Bureaucracy Lecture 2: Bureaucracy ● Key attributes and deficiencies of Max Weber’s ideal-type bureaucracy ● Why is bureaucracy efficient and why in reality it is often not ● Differences of Weberian bureaucracy, representative bureaucracy, entrepreneurial bureaucracy Definition: ● ● ● A system of government in which most of the important decisions are made by state officials rather than by elected representatives. Max Weber: ○ Meritocraticrecruitment of qualified personnel ○ Hierarchicalorganizational structure ○ Technical and specializedsuperiority and experts in the field over public ○ Institutionalized rulesand regulations to confer rational-legal authority ○ Dominationvia perceived rational-legal authority Key attributes ○ Appointment of ranks, not via election ○ Hired on contract basis ○ Meritocratic appointment and promotion ○ Fixed, rank-based salary and pension ○ Unified control and disciplinary system (rule of law) Bureaucratic Rigidity ● ● Weber’s conception of an “ideal” bureaucracy is unrealistic Bureaucrats act within “bounded rationality” ie. asymmetric time-information and structural constraints that limit agency D.Andelman ● Self-PerpetuationSelf-perpetuating method of selecting membership ○ Recruitment criteria and processes conceived by those sitting in the very positions to be filled (self-projection of traits and qualities they see in themselves) ○ Those in power set the rules of the game, and decide who is allowed to play the game ● Stifling Growth ○ As the sole provider of public goods, bureaucracies are often met with little to no competition with the private sector ○ Lack of incentive to innovate and improve efficiency ● Self Serving ○ Primarily rational actors who want to maximize their personal gain ○ ○ Unrealistic to expect selflessness and prioritization of public interests Maintenance of tenure and job security supersedes public well-being Bureaucratic Dysfunctions (Inefficiency) ● Trained Incapacity ○ One's abilities function as inadequacies or blind spots. Actions based upon training and skills which have been successfully applied in the past may result in inappropriate responses under changed conditions. ● Occupational Psychosis ○ As a result of their day to day routines, people develop special preferences, antipathies, discriminations and emphases ● Professional Deformation ○ Is a tendency to look at things from the point of view of one's own p rofession or special expertise, rather than from a broader or humane perspective. ● Goal Displacement ○ One reason bureaucracies endure and are so resilient is because they tend to take on a life of their own through a process called goal displacement. Once a bureaucracy has achieved its original goals, it adopts new goals in order to perpetuate its existence. Representative Bureaucracy ● Definition ○ As posited by Samuel Krislov, representative bureaucracy is a notion that “broad social groupsshould have spokesman and officeholders in administrative as well as p oliticalpositions”. With this notion, representative b ureaucracy is a form of representation that captures most or all aspects of a society’s p opulation in the governing body of the state. ● Active Representation ○ Active representation is a function that concludes represented groups benefit from representative bureaucracies. Most active representation is concerned with how representation influence policymakersand implementation and assumes that bureaucratswill act purposely on behalf of their counterpartsin the general population. ● Passive Representation ○ The degree to which the social characteristics of the bureaucracy reflect the social characteristics of the populations the bureaucracy serves. Studies of passive representation examine whether the composition of bureaucracies m irrors the demographiccompositionof the general population. ● Positive Effects ○ In government programs, o fficials are thought to favor those they can relate to and discriminate against others. This can d iscourage certain ethnicity from applying or receiving benefits. ○ Representative bureaucracy helps to prevent the biasthat is associated with benefits/programming. ○ Eg. Studies show that having “...a greater presence of black teachers does yield more beneficial outcomes for minority students…” due to the fact that teaching consists of two distinct roles ● Negative Effects ○ Representative bureaucracy may be too f ocused on representation instead of productivity.A focus on if everyone is equally represented could lead to a lack of quality out of fear of not being able to achieve equal representation. Entrepreneurial Bureaucracy/Public Entrepreneurship ● ● I. Entrepreneurs are innovative, future-oriented, "calculated" risk-takers and profit maximizers who, by their actions, are some of the most creative problem-solving. Public Entrepreneur ○ A person who creates or profoundly elaborates a public organizationso as to alter greatly the existing pattern of a llocation of scarce public resources. Such persons arise and succeed in organizational and political milieus which contain contradictory mixes of values received from the past. i. Change-oriented ii. Innovative