Wh t I
as
. Life science, also called biology, IS the study of living things.
. The term biology comes from the Greek words bios (life) and logos (knowledge).
Li"e Science? . All
living things: are made of cells; obtain food to make energy; grow and develop, reproduce, respond and adapt to
their environment.
Cells
Cells:
• are the smallest unit of life.
• are the basic unit of structure for all
living organisms.
• create, modify, and utilize proteins.
which direct all cellular activity.
• compose and manage nearly every
aspect of living organisms.
• carry messages that control how
organisms move, eat, and react.
• can be eukaryotic (contain a
membrane-bound nucleus) or
prokaryotic (do not contain a
membrane-bound nucleus).
• are microscopic. meaning they can
only be seen through a microscope.
Organisms:
• can be unicellular. or consist of a
single cell (e.g ., bacteria, amoebae,
some algae).
• can be multicellular. or consist of
many cells (e.g ., plants, animals,
people).
HOW IT ALL WORKS TOGETHER
AnI..... Cells:
• lack a rigid cell wall (present in plant cells); therefore, animal cells:
- exist in a variety of shapes, depending on their function in an organ­
ism.
-can change
shape easily.
- can sometimes
completely
ribosome
surround
and engulf
other cells or
microorganisms
(organisms only
visible through
a microscope).
- can transport
substances
into and out of
cytoplasm
themselves rela­
lysosome
tivelyeasily.
• most animal cells:
- are surrounded by a cell membrane.
- are centered around a nucleus.
- contain various organelles (miniature organs with specific functions) .
cell
membrane
.................................................
cytoplasm
cytoskeleton
HOW IT ALL WORKS TOGETHER
Plant Cells:
vacuole
nucleus
mitochondrion
rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
chloroplast
smooth
endoplasmic
reticulum
cell wall
Organelle:
cell
membrane
! Primary Function{s):
• encloses the cell
• is semi-permeable,
allowing some
substances to move in
and out of the cell
.............................................................................
cell wall
' • is made of cellulose
, • bonds with other cell
walls to form structure
of plant
• helps the plant stay
upright
chloroplast
• contains chlorophyll,
which gives plants a
green color
• absorbs energy from
the sun
• performs photosynthesis
cytoplasm
• is a watery substance
that fills the cell
endoplasmic
reticulum
(smooth and
rough)
• transports proteins to
other parts of the cell
Golgi
complex
• stores proteins
................................................................
mitochondrion : • converts food particles
and oxygen into energy
nucleus
Goigi
complex
• controls all cell activity
• contains chromosomes
with necessary
information for making
new cells and organisms
...............................................................................
vacuole
• is an area used for storage
• stores water, pigments,
and sugars
! • is a watery substance that
: fills the cell
• provides the cell with its shape
.........................................................................
endoplasmic ! • transports proteins to other
... ~t.i~.~I~~ ..........:..... y~~.~fthe cell
G?~~omplex! • s~?r.e.s..p.~?~~.i~~...................................
lysosome
• destroys old organelles and
dangerous substances
mitochondrion • converts food particles and
oxygen into energy
nucleus
! • controls almost everything
: that happens in the cell
.....:...~..~?~ses genes
ribosome
: • makes new proteins, which
. direct most cellular activity
-----------­ --------r
• possess a rigid cell wall; therefore, they:
- are mostly square or rectangular in shape.
- cannot change shape or size.
- are easily distinguished from animal cells.
• most plant ce lls:
- are generally larger than animal cells.
- are surrounded by a cell wall and a cell membrane.
- are centered around a nucleus.
- are directly attached to other plant cells via the cellulose-rich
cell wall.
- have direct links to neighboring cells through small pores in
the cell wall.
- contain various organelles. including chloroplasts (unique to
plant cells).
- possess vacuole s that:
o occupy most of the cell and store various substances.
o cause plants to appear stiff and "full" when they are full of
water.
a cause plants to appear wilted when they are lacking water.
a cause plants to exhibit a specific color when full of pigment.
