The SSN currently tracks more than 8,000 man-made orbiting objects. The rest have re-entered Earth's atmosphere and disintegrated, or survived re-entry and impacted the Earth. The SSN tracks objects that are 10 centimetres in diameter or larger; those now orbiting Earth range from satellites weighing several tons to pieces of spent rocket bodies weighing only 10 pounds. About seven percent are operational satellites (i.e. ~560 satellites), the rest are space debris. The United States Strategic Command is primarily interested in the active satellites, but also tracks space debris which upon re-entry might otherwise be mistaken for incoming missiles. A search of the NSSDC Master Catalog at the end of October 2010 listed 6,578 satellites launched into orbit since 1957, the latest being Chang'e 2, on 1 October 2010.’ ADVANTAGES OF SATELLITES Below are a summary of the advantages of satellites as they have been explained in the preceding sub-topic – functions of satellite. They are: 1. Security – anti-satellite weapon and military satellites amongst others help to provide security to many nations as well as individuals and organisations. 26 2. Observation – the earth, other planets and every orbital object are monitored by earth observation/surveillance satellites. 3. Communication – internet, digital television and internet radio are aided by communication satellites. 4. Investigation – crime done by terrorist and criminals are checked by satellites, notably the recent bomb blast in the U.S. (Boston precisely). 5. Navigation – navigation on the globe, instant locating of a place and GPS are facilitated by satellites. 6. Forecasting – earth quake forecasting as well as weather forecasting are done comfortably with the aid of satellites. 7. Research – most research are aided by the use of satellites. 8. Business – business and on line transactions are done by satellites. It provides a vast representation of firms and products. DISADVANTAGES/LIMITATIONS OF SATELLITES The limitations and/or disadvantages of satellites are highlighted below: 27 1. Signal latency - Latency is the delay between requesting data and the receipt of a response, or in the case of one-way communication, between the actual moment of a signal's broadcast and the time it is received at its destination. Latency is the main difference between a standard terrestrial based network and a geostationary satellite network. 2. Geostationary unsuitable for low-latency applications - All geostationary satellite communications experience high latency due to the signal having to travel 35,786 km (22,236 mi) to a satellite in geostationary orbit and back to Earth again. Even at the speed of light (about 300,000 km/s or 186,000 miles per second), this delay can be significant. If all other signalling delays could be eliminated, it still takes a radio signal about 250 milliseconds (ms), or about a quarter of a second, to travel to the satellite and back to the ground. 3. Acceptable latencies, but lower speeds, of lower orbits - Unlike geostationary satellites, low and medium Earth orbit satellites do not stay in a fixed position in the sky. Consequently, ground based antennas cannot be easily locked into communication with any one specific satellite. Communications may involve more diffuse or completely omnidirectional ground antennas capable of communicating with one or more satellites visible in the sky at the same time, but at significantly higher transmit power than fixed geostationary dish antennas, and with much poorer signal to noise ratios for receiving the signal. 4. Rain fade - Satellite communications are affected by moisture and various forms of precipitation (such as rain or snow) in the signal path between end users or ground stations and the satellite being utilized. This interference with the signal is known as rain fade. 28 5. Line of sight - Typically a completely clear line of sight between the dish and the satellite is required for the system to work. In addition to the signal being susceptible to absorption and scattering by moisture, the signal is similarly impacted by the presence of trees and other vegetation in the path of the signal. As the radio frequency decreases, to below 900 MHz, penetration through vegetation increases, but most satellite communications operate above 2 GHz making them sensitive to even minor obstructions such as tree foliage. A dish installation in the winter must factor in plant foliage growth that will appear in the spring and summer. CONCLUSION SUMMARY RECOMMENDATION 29 REFERENCE http://www.howstuffworks.com/satellite.htm, accessed on 16/06/2013 http://science.howstuffworks.com/satellite1.htm, accessed on 15/06/2013 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_navigation, accessed on 16/06/13 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_Internet_access, accessed on 16/06/13 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_television, accessed on 16/06/13 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications_satellite, accessed on 16/06/13 30