iii. Task-oriented iv. Optimistic in their perspective toward the future v. Breaking out of the confines of routine and taking risks by going beyond the routine vi. Seeking higher values vii. Motivated for achievements Policy Entrepreneurship ● A. New policy direction ● B. Creation of new agencies ● C. Better services ● D. Creation of new services ● E. Implementation of policies II. Economic Entrepreneurship ● A. New revenue generation plans (including user and development fees) ● B. Cost cutting schemes ● C. Privatization ● D. Load shedding ● E. Municipal leasing ● F. New budget systems rewarding saving ● G. Public/private partnerships ● H. Local economic development plans ● I. Public investments ● J. Public enterprises ● K. Marketing and selling of public services III. Civic Entrepreneurship ● A. Co-production of public services ● B. Volunteer bureaus ● C. Co-termination in policy design/evaluation of public services ○ 1. citizen budget committees ○ 2. neighborhood conciliation/ mediation services ● 3. citizen planning and review committees ● D. Civic education. Scientific Management Frederick Taylor’s Scientific Management ● Workmen naturally soldier (man mode) ● Management lack knowledge, does not provide proper instructions on how to best perform one’s job and does not offer proper incentives (ie. Day wage, piecework pay) ● Result: SYSTEMATIC SOLDIERING ● Initiative of workmen ○ Hard work, goodwill, and ingenuity obtained practically with absolute regularity Four Duties ● 1. Science, not rules of thumb. o Rather than doing things how they’ve always been done, Taylor wanted each job to be studied scientifically to identify the most efficient wayto do that job. o Taylor advocated using time and motion studiesas a way to do this. This often involved looking at the most efficient workers to identify why they were so efficient. o The ultimate aim is to describe in a repeatable way how to do the job in the most efficient manner. That way, everyone in the organization doing this job can be trained to do it in the most efficient way. ( SOPs) ● 2. S cientifically train employees. o Don’t allow employees to train themselves. Instead, each employee should be taught exactly how each task should be performed. o Taylor d idn’t want employees thinking for themselves, he simply wanted a simple task performed as quickly (as efficiently) as possible. In a nutshell, workers should be paid for doing, not thinking. ● 3. E nsure most efficient ways of working are used. o There are two parts to ensuring that the most efficient ways of working are being used: o Monitor: Monitor worker production to ensure that they are efficient. (Hawthorne experiments) o Cooperate:Work with employees to retrain and recalibrate them, so that they are exactly following the most efficient way to perform their job. o One consequence of this was that organizational structures had to change. Rather than a factory having one single foreman, Taylor advocated several, each one specifically focused on efficiency for a particular area of the factory. (Specialization) o The aim of this step is to maximize production, unlike in situations where ‘soldiering’ occurs. That is situations where workers naturally slack off because they are not being monitored. ● 4. D ivide work between managers and workers. o Work should be divided almost equally between m anagers and employees. o Managers should be responsible for developing the processes, ways of working and monitoring employees. o Employees should be responsible for e xecuting a taskas quickly as possible. ● 5. Pay based on results. ○ Workers should be paid based on how much they produce. This is done using piece-rate pay. ○ The use of piece-rate pay focuses workers minds on their productivity. If they don’t produce, then they don’t earn. ■ $ 1 x 10 pieces x 1 day = $10 ■ $1 x 9 pieces x 1 day = $9 ■ Differential rate pay ● $1 x 10 pieces x 10 hours x 125% = $12.5 ● $1 x 9 piece x 10 hours x 80% = $7.20 Scientific management and its parallels in PA ● ● ● Efficiency as main goal and priority after progressive era Strategy to amass enough information about jobs so that management could rest on “clearly defined and fixed principles” instead of depending on more or less hazy ideas received from limited observation New Public Management as a manifestation of Taylor’s scientific management ○ Taylor’s “Division of labor” = Removal of political interference in PA ■ Managers as managerial role, workers as workers = Policy formulation for politicians, execution/implementation for bureaucrats ○ Taylor’s “Scientific Training of Employees” = NPM’s Impersonal Bureaucracy ■ Paid to do, not to think = Policy formulation for politicians, execution/implementation for bureaucrats ○ Taylor’s “Monitoring and Data Acquisition” = NPM’s Performance Management Indicators ■ Focus on r esults-based performance evaluationsfor logical incrementalism ■ Reporting aspect for s trategic planning formulation ■ Monitorperformance indicators ● Taylor: Production (factory) = Quality of government ● Dissimilarities ○ Taylor’s camp argues that public, instead of private, ownership would propel efficiency in areas such as utility