: • encloses the cell
: • is semi-permeable, allowi1.lg
, some substances to move m
. and out of the cell
vacuole
: • is a storage area in the cell
I Cellular Digestion, Respiration,
I Growth & Division
DIGESTION:
I • animal cells:
I - obtain food through the digestive system.
- obtain oxygen through the respiratory system.
• plant cells:
- obtain food through photosynthesis.
- obtain oxygen through pores on the leaves
(stomata).
• animal & plant cells:
- pass food particles and oxygen through cell
membranes by diffusion (the movement of
particles from an area of higher concentration to
an area of lower concentration).
- pass water through cell membranes by osmosis
(the movement of water from an area of higher
water concentration to an area of lower water
concentration).
RESPIRATION:
• is the process cells use to conve rt food particles
into energy.
• stores energy in the form of ATP (adenosine
triphosphate).
• can occur in the presence or absence of oxygen.
- aerobic respiration:
o occurs in the presence of oxygen.
o utilizes the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle) to
produce energy.
o releases a significant amount of energy (38 ATP).
o is significantly more efficient than anaerobic
respiration.
o produces carbon dioxide and water as waste
products.
- anaerobic respiration:
o occurs in the abse nce of oxygen.
o utilizes fermentation to produce energy.
a releases less energy than aerobic respiration
(2ATP).
o produces different waste products, depend­
ing on the organism.
Cells (continued)
GROWTH & DIVISION:
o all living organisms begin life as a single cell.
o plants and animals have cells that reproduce
through mitosis - the nucleus divides in
order to form two identical cells with the
same number of chromosomes.
o plants and animals have cells that reproduce
through meiosis - the nucleus divides in
order to form two new cells with half the
number of chromosomes.
o prokaryotic cells reproduce through binary
fission - the cell pulls apart to form two
identical cells.
DNA, Genes .C...............
o are passed from p arent to offspring. contributing to
similarities between generations.
DNA:
CHROMOSOMES:
o is t he complete database of information for char­
o are coiled-up strands of DNA.
acte ristics a nd t raits of an organism.
o are packed inside the ce ll nucleus.
o is fou nd in the nucle us of every cell.
o usually occur within the nucleus as matching pairs.
GENES:
called homologous pairs.
o are the working subunits of DNA.
o vary in number depending on the orga nism.
o a re se gments along the DNA strand with instruc­
tio ns for how cells should act.
Fun ..a .. ,,~:
o contain informatio n for how each pa rt of an organ­
o Each cell contains more than six feet (two meters)
ism develops. grows. and functions.
ofONA.
o occur in variat ions. called allele s. that determine
o If all of the DNA from a single human being wen~
specific t raits for an organism .
lined up end to end, it would stretch to the moon
and bacl{ J,ooo times.
Classification System
Biologists use a classification system
to divide living organisms into smaller
groups with similar characteristics.
o Taxonomy is the science of classifying
or arranging living things into groups
based on characteristics they share.
o The most commonly used system was
created by the 18th-century Swedish
botanist Carl Linnaeus.
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Classification divisions, from most inclusive to least inclusive:
DOMAIN. KINGDOM. PHYLUM. CLASS. ORDER.
FAMILY. GENUS. SPECIES.
The three domains are bacteria, archaea, and eukaryota:
- bacteria are single-celled prokaryotic organisms.
- archaea are similar to bacteria but share many genetic
similarities with eukaryotes.
- eukaryota include living things in all but the monera
kingdom.
Plants are multicellular organisms with a true nucleus.
Most plants contain chlorophyll and make their own food.
Plants are not able to independently move from one place to another.
The plant kingdom is one of the largest groups of living things with more
than half il million different species.
Examples include: algae. moss. ferns. flowering plants. and trees.
Parts of a Plant
LEAF:
o absorbs sunlight for plant to convert to energy.
o stores chlorophyll and is the site of photosynthesis.
o can be wide and flat (as in a maple leaf) or long and thin (as in a cactus spine).
STEM:
o supports leaves and flowers.
o carries water, minerals, and food up and
down between the plant's leaves and roots.
o can be small and thin (as in a flower) or tall
and thick (as in a tree).
o helps plant grow in a direction toward
energy sources.
o has light-sensitive tips to ensure growth
toward light.
