UNIVERSITY OF ZIMBABWE
FACULTY OF SOCIAL STUDIES
MASTER OF SCIENCE IN SOCIAL ECOLOGY
INSTITUTIONS GOVERNING THE MANAGEMENT OF THATCHING GRASS,
EMERGING PRACTICES AND IMPLICATIONS FOR LIVELIHOODS: THE CASE OF
WARD 26, NYABIRA RESETTLEMENT AREA, ZVIMBA DISTRICT.
BY
NOBLEMAN MAFURATIDZE
(REG. NUMBER R175821G)
Dissertation Submitted In Partial Fulfilment Of The Requirements Of Master Of Science
In Social Ecology
December 2018
i
DECLARATION
By submitting this thesis, I declare that the entirety of the work contained therein is my own,
original work, that I am the sole author thereof (save to the extent explicitly stated otherwise),
that reproduction and publication thereof by University of Zimbabwe will not infringe any third
party rights and that I have not previously in its entirety or in part submitted it for obtaining any
qualification.
Mafuratidze Nobleman
…………………………..
REG. NUMBER
R175821G
December 2018
ii
ABSTRACT
The study focused on institutions governing the management of thatching grass emerging
practices and implications livelihoods in Ward 26, Nyabira, Zvimba District. The community of
Nyabira is one of the very few left communities whose livelihood is dependent on thatching
grass. Initiatives designed to improve the management of natural resources has neglected
thatching grass. It has been considered as a minor resource while much attention has focused on
timber and wildlife which are perceived to be economically more rewarding to manage. It is on
this premise that the research sought to demystify that motion and actually propose that any
developmental initiative targeted at natural resources management has to be inclusive and
sustainable, catering for the diversity in the environment as well as placement of value.
This study sought to (a) identify the country’s legal framework that deals with the management
of thatching grass; (b) investigate the role of local institutions governing access to and
management of thatching grass; (c) to establish the level of community participation in the
management of thatching grass; (d) give recommendations on the policy frameworks and
practice regimes that seeks to improve management of thatching grass without compromising
environmental sustainability. The study employed both exploratory and explanatory research
designs to interview local leadership and government officers as key informants. Local leaders
interviewed included the village head, councilor and local church leader. The researcher held
face to face interviews with Environmental Management Agency Officers in Harare and
Murombedzi, AGRITEX and Veterinary Officer, Zvimba Rural District Council Officers, the
District Administrator and Small to Medium Enterprises Development Official. A Household
survey was conducted using KoBoCollect tool v1.14.0a. A total of fifty-eight respondents were
interviewed. The researcher managed to hold two Focus Group Discussions, one involving
women only and the other one mixed. The reason for discussing with women on their own was to
enable them to be free to share and reveal their thoughts without hesitation. Quantitative data
collected was analysed using descriptive statistics and Linear and Logistic regression analysis on
Statistical Package for Social Sciences, while Qualitative data was analysed using thematic
analysis.
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The results revealed that there are various institutional dynamics coupled with lack of collective
action on ensuring effective and coordinated efforts from all stakeholders in managing common
pool resources such as thatching grass. This is just one example of how unregulated and
uncontrolled practices can have far reaching consequences on ecological components ultimately
affecting the livelihoods and welfare of affected communities. Establishment of committees
involving local and government appointed officers is not a panacea to finding lasting solutions
on the degradation of natural resources but it is more to do with what obtains on the ground.
Thus, the study recommends that there is need for stakeholders to be non-discriminatory in
addressing issues pertaining to common pool resources such as thatching grass, knowledge
sharing mechanisms should be put in place for landowners, non-landowners, government
officials and civic organisations to facilitate designing of appropriate models for managing
common pool resources. Household capacity building should be prioritized targeting voluntary
environmental protectors and promoting their excellence so that they realize economic benefits
in return for their efforts, for example, veld fire management by harvesting thatching grass.
There is also need for the government to consider the communities of former farm workers who
have shown that there are better environmental managers in land audit so that thatching grass
area can actually become a special economic zone which can be combined with command
livestock. The small to medium enterprise development ministry can tap on the existing
knowledge, artistic skills and business management strategies employed by the people of
Nyabira in selling thatching grass which has seen them stood the test of time regardless of the
economic situation.
Key words
Institutions, Governance, Common pool resources, Sustainability, Collective Action, Community
participation, Special Economic Zone, Livelihoods.
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DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my wife; Rumbidzai Patience Mary. To know you is to know
love. Mehitabel and Esher my daughters’ thank you for being so patient and resilient during the
course of my studies.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost I would like to thank my supervisor Professor K. Nyikahadzoi for his
encouragement, patience, guidance and support during the entire period of the research. I also
extend my sincere appreciation and gratitude to all CASS Lecturers for grooming me in my
academic, social and personal life. I am grateful to Regis Isheanesu for assisting me in carrying
out fieldwork as well as organizing Focus Group Discussions. I am also grateful to my
classmates, Bibiyana Kadira, Raymond Mhlanga, Memory Chikwenjere, Moreblessing Jomboro,
Bertha Tandayi and Lucy Mashiri who have one way or another contributed to the success of my
work. I also want to extend my acknowledgements to all my respondents for the enthusiasm and
willingness to participate in all conversations and debates. I am also greatly indebted to my key
informants for their invaluable contribution with ideas, resource materials and guidelines in
carrying out the research. Notably, I want to thank Mr Mabwe (EMA Education and Publicity
Officer), Dubungwane R. (AGRITEX), Mrs Shamhu (Lands, Agriculture and Natural Resources
Officer – ZRDC), Mrs Ndhlovu (Animal Health Inspector), District Administrator, (Zvimba
Rural District Council), Mr J. Chindamba (Moonrackers Village Head), Ward 26 Councilor, Mr
Bako and Nyabira Sub-office Staff. I also extend my sincere appreciation to important
gatekeepers such as political party representatives who at first were reluctant to allow me to
conduct the research in their stronghold areas but later realised that indeed they were
opportunities for upliftment and enlightenment through participating in this research. Last but
not least, I am grateful to the security personnel and office bearers at Zvimba Rural District
Council Offices for their assistance in facilitating my appointments with key informants.