management ○ NPM reforms ultimately strive to make civil service and PA more business-like ○ NPM rejects hierarchical organizations with SOPs, rules, and regulations associated with the legacies of Taylor. ○ NPM advocates for “an entrepreneurial revolution” ○ NPM argues that improved communication technologies and more knowledge-oriented work facilitate less-rule driven and rigid organizations ○ NPM argues that job security and tenure is secured by civil servants’ efficiency and competency, and also because managers will not practice favoritism but rather judge competency based on performance ○ At-will employmentis a term used in U.S. labor law for contractual relationships in which an employee can be dismissed by an employer for any reason (that is, without having to establish "just cause" for termination), and without warning. vs Spoils/Patronage system ■ Necessary for efficient bureaucracy due to flexibility of workforce and micro changes to suit the change in demands ■ This argument contrasts with P rogressive Era assumptions that at-will systems demoralize efficient workers who do not enjoy political patronage. ■ Taylor believed that rules could minimize arbitrariness and lead to favoritism. On the other hand, NPM advocates believe entrepreneurial flexibility helps managers assemble the work team with the best capacity. Science of Administration Division of Work - Men differ in nature, capacity, and skill and gain greatly in dexterity by specialization, because the same man is limited by physical existence and range of skill/knowledge Nothing is gained by subdividing work if that further subdivision results in setting up a task that requires less than the full time of one man (duh). Division of work might not be necessary if there are technological advancements and education Division of work must not pass beyond physical division into organic division Coordination of work - Interrelating the subdivisions of work by allotting them to men who are placed in a structure of authority, so that work can be c oordinated by orders of superiors to subordinates (hierarchy) - Dominance of idea develops intelligent singleness of purposein the minds and wills of those are working together as a group so that each worker will of his own accord fit his task into the whole with skill and enthusiasm Coordination through organization o Requires the establishment of a system of authority whereby the central purpose or objective of an enterprise is translated into realitythrough the combined efforts of many specialists, each working in his own field at a particular time and place. One Master o Clear delineation of instructions and command for efficiency and homogeneity of direction Caveamus Expertum o All workers, even highly trained technicians, have a profound sense of omniscience and a great desire for complete independence in the service of society o General hubris from competence in one particular field, they tend to assume knowledge and authority in fields in which he has no competence Organizational Patterns - Top-Down vs Bottom Up - Executives at the top of the hierarchy often to not understand the problem first hand from the workmen - Conversely, workmen do not understand the directions and intentions of executives vice versa due to imperfect information, and bureaucratic red tape. P OSDCORB o Planning o Organizing o Staffing o Directing o Coordinating o Reporting o Budgeting Progressive Era Problems o Partisancorrupt politics, industrialization immigrants, and failed municipal management -> failure of democracy o Rise of a new middle classthat sought to bring order to the society and create a niche for themselves in that society Two Impulses for Reform o Seeking social justice and improving the lives of the unfortunate – Social Movement o Rationalizing and regulating organizational, institutional and social processes Efficiency Movement Management and Science Centric? A gender perspective (Camilla Stivers) o Bureau Men (Emphasize procedures, efficiency and expertise) vs Settlement Women (Role of government, substance of gov, shd take care of the unfortunate) o Science = Masculinity (command and control, expertise, rationality, efficiency) o Science = Business (industrial prosperity) o Science = Neutrality/funding (non partisan) o “Paradoxically, the image of scientific neutrality made PA appear gender-free” o Angela Merkel New Settlement Woman? Stage of Discipline - Intellectual thoughts: the rise of Taylor’s scientific management was a principal source of ideas for the scientific reform of municipal administration – The Orthodoxy - Reform practice: Bureau men’s support extended Taylorism to personnel administration, accounting, and the organization and management of other specialized government functions The Orthodoxy: - Politics Administration Dichotomy Administration is value-free(not involved with value judgment) A set of g eneric principles that can apply to any organizations, private or public (ie. One best way to efficiency) The Role of Government Decentralization of power The executive branchshould only PLAN and IMPLEMENT ADOPTED PLAN Legislative should just DEBATE Judicial Science