ROOT:
ST E M - - -f-I
o grows down into the soil or water.
o anchors plant to the earth.
o absorbs water and minerals needed for
growth.
o includes varieties, based on structure:
- taproots: single large root with a few smaller, branching roots.
- fibrous roots: many small roots branching off in different directions.
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process by which plants take energy from the sun and
combine carbon dioxide and water to produce food.
D
B
II
II
Carbon dioxide from the air enters
the leaves through their stomata.
Water from the soil is absorbed
through the roots.
Sunlight energy is absorbed
through chlorophyll, found in the
leaves of most plants.
The chlorophyll uses the sun's
energy to split water into hydrogen
and oxygen. Hydrogen combines
with carbon dioxide to form glucose
(a sugar), and oxygen is released
through the stomata.
o
o
The five kingdoms are plants, animals, monera (prokaryotic
bacteria), protists, and fungi.
binomial nomenclature:
- is the two-part name assigned to every living thing.
- is based on, and attributed to, the Linnaean biological
classification.
- is a living thing's Latin name, based on its genus and
species.
SUGAR:
o is one of the results of photosyn­
thesis.
o is the source of energy for plants.
o is transported around the plant to
where it is needed.
o sometimes undergoes respiration,
resulting in carbon dioxide and
water.
o can combine into starches, which are
stored by plants and used for energy
when needed.
Transportation System
VESSELS:
o xylem vessels carry water and dis­
solved minerals from the roots to the
rest of the plant.
o phloem vessels carry the saplfood
manufactured in the leaves to all
parts of the plant.
TRANSPIRATION:
o begins with water absorbed through
roots by osmosis.
o results in water evaporating from
leaves.
o cools leaves and protects them from
the sun.
o also causes a kind of suction, draw­
ing water up the stem from the
roots.
Flowering Plant Reproduction
POLLINATION:
o is the first step of flowering plant
reproduction.
o is the transfer of pollen from one
flower to another.
o involves both female (pistil) and male
(stamen) parts.
o occurs when insects, wind, or water
transfer pollen from the stamen of
one flower to the pistil of another
flower of the same species:
- flowers pollinated by insects are
often colorful and scented.
- flowers pollinated by wind often
have small, green flowers.
2
Pistils:
o are the female part of a plant.
o are composed of a stigma, style, and
ovary:
- stigma: sticky surface at tip that
captures and holds pollen.
- style: stalk-like structure that holds
up the stigma.
- ovary: part of the pistil that makes
the flower's eggs.
o generally appear as a short, thick stalk
in the center of a flower.
o are surrounded by stamens.
Stamens:
o are the male part of a plant.
o normally appear as spindly stalks sur­
rounding the pistil.
o contain anthers at the tip where pollen is
produced.
FERTILIZATION:
o is the second step of flowering plant repro­
duction.
o begins when a tube grows from the pol­
len grain, through the stigma, and into
the ovary.
•
o continues when a male gamete (sex cell)
travels through the tube and enters the
ovary, which contains one or two egg­
shaped ovules.
o is complete when the male gamete fuses
with the female gamete in an ovule.
GERMINATION:
o begins after fertilization.
o is characterized by the ovule turning into
a seed and the ovary turning into a fruit.
o is successful when the fruit detaches from
the plant and disperses its seeds.
o results in the growth and development of
new plants.
Seeds:
o contain a plant embryo (the start of
a new plant).
o contain a store of food to help with
growth.
o settle in soil, swell with water, and break
open to allow a new plant to grow.
Monera, Protists, ~..ngi
Animals
• Animals are multicellular organisms, where each cell has a true nucleus.
• Animals obtain the energy they need by eating other organisms.
• Some animals eat only plants (herbivores); some eat only animals (carnivores); and
some eat both animals and plants (omnivores).
• Animals move from one place to another with the help of cilia, flagella. or
muscular organs.
• Biologists divide the animal kingdom into two major groups: invertebrates (without
a backbone) and vertebrates (with a backbone).
Invertebrates
• Invertebrates make up about 98% of all
animal species on Earth .