To God be the glory.
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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
AGRITEX
Agricultural and Technical Extension Services
CAMPFIRE
Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources
CASS
Centre for Applied Social Sciences
CBNRM
Community Based Natural Resources Management
CPR
Common Property Resource
EMA
Environmental Management Agency
FTLR
Fast Track Land Reform
FGD
Focus Group Discussion
NGO
Non-Governmental Organisation
NRM
Natural Resources Management
RDC
Rural District Council
SPSS
Statistical Package for Social Science
ZRP
Zimbabwe Republic Police
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Contents
DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................................... ii
ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................................................... iii
DEDICATION .................................................................................................................................................. v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................................ vi
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS .............................................................................................................. vii
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................................... 1
INTRODUCTION TO THE THEMES OF THE STUDY ......................................................................................... 1
1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 1
1.1 Background ............................................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Problem statement ................................................................................................................................. 2
1.3 Research aim ........................................................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Objectives................................................................................................................................................ 3
1.5 Conceptual framework ........................................................................................................................... 3
1.5.1 Physical attributes ............................................................................................................................ 5
1.5.2 Institutional arrangements ................................................................................................................ 5
1.5.3 Patterns of interaction ...................................................................................................................... 5
1.5.4 Outcomes ......................................................................................................................................... 6
1.6 Justification of the study ......................................................................................................................... 6
1.6.1 Why study in Nyabira- Zvimba District? ......................................................................................... 7
LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................................................... 10
2.0 Introduction: ......................................................................................................................................... 10
2.1 The Legal Framework that deal with the management of thatching grass. ......................................... 10
2.1.1 Environmental law versus environmental management. ............................................................... 10
2.1.2 The Environmental Management Act: Chapter 20:27 ................................................................... 11
2.1.3 The Forest Act: Chapter 19:05 ....................................................................................................... 12
2.1.4 The Communal Land Forest Produce Act: Chapter 19:04 ............................................................. 12
2.1.5 The Communal Land Act: Chapter 20:04 ...................................................................................... 12
2.1.6 The Traditional Leaders Act: Chapter 29:17 ................................................................................. 13
2.2 Institutions governing the management of thatching grass ................................................................. 13
2.2.1 1ncentives for participating in thatching grass management ......................................................... 13
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2.2.2 Resilience of local institutions in the management of thatching grass. ......................................... 14
2.3 Community participation in the management of thatching grass ........................................................ 15
2.3.1 Proceeds of community participation. ........................................................................................... 15
2.3.2 Key stakeholders in the management of thatching grass. .............................................................. 16
2.4 Thatching grass management: A source of livelihood and the best practice for nature conservation 17
2.5 Working rules and smallholder farmers’ behavior ............................................................................... 18
2.6 Tenure security and thatching grass management in resettled areas. ................................................ 20
2.7 Collective action .................................................................................................................................... 22
2.8 The tragedy of managing the commons ............................................................................................... 23
2.9 The capacity of local institutions to manage thatching grass ............................................................... 24
CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................................................... 26
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................................ 26
3.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 26
3.1 The Research Philosophy ...................................................................................................................... 26
3.2 Research Design .................................................................................................................................... 27
3.3 The Research Strategy .......................................................................................................................... 28
3.4 Geographic location of study area ........................................................................................................ 28
3.4.1 Climate ........................................................................................................................................... 29
3.4.2 Agriculture ..................................................................................................................................... 29
3.5 The research population ....................................................................................................................... 29
3.6 Sampling strategy.................................................................................................................................. 29
3.7 Data collection Instruments .................................................................................................................. 30
3.7.1 Legislative framework governing access to thatching grass .......................................................... 30
3.7.2 The role of local institutions in governing access to and management of thatching grass ............ 31
3.7.3 Drivers of participation in the management of thatching grass ..................................................... 32
3.7.3.1 Independent variables ............................................................................................................. 33
3.7.3.2 Marital Status of household head ............................................................................................ 33
3.7.3.3 Sex of household head ............................................................................................................ 33
3.7.3.4 Household head’s age ............................................................................................................. 34
3.7.3.5 Household head education ...................................................................................................... 34
3.7.3.6 Economically active ................................................................................................................ 35
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3.7.3.7 Leadership position in society................................................................................................. 35
3.7.4 Challenges resettled communities face in the management of thatching grass. ............................ 36
3.7.5 Collective action and sustainability in the management of thatching grass. .................................. 37
3.8 Field Observations ................................................................................................................................ 38
3.9 Validity and reliability of data ............................................................................................................... 38
3.10 Limitations........................................................................................................................................... 38
3.11 Ethical considerations ......................................................................................................................... 39
3.12 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................... 39
CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................................................... 40
DATA PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS............................................................................... 40
4.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 40
4.1 Demographic and Socio-Economic profile of respondents. ................................................................. 40
4.2 Sources of income and thatching grass in Ward 26 .............................................................................. 42
4.3 What happens to violators of rules governing the management of thatching grass? ......................... 44
4.4 Key institutions in the management of thatching grass. ...................................................................... 44
4.4.1 The Zimbabwe Republic Police (ZRP) .......................................................................................... 44
4.4.2 The Municipal Police ..................................................................................................................... 45