and Administration PA can use scientific methods PA should look for a science of admin (ie. Scientific management) o Intellectual examination of classification of phenomena, testing hypotheses by experiment, and application of discovered rules Objective is to discover “principles”or “ immutable laws of administration” Reform and Organizations Adopt a new set of principles o Existing principles that m aximize representativeness (representative bureaucracy) over executive efficiencyhave defects § Elections, power checks, and balances, multi-heads management, patronage politics o Reform the dominant value, basic structure and underlying processes of administration and develop a capable government Behavioral Approach Dahl’s Challenges to the Orthodoxy Impossible to exclude values from concrete problem of public administration ● Is efficiency is truly the most important criteria for PA? ● Impossible to exclude study of human behaviour ○ Values ○ Individual Personality ○ Social Setting ● ● PA vs Normative Values ○ Science as a political approach vs inherently inevitable existence of normative values ○ Morality is inherently conflicting with efficiency. Eg. No strikes were ever raised on non-moral grounds ○ The function of science in PA to a means to an end, but rather devising best means to an end to function within socio-normative constraints ● PA vs Human Behaviour ○ Inability to use experimental processes ○ Intrinsic rewards (psychological needs) over mere money (classic) Simon’s similarities with the Orthodoxy ● ● ● ● Seeking for a scienceof administration Advocating politics-administration dichotomy(value-fact dichotomy) A quest for g eneral principlesof administration (general applicability to different contexts) Acceptance of efficiencyas the criterion for decision making Simon’s Challenges to the Orthodoxy (Bounded Rationality) ● Unity of Command as incompatible to Specialization ○ Authority as subordinates accepting decisions irrespective of his own judgment and beliefs of merits of that decision ○ Needs to be only o ne unitary command, if not there will be a lack of coordination and cognitive dissonance ○ Specializationas decision-making made at a point in the org where it can be made most expertly. However, having a sole authority prevents more nuanced and specializeddecision-making from other sources. (CONFLICT) ○ Gulick, on the other hand, proposes d ual supervisionand practice of technical supervision. ○ Taylor has also rejected the principle of unity of command. In its place, he advocated the concept of “Functional Foremanship”, under which a worker receives orders from eight supervisors, or functional foremen. This ensures specialization and expert supervision. ● Span of control ○ Administrative efficiency enhanced by limiting the number of subordinates who report directly to one administrator vs limitation of the number of organization levels (verticality vs horizontality) ○ Verticality leads to red tape due to multiple layers of approval required for decision ○ Horizontality leads to administrative overload, reduction will improve the freedom to plan, supervise and facilitate ease of coordination. ● Homogeneity ○ Organization by grouping workers into Purpose, Process, Clientele or Place ○ Purpose - End goal of higher-level hierarchy ○ Process - Technical proficiency, purpose at lower level of the hierarchy ○ Clientele - Customer, receiving end of process and purpose ○ Place - Physical facilitation of all 3 combined Impasse/Deadlock of Public Theory Simon’s most notable contributions: ● Focus on decision making ● Revised concept of decision makers (not economic man, but satisficing man) ● Man has bounded/limited rationality Human Relations Public Service Motivation Rationality (Utility Maximization of Self) ■ o Public service motivation grounded in individual utility maximization ■ o Altruism to formulate good public policy ■ o Advocacy for special interest ● Norm-Based (Public Interest and Societal Good) ■ o Excessive and uncritical reliance upon the values of business administration lead to problems in American PA ■ o Desire to serve the public interest (altruism) ■ o Social equity - activities intended to enhance the well-being of minorities who lack political and economic resources ● Affective (Human Emotion) ■ o Personal identificationwith a program emanating from a genuine convictionabout its social importance ■ o Nobilityof public service trumps profit motivation ■ o Benevolence ● Implications ● Greater individual public service motivation -> greater likelihood of seeking membership in a public organization I n public organizations, public service motivation is positively related to individual performance ■ o Meaningfulness and responsibilities ■ o Individuals highly committed are likely to be h ighly motivated to remain (less turnovers) ■ o Committed employees are more spontaneous, innovative behaviors -> better adjustment to contingencies ■ o Go beyond call of duty/reasonable boundaries ■ o But too much commitment -> fanaticism, suspension of individual judgment “failures of socialization” ● Public organizations that attract members with high levels of public