• With such an immense variety of life, the
only shared trait is the lack of a backbone.
• Some have specialized internal organs
and systems; others have no specialized
organs at all.
• Invertebrates have a very basic nervous
system and usually act according to
instinct.
Phyla:
........................
• With no backbone, symmetry developed
as an organizational pattern :
- bilateral (mirror-image) symmetry: an
imaginary line divides animals into equal
and similar halves.
- radial symmetry: animals are equally
and similarly divided by rays from a
central point.
; Characteristics:
Examples:
....................................................................................................................................................................
-
Annelids
: • have segmented bod ies
: • have elongated , cylind rical bodies
~ • are bilaterally symmetric
......................................................................
Arthropods
•
•
•
•
: segmented worm,
: earthworm, leech
...................... ................ ....................................
~ insects (d ragonfly, bee,
have segmented bodies
have jointed limbs
have a hard exoskeleton
most belong to 3 major groups:
- insects (have 6 legs)
- arachnids (have 8 legs)
- crustaceans (have 10 or more legs)
• form the largest group of invertebrates
: ant), arachnids (spider,
! scorpion), crustaceans
~ (crab, lobster, krill),
: centipede, millipede
Echinodenns
• have star-shaped bodies and live in
water
~ starfish, sea u rchin,
: sand d ollar
Mollusks
• have soft, muscular bodies
• most have a shell inside or outside
their bodies
: snail, clam, octopus
Monera are bacteria, or single-celled
~®
organisms without a true nucleus.
• Bacteria lack a nucleus, mitochondria,
endoplasmic reticulum, and chloro­
plasts.
• Bacteria reproduce through fission;
cocci
spirilla
they pull apart and create two new
bacteria cells.
• Bacteria can exchange DNA with
othe r organisms or cells to mutate
and survive:
- through this genetic transformabacilli
tion, bacteria become resistant to
antibodies/vaccines.
• All bacteria require carbon to grow and reproduce.
• Bacteria can be classified according to shape, oxyge n re quire ments fo r
survival, and source of carbon .
-shape:
o exist as rods (bacilli). spheres (cocci). and spira ls (spirilla).
- oxygen requirements:
o aerobic bacteria - need oxygen for survival.
o anaerobic bacteria - do not need oxygen and may die in its pres­
ence.
- carbon source:
o autotrophic bacteria (autotrophs) - obtain carbon from carbon
dioxide:
> some contain chlorophyll and photosynthesize food and energy.
> autotrophs depend on energy from inorgani c sources.
o heterotrophic bacteria (heterotrophs) - obtain carbon from the ir
environment:
> most bacteria are heterotrophs.
> heterotrophs depe nd on en ergy from organic sources.
> contain enzymes on their cell surfaces that break down organ ic
matter.
> possess enzymes capable of breaking down ce ll walls in plants.
> convert solid matter into compounds, which are then absorbed .
> break down these compounds into carbohydrates, sugars, an d
acids.
Protists are mostly sing le-celle d eukaryotic organisms.
Vertebrates
• Ve rtebrates make up about 2% of all animal
species on Earth.
• Vertebrates belong to only one of 30 phyla
in the animal kingdom .
• They are characterized by a spinal column
composed of boney vertebrae.
• The spinal column provides structural support
to the body and protects the spinal cord.
• Vertebrate animals are complex organ­
isms with many specialized organs and
interconnected systems:
- systems include: circulatory, digestive,
endocrine, immune & lymphatic, integu­
mentary, muscular, nervous, reproduc­
tive, respiratory, skeletal, and urinary.
- vertebrates have a highly-developed
nervous system.
............................................................. .:..E.'.'~~..,I.~~:...............
Type:
Characteristics:
Amphibians :
:
:
.
• can live in water (have gills) or on land (have lungs) : frog, toad
• have smooth, moist skin
• lay eggs in water
• are cold-blooded (cannot regulate their body
temperature)
......................................... ....................................................................................................................................................
Fish
Reptile s
Birds
•
•
•
•
•
; • have bod ies covered with scales
: • b reathe with lungs
~ • lay leathery-shelled eggs on dry land
: • are cold-blood ed
•
•
•
•
•
...................................