4.4.3 The Traditional Leadership Structure ............................................................................................ 45
4.4.5 The Environmental Management Agency (EMA) ......................................................................... 46
4.5 The legislative framework governing the management of thatching grass ......................................... 46
4.6 Stakeholder participation in thatching grass management. ................................................................. 49
4.7 The monetary value of thatching grass................................................................................................. 50
4.8 Thatching grass harvesting: a tragedy of the commons ....................................................................... 52
4.9 Community participation in the management of thatching grass. ....................................................... 53
4.9.1 Discussion of findings.................................................................................................................... 54
4.10 Challenges faced by women ............................................................................................................... 55
4.11 Collective action: a panacea to environmental sustainability ............................................................ 56
CHAPTER 5 .................................................................................................................................................. 58
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS................................................................................................... 58
5.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................... 58
5.1 Discussion of findings ............................................................................................................................ 58
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5.2 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................. 59
5.3 Recommendations ................................................................................................................................ 60
5.3.1 Capacity development .................................................................................................................... 60
5.3.2 Promote labor-saving technologies ................................................................................................ 61
5.3.3 Value addition of thatching grass................................................................................................... 61
5.3.4 Addressing conflicting policies ...................................................................................................... 61
5.3.5 Inclusion of traditional authorities ................................................................................................. 62
5.3.6 Community rights to available natural resources ........................................................................... 62
5.3.7 Socio-economic differentiation ...................................................................................................... 62
References .................................................................................................................................................. 64
Research Instruments ................................................................................................................................. 70
Appendix 1 .................................................................................................................................................. 70
GUIDE FOR FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION ..................................................................................................... 70
Appendix 2 .................................................................................................................................................. 74
RESEARCH INSTRUMENT FOR KEY INFORMANT INTERVIEW: VILLAGE HEAD AND COUNCILLOR .............. 74
Appendix 3 .................................................................................................................................................. 75
RESEARCH INSTRUMENT FOR KEY INFORMANT INTERVIEW: EMA AND AGRITEX OFFICER...................... 75
Appendix 4 .................................................................................................................................................. 76
RESEARCH INSTRUMENT FOR KEY INFORMANT INTERVIEW: D.A. AND ZVIMBA RURAL DISTRICT COUNCIL
CEO. ............................................................................................................................................................. 76
Appendix 5 .................................................................................................................................................. 78
HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIRE .................................................................................................................... 78
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List of tables
Table 1: Key stakeholders and their role………………………….……………………………..16
Table 2: Description of dependent and independent variables………………………………….36
Table 3: Profile of households...…………………………………………………………………41
Table 4: Main sources of income………………………………………………………………...42
Table 5: Response to violation of rules governing thatching grass management………………..44
Table 6: Determinants of participation…………………………………………………………..53
List of figures
Figure 1: Conceptual framework for analyzing thatching grass management……………………4
List of plates
Plate 1…………………………………………………………………………………………….43
Plate 2…………………………………………………………………………………………….51
Plate 3………………………………………………………………………………….................55
Plate 4…………………………………………………………………………………………….57
xii
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO THE THEMES OF THE STUDY
1.0 Introduction
The fast track land reform programme (FTLRP) which officially began in 2000 significantly
altered the agrarian landscape as well as the social organization of managing natural resources in
resettled areas. The changes have created research gaps in terms of understanding the
management of common pool resources such as thatching grass and the emerging practices by
resettled households in terms of livelihoods diversification. Many studies on natural resources
management have tended to be myopic of the role of local institutions governing common pool
resources such as thatching grass. Thatching grass has been regarded as a ‘minor’ product from
the grasslands in terms of its management hence national and local institutions perceive its value
differently. The focus of this research is to investigate how resettled communities are organizing
themselves in managing thatching grass and the constraints in respect of existing conventional
policies and statutes on natural resources management. The research aims to identify how social
organization and agency are being forged in the absence of defined traditional structures, limited
presence of external agents and a fairly new tenure system. The ‘fast track’ process, by and large,
accommodated various categories of people, from the communal areas, urban areas and from the
large scale farms with no strong emphasis on belonging or pre-existing knowledge of each other.
It is crucial to analyse the forms of thatching grass governance and identify means of solidifying
local institutions so that they contribute towards sustainable natural resources management.
1.1 Background
The land reform programme of 2000 coincided with Zimbabwe’s worst economic decline,
characterized by hyperinflation, foreign currency and commodity shortages, erosion of incomes,
increasing food and social service insecurity, increased environmental degradation and
unregulated appropriation of natural resources (Murisa, 2007). The economic decline has
affected the governance capacities of state institutions and social organisation of resettled
communities with respect to regulating access to and ecological compliance so as to achieve
goals of sustainable development (Sachikonye, 2005). Traditionally, linkages of support exist
1
between rural and urban households, involving cash remittances from the urban to the rural areas
and also food subsistence from the rural to urban sector (Chigumira and Matshe, 2004). The
economic decline and high unemployment rates constrain the processes of managing common
pool resources both at national and local levels (Moyo, 2004). This has impacted heavily on
thatching grass as unregulated harvesting practices in an effort to sustain livelihoods have
endangered the stock of grassland simultaneously increasing environmental degradation (Sola,
1996). The evolving governance system has also been a sore point in endeavors to achieve
sustainable management of natural resources as the current status quo shows neglect and lack of
social support (Murisa, 2007). Such a social and political context provides a strong justification
for seeking to investigate the practices of resettled farmers in managing thatching grass and how
the environment constraints some of their initiatives. The Master of Science Degree in Social
Ecology gave the researcher an opportunity to consider a paradigm shift in the management of
natural resources which involves the integration of sustainable development principles and the
new tenure system as a better option.
1.2 Problem statement
In Zimbabwe, the change in tenure system brought about by the fast track land reform has
translated to more problems of institutional management of common pool resources such as
thatching grass. This is further escalated by the fact that there is a lack of regulation on access
and harvesting practices. Access to thatching grass resources and harvesting is no longer
bounded by the condition of belonging to a clan or lineage since resettled farmers came from
diverse backgrounds. Thus, emerging practices by smallholder farmers have the potential to
totally wipe out available grass species if no checks and balances are put in place. State
institutions have focused more on fighting the scourge of veld fires and proper soil management
opting to keep a blind eye on thatching grass which is, in fact, a key asset that if properly
managed then all the other resources thrive well. The role of local institutions in governance and
sustainable management of thatching grass has been undermined by the failure to integrate local
institutions and conventional formal apparatus in line with the dictates of a changed tenure
system initiated by the Fast Track Land Reform (FTLR). There seem to be parallel governance
practices between local institutions and state formalized institutions in regulating access to
thatching grass and preventing degradation of other natural resources in resettled areas.