service motivation are likely to be less dependent on utilitarian incentives to manage individual performance effectively ■ o Unique motives ● Orthodoxy (1887-1937) Public administration is value-free ● Science of administration ● Behavioural Approach (1920s – 1950s) ● Political Approach (1940s – 1970s) ● Woodrow Wilson “the field of administration is a field of business. Should be removed from political concerns” ○ “although politics sets the tasks for administration, it should not be suffered to manipulate its offices” ○ Prevent partisan politics in civil service -> driving force of civil service reform in US ○ Politics has to do with policies or expressions of the state will. Administration has to do with the execution of these policies (Frank Goodnow) ○ Dichotomy ● ● ● ● ● “everything that has to do with the government is political” Whether an issue is policy or administration depends on the level of people in a hierarchy, and is completely relative The dichotomy intends to resolve the tension between democracy and bureaucracy (Waldo) Classical approach – democracy becomes peripheral to administration and hostile to efficiency Partisan politics VS neutral civil service ● Policy making VS policy implementation Street-Level Bureaucrats Account for 2/3of bureaucrats ● Influence on citizens’ perception ( direct POC with government) ● Implementers and concretizing policies (discretion)and autonomy ● Perdurability of the dichotomy Convenient aberration, multi-layered construct ● A conceptual weapon in the fight for power between legislature and executive ● Thatcherism ● ● ● ● ● Free market ideology Right wing neoliberalism Privatisation Reduced civil service Rejected Keynesianism, welfare state, nationalisation of private industries Orthodox Managerial Approach ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Patronage US political system was a necessity to break Initiated to prevent prevalent politicking by US officials in late 1800s Create dichotomy between PA and political realms Politics rejected as basis of hires, fires PA had to be business like ■ o What can gov can properly and successfully do ■ o Do it with most efficiency ■ o Do with least money and energy Input/Output Weberian Orthodoxy ■ o Functional specialisation for efficiency ■ o Hierarchy for coordination ■ o BRC organisation organised along formalistic lines ■ o Positions classified into rational scheme, pay scales fair and meritocracy ■ o Impersonal treatment New Public Management ● Individual as customer ● ● ● ● ● ● Performance standards ■ o Emphasised to make the worker understand expectations Output controls – Measured by quantitative performance indicators, Leadership decentralized rather than unified command Competitive allocation of resources – maximize value of goods Short term labor contracts in private-sector management (full awareness of goals and intention that agencies are trying to reach) Prone to corruption and corporate inefficiencies Thatcher Small yet agile government ● Reduction of civil servants by 22.5% ● Determination for efficiency led to the compromise of British Civil service’s political neutrality ● Political Approach ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Representativeness ■ o Strong political pluralism amongst administrative staff Political Responsiveness ■ o Autonomous for specialization and check and balances Accountability to citizenry ■ o Sunshine policies for transparency I ndividual as member of a group and beneficiaries Decision making depends on political consensus or public opinion rather than facts Thatcher rejected consensus within her cabinet for her own opinions and thoughts Business executives took centre stage in her new administration Legal Approach ● ● ● ● ● Administrative Law – Judicialization – Constitutional Law Qualified immunity – Public admins are held liable for damages if they violate citizens’ constitutional rights V iew of individual as singular and unique person in unique circumstances Adversarial and adjudicatory Thatcher – Employment act to end Close Shop trade practices and not needing to be in a union to get a job Political vs Managerial Privatisation of gov service and industries led to loss of gov accountability and loss of jobs ● Profit-maximization led to increase in price of utilities ● Legal vs managerial Employment Act enabled employers to fire striking workers ● Steamrolling of efficiency and disincentivizing workers from unionizing and voicing concerns, as well as the right to fair dismissal ● Hawthorne Effect ● Surveillance increases output ● Workers care about self-esteem, reputation etc Theory X vs Theory Y ● Theory X managers tend to take a pessimistic view of their people, and assume that they are naturally unmotivated and dislike work. As a result, they think that team members need to be prompted, r ewardedor punished constantly to make sure that they complete their tasks. ● Theory X approach tend to have several tiers of managers and supervisors to oversee and direct workers.Authority is rarely delegated, and control remains firmly centralized. Managers are more authoritarian and actively intervene to get things done. ● More