Mammals
live in water
breathe through gills
use fins to swim
have bodies covered with scales
are cold-blooded
have wings with feathers
most can fly
have beaks
lay eggs with hard shells
are warm-blooded (can regulate their body
temperature)
: goldfish, shark,
! ray
: lizard, snake,
: alligator
parrot, ostrich,
cardinal
.................................................. , .................... .........
• have bodies covered with hair or fur
• give birth to fully-developed young that grow
insid e mother's body
• are fed with mother 's milk
• are warm-blooded
: whale, dog,
: kangaroo,
: human
3
• Some protists are multicellular.
• Protists are classified accord ing to type: animal-like,
plant-like, and fungus-l ike .
- animal-like:
o have complex life cycles.
o active ly move through their environment.
o may consume other organisms.
o examples include amoeba and paramecium.
amoeba
- plant-like:
o use photosynthesis to convert sunlight into
energy.
o form integral part of fo od web in watery e nvi­
ronments.
o examples include algae and euglena.
- fungus-like:
o produce spores to reproduce and absorb
nutrients.
o can surround and ingest food.
o can move through their environment.
o examples include some molds.
• Many protists have one or two flagella (single whip­
like appendage). cilia (multiple hair-like append­
ages). or pseudopods (finger-like projections of
cytoplasm), enabling active movement.
• Protists can reproduce sexually (spores) and asexually (binary fission ).
---------Fungi are mostly multicellular organisms.
• Some fungi are single-celled.
• Fungi are heterotrophs - they do not make their own fo od:
- some secrete enzymes to break down food into smaller substances
and components.
- some are parasites that feed off other plants and animals.
- some are symbionts that live together with other organisms to mutu al
benefit.
• Fungi have no means of independent transportation - they cannot move
on their own.
• Examples include mushrooms, molds. and yeast.
What Is Ecolog!
Ecology is the study of IMng things in their e nvironme nt (their natural surround­
ings) and how they affect each other.
------------Ecological OrganIzatIon
Living things can be studied at six different
levels:
INDIVIDUAL:
• is an organism belonging to a particular
species.
POPULATION:
• is a group of organisms of the same spe­
cies living together in a specific area .
• is the total count of individuals within a
group.
COMMUNITY:
• is made up of populations of different
species living together in the same area.
• these organisms usually interact and
depend on each other.
ECOSYSTEM:
• is a system in which biotic (living) organ­
isms interact with each other and their
abiotic (nonliving) environment.
• abiotic environments include things such
as sunlight, soil, moisture, temperature,
and nutrients.
BlOME:
• is a region with a distinct climate
(weather patterns over a period
of time).
• climate determines the types of
organisms that can live within the
biome.
• is identified by its flora (plants)
and fauna (animals).
• Earth is divided into distinct land
biomes.
BIOSPHERE:
• is the sum of Earth's biomes.
• is the living part of the planet.
• extends from just above to just
below Earth's surface.
Food Chain & Web
FOOD CHAIN:
~
• is a series of organisms
linked together in the
~,
order that they feed on
i\ ~
J
each other.
~
• linear graphs depicting
energy flow among organ~
/
isms as a series of links.
• energy passes from the organism being eaten to the organism that eats it.
• most food chains only consist of four or five
links.
• food chains illustrate one possible series of links.
t
---------------~cIes
OXYGEN CYCLE:
• is the process by
which oxyge n and
carbon dioxide
are exchange d
between plants
and animals:
- animals use oxy­
gen and produce
carbon dioxide
(respiration).
- plants use carbon
dioxide and
produce oxyge n (photosynthesis).
u.s. $4.95
NOTE TO STI ;u..: \TS: This guide is inte nded for intilrllwtiol1al purposes only. L>u.:: 10 its condensed
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C Z009 HloI r C harfs, I nc. 11509 B I \
[d i tion~.