2
Furthermore, there is discord in the manner in which the various institutions constrain and or
enable compliance adoption by smallholder farmers. This research sought to unravel this view by
analyzing local institutions and linkages which exist with the government structures in managing
thatching grass. The focus of the research is on institutional governance of common pool
resources in a new land tenure system converted from commercial (private) to small scale
(communal) system with a view to coming up with recommendations that fosters sustainable
management of natural resources.
1.3 Research aim
The research seeks to inform all stakeholders in natural resources management on the need to
consider current emerging practices by resettled farmers so as to design appropriate management
frameworks for thatching grass. It is also anticipated that adoption of recommendations from this
research could aid in revitalising local institutional capacities in resettled areas to accept full
responsibility and accountability for accessing and harvesting of natural resources.
1.4 Objectives
1. To identify the country’s legal framework that deals with the management of thatching
grass.
2. To investigate the role of local institutions governing access to and management of
thatching grass.
3. To establish the determinants of
community participation in the management of
thatching grass.
4. To give recommendations on the policy frameworks and practice regimes that are
necessary to improve management of thatching grass without compromising
environmental sustainability.
1.5 Conceptual framework
The central issue guiding this study is the theme of institutions. Institutions are defined as “the
rules of the game in a society or, more formally, are the humanly devised constraints that shape
3
human interaction (North 1990:3).” The Conceptual Framework in this study identifies four key
attributes namely;

Physical attributes of thatching grass.

Institutional arrangements that govern the relationship among users.

The mutual choice of strategies and consequent pattern of interactions among decision
makers.

Outcomes or consequences of management of the commons.
By implication, there is some kind of interaction between the four attributes. The nexus between
participation in thatching grass management and compliance or non-compliance to institutional
arrangements is elaborated on the conceptual framework presented in Figure one. The
framework highlights the interconnectedness of the various components which range from the
physical availability of thatching grass within the set institutional arrangements and the
combined actions of resource users as key determinants of compliance or non-compliance.
Furthermore, the framework also portrays the envisaged ecological outcomes of compliance or
non-compliance.
Fig 1. A Conceptual framework for analysing thatching grass management
Physical attributes of
thatching grass.
Combined actions of
resource usersPatterns of interaction
Institutional Arrangements[
A1 Farmers, Non-land owners ]
Source: (adopted from Oarkerson’s Model)
4
Compliance, noncompliance outcomes
[better welfare, degraded
ecosystem]
1.5.1 Physical attributes
Resource users are constrained by the availability of the natural resource and hence their
interaction is based on the need to have joint benefits (Oarkerson, 1992). The physical
boundaries of the common resource are important to define, even when these are somewhat
indeterminate, and they may or may not coincide with the legal boundaries set by a user group
(Belcher, 2005). Divisibility of areas to access thatching grass is limited by a number of factors:
the land tenure system, the highly variable quality of thatching grass, competing uses, and high
population densities (Sola, 1996).
1.5.2 Institutional arrangements
Some rules and institutional arrangements establish the ability of a group to act collectively and
to make decisions together (North, 1990). In resettled areas, collective identity and political
authority continue to be strongly defined in terms of access to and control over land-based
resources (Moyo, 2004). Another legacy of the colonial is the widely accepted institutional form
of the representative committee with decision making powers and administrative responsibilities
(Moyo, 2000). These general features have formed the basis of institutional development within
resettled areas. New arrangements include the election of management committees, which in a
majority of cases include "traditional" leaders such as village heads and the adoption of by-laws
governing the appropriation of common pool resources. In theory, these create a capacity to
impose a collective choice on individual resource users (Ostrom, 1994). External arrangements
which affect decision making may be constitutional and legally enabling in character (Bromely,
1997).
1.5.3 Patterns of interaction
Patterns of interaction among users of common resources are derived from the strategic choices
of individuals, and these depend upon individual expectations of others’ behavior (Ostrom,
1994). The primary strategies are cooperation (resulting in a pattern of reciprocity) and noncooperation (a pattern of non-reciprocity or "free riding") (Ostrom, 1990). Reciprocity is based
on a mutual expectation of positive performance (Robinson, 2009). Free riding may result from
an expectation that others will continue to abide by rules even if one does not, or from an
expectation that others will choose free riding strategies (Ostrom, 2014). Ostrom (2014) insist
5
that complete abandonment of reciprocity may result in mutually destructive competition and
conflict. Thus decision making arrangements in common property regimes attempt to avoid
inducements or obstacles to the choice that lead people to abandon a strategy of reciprocity
(North 1995). In this regard strategies such as the monitoring of user group members’ behaviour
by each other, enforcement of rules and application of sanctions are essential ingredients
governing access to thatching grass and benefit sharing arrangements (Swallow and Bromley,
1994).
1.5.4 Outcomes
The most commonly used criteria for evaluating outcomes in common property regime, are
efficiency and equity (Oarkerson, 1992). Efficiency is related to rates of use of the resource that
is, excessive use leads to depletion or degradation, and the physical and technical characteristics
of the resource often dictate some optimal rate of utilization (Wade, 1988). Underutilisation is
also inefficient. Inequities in resource utilisation may lead to the collapse of collective
management, and these are more likely to occur if there are marked "asymmetries" (i.e.
inequalities) among users, which create the possibility of some benefitting from the commons at
the expense of others. Abuse of authority can contribute to these inequities (Jodha, 1986).