applicable to organizations with horizontal management structure (large amount of workers to one administrator, and thus inability to cater to everyone’s psychological needs) ● Theory Y managers have an optimistic, positive opinion of their people, and they use a decentralized, participative management style. This encourages a more collaborative, trust-basedrelationship between managers and their team members. ● People have greater responsibility, and managers encourage them to develop their skills and suggest improvements. Appraisals are regular but, unlike in Theory X organizations, they are used to encourage open communication rather than control staff. Expectancy Theory ● Proposes that an individual will behave or act in a certain way because they are m otivated to select a specific behavior over others due to what they expect the result of that selected behavior will be. ● Desirability of outcome as main motivator Policy/Decision Making Rational Approach: ● Decision making process is a system that processes inputs to produce outputs ● Efficiency as the highest value ● Minimize input, maximize output Incrementalism: ● It is paradoxically most rational to conduct a limited analysis to a few alternatives ● To weigh one’s values along with the evidence instead of holding them separate ● Concentrate on the immediate problems to be solved rather than the broader goals to be achieved ● Bargaining among decision makers with different views leads to the final decisions Public vs Private Sector Management WHEN NOT TO PRIVATIZE? ● 1. Functions should be governmental if they ○ • Involve coercion ○ • Must be relatively permanent ○ • Not subject to bankruptcy ○ • Should be relatively free from lawsuits ○ • May require the condemnation of private property ○ • Need an assured income from taxes ○ • Must not be able to escape being held politically accountable ○ Examples: armies, prisons (private prisons in the US), police, drug control forces, immigration service, customs, and other tax gathering services ● 2. Some public good provision ○ • Scarce resources such as water, when competition is absent ○ • Safety, intelligence, national security (war) ○ • Disaster relief ● 3. Quality of life ○ • Civil rights, diversity and non-discrimination ● 4. Market essentials ○ • Obviously there must be a market—a goodly supply of things of value ○ • There must be a stable banking and monetary system providing ample media of exchange ○ • There must be a good supply of buyers and sellers—all buyers or sellers won’t work ○ • Property rights must be exclusive and transferable by voluntary exchanges privately or through markets ○ • There must be lots of trustworthy information easily available to interested parties ○ • There must be few negative externalities (side effects) involved in or as a result of transactions ○ • There must be few so-called transaction costs: e.g., it must not be too hard to discover relevant information, the supply must be easily reachable, other business costs must be low, etc ○ • An acquisitive psychology, obsessed with greed and seeking profit, is assumed on the part of everyone as the motivational grease for the system’s gears ○ • And, absolutely essential, is a control system composed of rules, as previously discussed, and applied by referees with real powers of coercion if need be Main functions of Public Organizations ● Essential Characters of G overnment ○ “Government is different because government is politics”. President’s top job is to perform the art of politics (statesmanship) (Paul Appleby, 1945) ○ Public and private management has a fundamental constitutional difference (Graham Allison, 1979) ■ Others: time horizon, media relations, career system, performance evaluation, implementation, etc ● Purposes of Public Organizations ○ Economic logic: Government acts to c orrect market failures ○ Public goods and free riders(national defense) ○ Individual incompetence (medicine safety) ○ Externalities or spillovers(pollution) ○ Political logic: Government operates to promote social values, i.e., to maintain law, justice, equity, individual rights and freedom, national security, social stability, general prosperity, etc ● Public values: values providing normative consensus about ○ Services and outputs citizens desire and express through representative government (Mark Moore, 1995) ○ The rights, benefits, and prerogatives to which citizen should (and should not) be entitled ○ The o bligations of citizens to society,the state, and one another ○ The principles on which governments and policies should be based (Bozeman, 2007) ● The meaning and nature of public organizations and management ○ Multiple dimensions ■ Public interests (hard to define and measure) ■ Ownership (increasingly a mix of both) ■ Funding sources (increasingly a mix of both) ○ Agencies and enterprises as points on a continuum (Dahl & Lindblom, 1953) ■ Different in goals, incentives for cost reduction, etc ■ Various forms of organizations in the continuum Public-Private Partnership (PPP) Social equity and representation §Definition of and values underlying New Public Administration §Representative bureaucracy: why and