! • long, cold winters
• located in the northern hemisphere
• bordered on the north by tundra and on the i • short growing season
south by steppe (flat, treeless region)
• contains approximately one-third of all
forested land on Earth (mostly evergreen
conifers)
• consists of many swampy areas during
warmer spring months
Illc. .'t" ~'<lIll<!111 c"'!fimlll' I" Suliona!Sumdon/,-/i )rllie
• long, cold winters
• brief summers with long
daylight hours
.................................................
Forest
: • large groups oftrees that grow close together
!.~.~e~.~:....... . .... . . .. . . .... . ... ........ ..... . ... . . . . . . . ............ . . ..... . .... .... . ........ ....... ..... ...
- coniferous forests (contain mostly cone• long, cold winters
bearing trees)
• low rainfall
.................................................................................... ........................... ....................................... .
- deciduous forests (contain mostly trees
• mild temperature
that seasonally shed their leaves)
, • abundant rainfall
.........................................
: • constant wann
- tropical rain forests (dense collections
, temperature
of evergreen trees that receive a large
: • 80 or more inches of rain
amount of rainfall)
,
••
u
••
u
•••••• •
:
per~ . . ........... .
• semiarid (dry, but not as
dry as a desert)
• 10-20 inches of rain per
year
Grasslands
i • mostly flat with some rolling areas
Desert
i•little or no vegetation
Mountain
:. high altitude
' • can vary depending on
: • vegetation varies depending on the elevation: altitude
: • hot and dry
, • less than 10 inches of
L ~~~.t:'~ryellr
PARASITISM:
• is a relationship in which one organism (parasite)
secures its re quired food and energy by living on or in
another organism (host).
• is usually beneficial to the parasite and harmful to the
host.
-- - ------------
CO N1TNT !' !-tO V lhE!) BY: bq)l;rt
Taiga
•••
• If all newspaper were recycled,
250,000,000 trees could be left
standing.
• Recycling one aluminum can
saves enough enerh'Y to run a
television for three hours.
MUTUALISM/SYMBIOSIS:
• is a relationship between organisms of two
different species in which both organisms
receive'some benefit.
,<II~i''Cl
• treeless
• mostly located around the poles
• much of the land remains frozen year-round
Fun Facts:
RelatIonshIps
li -
Tundra
• Producers:
- can use nonliving matter to produce food.
- are usually plants that use the sun's energy to photosynthesize their own food .
• Consumers:
- cannot produce their own food.
- must eat other organisms for nourishment (nutri­
ents and energy):
o herbivores eat only plants.
o carnivores eat only animals.
o omnivores eat both plants and animals.
- are classified by their place in the food chain :
o primary consumers eat producers.
o secondary consumers eat primary consumers.
o tertiary consumers eat secondary (and primary)
consumers.
WATER CYCLE:
• is the continuous movement of water
between Earth and the atmosphere
(layer of air surrounding Earth).
- eva poration:
o water changes from a liquid to a
gas (water vapor).
o water vapor is released into the
atmosphere from open bodies of
water and from plants (through
transpiration).
- condensation:
o water vapor enters the atmosphere,
is cooled, and converts to a liquid.
o clouds form when water vapor
condenses in the atmosphere.
COMMENSAUSM:
• is a relationship between two organisms of different
species in which one organism (g uest) lives on or in
another organism (host).
• is beneficial to the guest organism.
• is neither beneficial nor harmful to the host organism.
o predators hunt and kill other animals for
food and occupy the top of the food chain.
• Decomposers:
- are organisms that obtain food and energy
by causing plants and animals to rot or decay
(decompose).
- are usually bacteria and fungi.
- break down producers and consum ers, releasing
nutrients and minerals into the soil.
FOOD WEB:
• is a network of feeding relationships composed of
interconnected food chains.
• illustrates multiple food chains and a possible
series of links.
- precipitation:
o water drop­
cloud formation
lets in clouds
snow
form and
fall back to
p(ecipitat;on
Earth.
runoff
o water can
fall as rain,
snow, sleet,
or hail.
o water falls
into open
bodies of
water such as oceans, lakes, and rivers.
ISBN - 13: 978 - 142320902-7
IS BN-10: 142320902-8
J~~111~~l l l ~~~111!llllliI1llill I1 1
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