Clearly, there is a possibility of great inequities in costs and benefits from the use of thatching
grass (Sola, 1996). These can, in turn, contribute to increasing socio-economic differentiation
(Ellis, 2000). Open conflict between land owners and non-land owners may contribute to low
levels of participation in thatching grass management and an uneven commitment towards
compliance. Lack of compliance by the more distant households can also contribute to the
breakdown of the rotational harvesting system (Sola, 1996).
1.6 Justification of the study
Thus, findings from this study will contribute towards the development of prudent ways of
sustainable management and governance of grassland resources by making resettled
communities aware of the dangers posed by their practices on thatching grass and their
invaluable contribution towards good land use governance. Policy makers, planners, decision
makers and non-state actors will make use of this information to devise strategies for integrating
and transforming traditional ecological knowledge and setting out the basis for sustainable
6
management. The findings of this study will also add value to the existing literature on the
management of common pool resources, sustainable development as well as access to and
benefit sharing arrangements.
1.6.1 Why study in Nyabira- Zvimba District?
Thatching grass has an important role in human livelihoods at the local level as it provides
various products such as roofing material, income, mats, sweeping brooms and mulching grass.
Dependence of the communities on thatching grass has resulted to arguably serious degradation
and threatens future ecological diversity as well as livelihood diversifications. The research is
worthwhile investigating because of the need to preserve natural ecosystem from degrading
practices of smallholder farmers. Research on environmental impacts of harvesting of non-timber
forest products has found that depletion of indigenous species diversity and erosion of cultural
traits of governing common pool resources are the major effects. However, the research will
explore further the role of social organisation under the discourse of new institutionalism visa vi
emerging practices by resettled farmers bridging the gap of knowledge between literature on
natural resources management and collective action in order to have a sound understanding of
potential constraints and opportunities for social reproduction.
This research can aid as a basis for the local communities, government, policy makers,
academics, disaster managers, Non-governmental Organisations, farmers and other interested
stakeholders to form partnerships meant to closely monitor practices of smallholder farmers in
resettled areas. Incentives and social benefits are also a means of promoting positive
participation by locals. In this regard, locals can be employed as thatching grass patrol
monitoring officials. If there are no benefits, the local community is weak to monitor and take
corrective measures to arrest the harmful effects of their practices. Assessment of the
management of thatching grass is essential in planning and implementation of developmental
projects that compete for the same land resources in the District such as cattle ranching, crop
farming, urban growth, military training and wildlife requirements. Thus, the research
contributes to lobbying for the amalgamation of traditional ecological wisdom and conventional
top-down approaches through promoting stakeholder participation in policy making and
environmental monitoring.
7
Community participation helps to promote empowerment of locals to take responsibility in
regulating their actions as well as those of investors in their area of jurisdiction. The research
raises awareness of the concerned society and the whole of Zimbabwe, on the possible risks and
hazards arising from neglect and unmonitored natural resource use in resettled areas and the long
term resultant impacts. If properly coordinated thatching grass management can bring about an
improvement in peoples’ standard of livelihood in terms of income, while at the same time
safeguarding the ecosystem requirements. The ecological value of a natural resource cannot be
priced only in monetary terms as there exist a ‘cob-web’ interrelationship of the components of
the ecosystem. Therefore, local community engagement in policy advocacy and appreciation of
smallholder farmer practices in the management of thatching grass is envisaged to curtail the
ever increasing rate of environmental degradation and loss of life and property due to veld fires.
Impacts of land degradation are not necessarily a local problem, they have far reaching and
lasting effects at the national level as the costs are borne by communities and ecosystems in far
distant places. For instance, unavailability of thatching grass in Nyabira can have detrimental
repercussions to property developers in Harare, Banket, Chinhoyi, Kariba and as far as Zambia.
It also has the potential to disrupt breeding and migration patterns of birds, insects and reptiles.
Thus, the research provides a basis for identification and innovation of appropriate technologies
that promote sustainable thatching grass harvesting practices. Sound knowledge of the dangers
imposed by the lack of coordinated management practices helps the community to develop home
grown solutions and coping strategies in mitigating negative impacts. A study of thatching grass
management in Nyabira will assist policy makers in coming up with policies that take into
consideration the costs and benefits of regulating thatching grass harvesting, putting in place and
effecting laws that will allow smallholder farmers to engage in their activities while taking
responsibilities of their actions. On many occasions, environmental conservation and protection
measures are taken as a reaction to address the problem when they are at their worst (Sibanda,
1996). As such this study seeks to alert Zvimba Rural District Council (ZRDC) of the
institutional approaches of managing thatching grass in resettled areas. Information on the
economic value of thatching grass can be useful to Zvimba Rural District Council as it can also
obtain revenue from charging quarterly harvesting fees to those who harvest thatching grass for
commercial purposes and then plough back the money into community development projects
8
such as establishing a market for the selling of thatching grass, construction of roads and
fireguards around farms as well as research and technological development in monitoring
resettled farmers activities using Geographic Information System (GIS) and Remote Sensing
(RS).
9
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction:
This section of the study will extensively review literature related to the management of common
pool resources, institutionalism and practices by smallholder farmers in resettled areas. The
purpose of literature review is basically to enable researchers to scan through the ideas of
previous researchers so that the context of the proposed study could be established.
2.1 The Legal Framework that deal with the management of thatching grass.
2.1.1 Environmental law versus environmental management.
The first objective of this study is, to identify the country’s legal framework that deal with the
management of thatching grass. The central issue in this section is to assess whether the existing
legal framework has any provision for the management of thatching grass. The emerging
paradigms in natural resources management acknowledges that human societies bear no meaning
without the natural surroundings that define their culture and identity (Katerere, 2010). Moyo
(2010) reiterates that, in Zimbabwe, legislation on natural resources management is a contested
terrain, reflecting a struggle over benefits and consequently a divide between policy objectives
and actual practice. There continues to be incongruence between the stated objectives of
environmental management and the legal instruments that provide for it. Environmental law
today represents the conflict between environmental management that focused on control and
command strategies, and management on behalf of the people, whereas the new environmental
policy leans towards management by the people. Control over natural resources constituted an
important aspect of the colonial state’s strategy of political and economic subjugation of the
indigenous people (Masiiwa, 2004). Sachikonye (2005) notes that, the colonial law created a
racially inequitable natural resource and land endowment system, which with few modifications
has remained in place today. The law trivialized indigenous technical knowledge and formally
disempowered traditional leadership structures. In addition, it places severe limitations on the
way in which the resources may be used. However this appropriation of authority by the state has
been incomplete because of the state's own limited capacity to replace existing institutions
(North, 1995).