how §Costs of promoting social equity and representation through implementing policies such as affirmative action act New Public Administration (NPA) ● A movement since the 1970s to revisit the values underlying PA ● Emphasizes social equity as an additional value ○ Government systematically discriminate some minority groups ○ Equity is to enhance the political power and economic well-being of these minorities ● Seeks to change the policies and structures that systematically inhibits equity Civil service reflects the basic inequalities of social structure ● UK civil service ○ Clerical Class (<secondary school) ○ Executive Class (secondary-high school) ○ Administrative Class (university graduates) ● Education opportunity is more related to economic status than one’s ability Representative Bureaucracy ● Definition ○ As posited by Samuel Krislov, representative bureaucracy is a notion that “broad social groups should have spokesman and officeholders in administrative as well as political positions”. With this notion, representative bureaucracy is a form of representation that captures most or all aspects of a society’s p opulation in the governing body of the state. ● Active Representation ○ Active representation is a function that concludes represented groups benefit from representative bureaucracies. Most active representation is concerned with how representation influence policymakersand implementation and assumes that bureaucratswill act purposely on behalf of their counterpartsin the general population. ● Passive Representation ○ The degree to which the social characteristics of the bureaucracy reflect the social characteristics of the populations the bureaucracy serves. Studies of passive representation examine whether the composition of bureaucracies m irrors the demographiccompositionof the general population. ● Positive Effects ○ In government programs, o fficials are thought to favor those they can relate to and discriminate against others. This can d iscourage certain ethnicity from applying or receiving benefits. ○ Representative bureaucracy helps to prevent the biasthat is associated with benefits/programming. ○ Eg. Studies show that having “...a greater presence of black teachers does yield more beneficial outcomes for minority students…” due to the fact that teaching consists of two distinct roles ● Negative Effects ○ Representative bureaucracy may be too f ocused on representation instead of productivity.A focus on if everyone is equally represented could lead to a lack of quality out of fear of not being able to achieve equal representation. Affirmative Action Ensures representation in public sector Allows for platform to prevent tyranny of majority Sense of social inclusion and equity Goes against meritocracy, allocation and representation by virtue of gender and race, not qualifications ● Quotas are arguably an arbitrarily defined number ● Redistributive policies? Eg. Malaysia’s NEP ● Consociationalism lmao ● ● ● ● New Public Management NPA vs NPM New Public Management New Public Administration Hands on approach Anti-hierarchical, Anti-positivist[20] Explicit standards Democratic Citizenship Emphasis on output control Internal regulations Disconnection of units Equity[20] Importance of the private sector Importance of public citizens Improve timing Stability Greater usage of money Socioemotional[20] ● NPA ○ Representative bureaucracy to improve social equity and ethics ● NPM ○ Revival of managerial approach ○ Emphasis on the 3Es ○ More results and customer oriented ○ Push for an entrepreneurial government ● The root problem ○ Industrial-era bureaucracies in an information age ○ Bureaucracies built in 1930s-1960s are large, top-down, centralized, monopolies of services ○ The emphasis on process control overshadows the goal of serving the customer ○ As such, the goal of [traditional] government is not to achieve results, please customers, or save taxpayers’ money, but to avoid mistakes and innovation ● New Public Management Reforms ○ “A broad conclusion is that while some success has been achieved with regard to lower, first-order goals (downsizing, reducing administrative cost), only limited progress has been made toward critical, higher second- (decentralizing authority, empowering front-line workers)and third-order ( improving the quality of public services and efficiency of work procedu res) reinvention objectives. Thus, downsizing and cost reduction objectives have been substantially achieved…but there is no evidence of any significant, systemic improvement in quality of services or culture” Case Study: Thatcher’s Privatisation Reforms in the UK ● The good:Since the privatisation of the 10 state-owned regional water authorities in 1989, the number of customers at risk of low water pressure has fallen by 99% ● The bad: R ailway service. Train travel in the UK was the most expensive in the world ● The ugly: T he most damaging legacy has been job losses. In the decade after the miners' strike of 1985, more than 200,000 jobs were lost as a result of coal privatization Assumptions about performance measurement: ● 1) What gets measured gets done ● 2) Synecdoche (taking a