10
Despite the advent of independence, only general law applies to natural resource management.
Although the authority of local government structures has been partially extended to natural
resources indigenous local law systems are still not applied. Customary law is dismissed as either
backward because its approach is fundamentally different from the received law, or as a colonial
construct. Customary law, as applied by the state, was a product of its interaction with the values
of colonial administration and consequently was codified and distorted. In this study, customary
law to refer to the law and practice of local people. Given that customary law is a flexible and
continually developing system, responding to new circumstances and values it could offer some
valuable approaches for devolved environmental management, particularly on enforcement and
decision-making systems. Environmental law, at both the national and international level, has
two basic rule types; those designed to “ensure” compliance or conservation, these are
prescriptive, and those designed to “facilitate” better practice, these are process oriented.
2.1.2 The Environmental Management Act: Chapter 20:27
The Environmental Management Act is the key piece of legislation dealing with environmental
management in Zimbabwe. The Act’s is an attempt by the government to comply with the
provisions of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. Key environmental
management principles that are contained in the Rio Declaration form the basis of the Act. Of
relevance to this study is the recognition by the Act of the need to, “Secure ecologically
sustainable management and use of natural resources while promoting justifiable economic and
social development” (Section 4 (1) (c ) (ii)) and that “Environmental management must place
people and their needs at the forefront of its concern” (Section (4) (2) (b)). This shows a clear
and laudable move towards the recognition that environmental resources should be used by
people for their economic and social development. If properly and adequately implemented, this
provision can be of critical importance to smallholder farmers who depend on thatching grass
and other environmental resources for their sustenance because it encourages sustainable,
responsible and ecologically friendly use of these resources, as opposed to total preservation and
non-use.
11
2.1.3 The Forest Act: Chapter 19:05
The Forest Act establishes the Forestry Commission which is responsible for the management of
forest land and forest estates in the country. The Commission has of late established a
commercial entity under its portfolio known as Allied Timbers which is responsible for
processing wood into timber for various purposes. As a result, the Commission is more
concerned about timber-based forest produce because that is where most of their revenue comes
from. The Act also deals with the appointment of forest officers by the Minister whose duties are
to enforce the provisions of the Act, including those relating to access to forest areas and
possession of forest produce. Section 85 of the Act deals with wrongful possession of forest
produce and authorizes the Police and Forest Officers to confiscate any forest produce which
they reasonably suspect to have been wrongfully acquired and to arrest the person found in
possession of such produce.
2.1.4 The Communal Land Forest Produce Act: Chapter 19:04
The Act deals with the management of forest produce that is found within communal lands and is
critical for smallholder farmers because of their location in the communal areas of the country. It
is the Act that is widely used to determine access to and control of forest produce by rural
dwellers. The Act defines forest produce as “all vegetation whether dead or alive in a plantation,
woodland and forest and any part whether alive or dead of any such vegetation including wood,
bark, seed, fruit, gum, resin or sap”. It goes on, however, to distinguish between major forest
produce and minor forest produce with major forest produce being defined as trees, palms and
bamboos or any part thereof other than flowers, leaves, fruit or seed. Access to major forest
produce is subject to more stringent conditions compared to minor forest produce although both
are subject to a strict access and control regime.
2.1.5 The Communal Land Act: Chapter 20:04
The Communal Land Act vests all communal land in the President who shall permit it to be
occupied and be used in terms of the Act (Section 4). This means that rural people do not have
any title over the land that they occupy and therefore have to abide by the many regulations that
are put in place in the use of and access to communal land. The resources on the land are
inextricably bound up with the land itself, communal people cannot freely access forest produce
12
which is deemed to belong to the landowner, in this case, the presidents/state (Mcnamara and
Bradley, 1993).
2.1.6 The Traditional Leaders Act: Chapter 29:17
The Traditional Leaders Act gives traditional leaders powers to manage the environmental and
natural resources within their areas of jurisdiction. Section 5 deals with the duties of chiefs, for
instance, preventing the degradation, abuse or misuse of land and natural resources in their area
(section 5 (1) (l) (iv)). The Chiefs can delegate some or all of these duties to the Headmen or
Village Heads under their jurisdiction. This explains the active involvement of traditional leaders
in environmental management in rural areas.
2.2 Institutions governing the management of thatching grass
2.2.1 1ncentives for participating in thatching grass management
Scott (1995), asserts that institutions are regulative, normative and cognitive structures and
activities that provide stability and meaning for social behavior. Nemarundwe (2003) asserts that
“in relation to issues of representation, power dynamics becomes a key variable in determining
whose interests are or are not catered for by the institutions given the diversity of actors involved
in community based natural resources management.” The institutions can be both formal and
informal. The informal institutions can be just as strong and may even be stronger than the
formal institutions when it comes to management of natural resources at the community level
(Ostrom, 1994). According to Oakerson (1992), individuals choose thatching grass governance,
management and use strategies in light of the incentives they obtain. The assumption here is that
incentives and disincentives for sustained management or degradation of thatching grass are
generated by the economic outlays or opportunities available in the country (North, 1990).
Thatching grass is a common pool good to which access cannot be easily controlled while
consumption is separable (Sola, 1996). Common pool goods can be usefully subdivided into two
groups, namely, common property and open access goods (Delacote, 2009). By definition,
common property resources are managed at least to some extent. By contrast, open access
resources are not managed. Access and exploitation rates are not controlled, and investments are
not made to regenerate such resources. Community mores, standards, values, religious beliefs
and practices, traditions, the intensity of competition and reciprocity in intra-community and
13
inter-community relationships, market opportunities, etc., all create incentives for different
classes of actors.
The incentives available for people, play a fundamental role in shaping the efficiency, equity,
and environmental sustainability of natural resource management (Delacote, 2009). This has
been the reason for substantial investments in research to improve the governance of common
pool resources. However, incentives are of little value unless they are judged to be appropriate
by local people (Delacote, 2009). There are many factors constraining smallholder farmers’
motivation to participate in thatching grass management such as lack of tenure security, lack of
incentives, weak institutions, high prevalence of HIV and AIDS as well as lack of support.
2.2.2 Resilience of local institutions in the management of thatching grass.
Ostrom (1994) identified seven design principles for effective local organizations for common
property management; (i) there must be a clear definition of the members and the boundaries of
the resource to be managed or improved; (ii) there should be a clear set of rules and obligations
that are adapted to local conditions; (iii) members should collectively be able to modify those
rules to changing circumstances; (iv) there should be adequate monitoring systems in place, with
(v) enforceable sanctions, preferably graduated to match the seriousness and context of the
offense; (vi) effective mechanisms for conflict resolution; and (vii) the organization, if not
empowered or recognized by government authorities, should at least not be challenged or
undermined by those authorities.
Where these conditions are not met and collective action needed for resource management is
lacking, one of the first questions to ask is why? Are there sufficient incentives for people to
participate? The motivation depends not only on quantifiable economic costs and benefits but
also on factors such as time involved and social tensions or gratification from participation.
Local leadership and external community stakeholders can play an instrumental role in
developing local mechanisms for proper governance of common pool resources by providing
sufficient incentives (Ensminger, 1992). This can be seen as reducing the transaction costs of
organizing resources needed for full implementation of management initiatives (Scott, 1995). In
order to achieve sustainable management of natural resources over time, governance mechanisms
14
need to be institutionalized, that is, not dependent on the actions of a single person
(Mahendrarajah, 1986). Lack of boundedness of the resource is more complex. Ostrom (1994)
observed that, clear boundaries are important in monitoring and enforcing, and in making sure
that those who participate in collective action (either by contributing or refraining from taking
too much) will be the ones who benefit from improvements. With reference to this study, people
who actively participate in thatching grass management are entitled to have free access to thatch
grass unlike outsiders who are interested mainly in appropriation. However, in some cases
somewhat “fuzzy” boundaries may be preferred, especially in highly variable contexts, where
people recognize that they may need to tap others’ resources under crisis conditions (for
example, drought), and are therefore willing to allow others to use their resources under similar
conditions (Cleaver 1998).
2.3 Community participation in the management of thatching grass
2.3.1 Proceeds of community participation.
This section covers the third objective which looks at the level of community participation in the
management of thatching grass. Globally, there is widespread consensus that, public
participation is essential in order to ensure environmental sustainability and fulfillment of
development initiatives (Belcher, 2005). Community participation in this regard, is proactive.
Scott (1995) asserts that, this creates opportunities for individuals and groups to participate in the
formulation of management strategies and the implementation thereof. In addition, community
participation in management of thatching grass requires effective representation. The inclusion of
a diversity of stakeholders and the recognition of their value, knowledge systems, responsibility,
authority, accountability and transparent in provision of information is a prerequisite in getting
everyone involved in the management of thatching grass (Reed etal, 2009).
15
2.3.2 Key stakeholders in the management of thatching grass.
Table 1 below outlines the key stakeholders in the management of thatching grass in Nyabira,
Ward 26.
Table 1. Key stakeholders in the management of thatching grass
EMA official
To get information on the most affected areas in Nyabira due to
thatching grass harvesting, types of grass species harvested, EMA’s
strategies in monitoring and management of grasslands, challenges
EMA face and way forward to overcome.
AGRITEX official
To get information on the impact of grass harvesting on cattle
rearing and soils.
Nyabira Police Officer To get information on cases related to harvesting of thatching grass
In-Charge
in Nyabira due to clashes among farmers and outsiders, main
perpetrators of veldfires and the police’s contribution in the
protection of property.
Commercial farmers
To get information on the practices of thatching grass harvesters,
measures they put in place to manage grasslands and preventing veld
fires.
Ward councilor
To extract information on the prevalence of thatching grass
harvesting, marketing and income generation in the area.
Village heads
To extract information on the frequency of harvesting, existing
methods of regulating quantity and scale of harvest. They were also
interviewed in order to know the penalty imposed on those who
violate principles.
According to North (1995), stakeholders are individuals or groups of people who have a direct or
indirect interest in the management of natural resources. In this study, the key stakeholders in the
management of thatching grass include, government officials, local leaders, farmers’ groups,
16
thatch grass buyers and ordinary people. Reed etal (2009) identifies stakeholders as a naturally
occurring entity and that they occupy different roles. The aforementioned stakeholders have
diverse interest on thatching grass hence the need for conducting a stakeholder analysis. Reed
etal (2011) notes that, stakeholder analysis is a process of making an account of those who could
have a role in decision making, gauging their importance and interest for a particular outcome as
well as mapping the relationships between the actors and understanding their potential for
developing alliances. Nederlof etal (2015) insists that, stakeholder analysis involves the selection
and identification of promising action entry points in a specific value chain or thematic area.
Tekwe and Percy (2001) further elaborate that stakeholder analysis for sustainable natural
resources management is premised on “4 Rs”. The “4Rs” tool is used to analyse how people
relate to one and all over resource use by categorizing stakeholder roles into rights,
responsibilities and revenues (benefits) and then assessing the relationship between these roles
(Tekwe and Percy, 2001). Thus the researcher conducted a stakeholder analysis in selecting
respondents for key informant interviews, household survey and focus group discussion.