part for the whole) Gaming: In performance management, gaming the system is finding ways to achieve good scores on p erformance metrics (for employees or departments) w ithout achieving the aims of the corporation which the metrics were instigated to promote.This is related to the well-known problem inherent in incentive system design, sometimes known as perverse incentive, in that people will tend to pursue incentives, even by means that make no common sense, should the incentive be naively constructed. ● 1) Its occurrence depends on a mixture of motive and opportunity ● 2) Four types of motivation among service providers under the PM system ○ a. Saints: may not share goals with target setters, and voluntarily disclose weaknesses ○ b. Honest triers: broadly share the goals, but do not attempt to game ○ c. Reactive gamers: broadly share the goals, but game when possible ○ d. Rational maniacs: do not share the goals, and intentionally manipulate data NHS Case in UK ● 1) Reported performance data show impressive improvement (Figures 3, 4, 5) ● 2) Gaming ○ a. A&E waiting-time targets: cancelling of operations scheduled; asking patients to wait in queues of ambulances outside A&E Departments; turning trolleys into beds, etc ○ b. Response times: manipulation of records to be less than 8 minutes; less serious cases in A-category emergencies are given priority than more serious cases in other categories ○ c. Waiting time for first outpatient appointment and elective admission: cancellation of appointments; manipulation of waiting list ○ d. Publication or mortality data results in a reluctance by surgeons to operate on high risk cases Legitimacy of the governance-by-targets regimes is not justified in NHS case ● 1) Saints and honest triers became the minority ● 2) Performance measurement produced a significant shift from Saints and Honest triers to Reactive gamers or Rational maniacs GOVERNANCE Bureaucratic era ● Bureaucracy as main authority, self expanding ● Weberian bureaucracy (orthodoxy), ● Entrepreneurial bureaucracy (NPM), ● Representative bureaucracy (NPA) Post-bureaucratic era ● Collaborative governance ● ● ● ● Bureaucracy is one of the authorities Shared authority, centreless society Self organizing and autonomous networks Eg. Grab/Gojek? Gov being reactive to these networks, not creating them Government ● Institution ● T he activity or process of exercising governance ● C ondition of ordered rule (eg. polyarchy) ● Duty and onus of governance of those in charge ● Regime type Governance ● ● ● ● ● ● Newprocess of governing Newcondition of ordered rule New method by which society is governed Local Power -> Central Power -> People Power Bureacratic age (industrial revolution) – public welfare People power (information revolution) Six uses of governance (RHODES 1996) ● Minimal state ● Corporate governance ● N PM – less rowing, more steering(less government, more governance) ○ Intra vs interorganizational focus (NPM focuses more on inter) ○ Targets or relationships? ○ Competition or steering? ● “ good governance” ○ Efficient public service ○ Independent judicial system ○ Accountable administration of public funds ○ Representative legislature ○ Respect for human rights ○ Free Press ○ Socio-cybernetic system ○ Eg. Facebook ● Self organizing ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ○ AirBNB, Uber, Grab etc Shared Characteristics ○ Interdependence between orgz ○ Continuing interactions between network members ○ G ame-like interactions, rooted in trust ○ Significant degree of autonomy from the state ○ Eg. Britain and China Governance in Britain ○ Reducing size of public sector ○ Tremendous scale of privatization and contracting out ■ Contracting out was made compulsory for many services ■ During 1979-1992, over 50% of public sector ○ Dramatic cut and erosion of civil service ■ Dropped 24% during 1979-1992 ○ Reduced public spending ○ S elf organizing networks in service delivery o Policy networks emerged: central dept, local authorities, agencies, private business, voluntary groups o Agencies become increasingly independent and r eluctant to accept central guidelines, and distance ministers and top civil servants from operational matters - Eg. NHS reform o Thatcher wanted (state retreat) o Buyer-provider split , multiple buyers and multiple providers (networks) o Health authorities buy services from providers in the public, private and voluntary sectors (market competition) o Hospitals become self-governing NHS trusts (autonomy) o GPs have a big say in buying services from hospitals (empowering front-line workers) o Patients became customers (people power) - Transnational policy networks o EU supranational law, ultimate veto over UK’s parliament o Sectoralization of policy-making and vertical alliance of interest groups Governance in China: - “Good Governance” 善治 - Returning power to society from the state 还政于民 o A more developed civil society, the development of unofficial, non profit, voluntary, non political, and non religious and indpt organizations o Eg. Wechat as central Smart Nation proponent - Government o IECLG Programme ● o Information transparency (政务公开) ● - Governance