2.4 Thatching grass management: A source of livelihood and the best practice for nature
conservation
The underlying assumption in this section is that traditional ecological natural resources
management and use regimes are better placed than conventional natural resource management
regimes to manage thatching grass. These are important to grasp because the attitudes,
composition and legal provisions relating to these institutions determine how difficult or easy it
is for smallholder farmers to access thatching grass (Nemarundwe, 2003). Thatching grass is one
of the few income opportunities proving a safety net when other activities fail to generate cash
for rural communities (Belcher, 2005). The diversity, volatility and open access to natural assets
can ensnare the poor in poverty where competition leads to rapid depletion thus necessitating
revision of coping strategies (Delacote, 2009). Delacote (2009) asserts that, dependency on
thatching grass may contribute to social injustice in that those dependent on it remain in the low
economic status. The link between nature conservation and livelihood improvement is a
contested area (Laird etal 2009). The sustainability of how thatching grass is exploited and
commercialized is one of the most important factors in creating a balance between short term
17
income and livelihoods needs with biodiversity conservation (Lynch etal, 2004). At the level of
policy making, the paucity of information about thatching grass management is reflected in the
lack of policy attention, conflicting regulatory and policy frameworks and a lack of support for
trade in thatch grass products (Belcher, 2005).
A livelihood consists of the capabilities, assets and actions required for a means of living. A
sustainable livelihood is one which can cope with, recover from stresses and shocks and still
maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets both now and in the future while not
compromising the natural resource base (Humphrey and Schimtz, 2001). Thatching grass is used
as one of an extensive range of assets that constitute a livelihood. The activities of the
smallholder farmer are driven partly by preferences, priorities and vulnerability including shocks
(Murisa, 2007). Chigumira and Matshe (2004) noted that livelihood options are also determined
by structures and processes (institutional, policy, cultural factors) which people face.
According to Masiiwa (2004), resource management in communal areas is faced with the
insecurity of tenure. In this regard, there has been growing concern of the farmers’ practice as
destructive (Moyo, 200). Due to the colonial history of Zimbabwe and the communal land tenure
system, the use of communal land has been a free for all affair with no body feeling responsible
for the proper or sustainable use of this land since the user has user rights only and no
responsibility for future generations (Murisa, 2007). Tenure insecurity and the weaknesses of
local institutions has meant that common property resources such as thatch grass have been
poorly managed in resettled areas (Sola, 1996). This is supported by Elliss (2000) who notes that
the vulnerability of a given resource to sustainable or unsustainable use hinges on the legitimacy
and viability of the rules that govern it in that area.
2.5 Working rules and smallholder farmers’ behavior
This study analyzes institutions as sets of rules. The concept of institutions includes both
organizations and rules regulating behavior in an area. Examples of organizations often involved
in thatching grass management include EMA, Forestry Commission, village governments,
NGOs, farmers association and Zvimba Rural District Council. Institutions that are not
18
organizations but do regulated behaviour include sets of rules governing issues like land tenure,
land use management, property rights, labour and cash resources to finance the management of
thatching grass.
Working rules are those rules that guide people when they make decisions, for instance about
thatching grass harvesting. They are in all cases understood by those to whom they apply,
monitored in the application, and enforceable. Working rules may be the same as formal and
written laws and administrative regulations that are applied, monitored and enforced, or they
may be unwritten but applied, monitored and enforced understandings about appropriate and
inappropriate behavior (Reed etal, 2009).
Working rules can be analyzed in terms of three categories: authorized relationships,
authoritative relationships and determining powers of officials (Humphrey and Schimzt, 2001).
An adequate analysis of working rules using these categories will reveal how any given rule
generates (or fails to generate) incentives for certain kinds of activities or discourages actors
from other kinds of behavior. Authorized relationships allocate rights, duties, liberties and
exposures among thatching grass users. These legal concepts describe varying degrees of ability
to control others and of subjection to constraint by others. They can be thought of as positive and
negative incentives, of varying strength, that induce individuals to act in certain ways and avoid
other kinds of behavior concerning thatching grass governance, management and exploitation.
Authoritative relationships are the mechanisms by which rules are made, enforced, modified and
suppressed. Authorized relationships are only promises. They will not influence behaviour unless
they can be enforced. The officials of any going concern, whether or not it is formally recognized
by the national government, operate through relationships of, power, liability, immunity and
disability to create, enforce, modify and suppress authorized relationships. In so doing they not
only give life to the working rules, but they also adapt or fail to adapt working rules effectively
to the problems of thatching grass governance and management.
The determining powers of officials are the leeway or discretion that individual officials enjoy to
make decisions without review or supervision by others. Officials exercising their determining
powers may uphold or modify working rules governing use and appropriation of thatching grass.
19
They may abuse their determining powers to enrich themselves, family members or friends.
They may exercise determining powers to re-establish an effective balance between supply and
demand for thatching grass. Where officials have broad determining powers there is the strong
potential that authoritative and authorized relationships will be manipulated in perhaps
unpredictable ways. Uncertainty about the rights, duties, liberties and exposures of various
persons who use thatching grass can discourage investment of individual or collective effort in
maintaining and enriching that resource just as much as can inappropriate working rules that are
reliably enforced.
2.6 Tenure security and thatching grass management in resettled areas.
How tenure security is defined has played a significant role in shaping policy outcomes. The
Swynnerton Plan (1954) emerging out of colonial Kenya equated tenure security with ownership
and title to land as practiced by Western countries. Indeed, much of the policy prescriptions for
Africa and other developing countries that emerged in the twenty first century followed suit in
replacing community-based land tenure systems with freehold tenure backed by formal titles
(Feder et al. 1988). Subsequent research has revealed that title and privatization of land
ownership are not always necessary to ensure tenure security and in fact may in some cases
weaken it (Bruce 1993; Place and Hazell 1993; Shipton 1988; Roth, Unruh, and Barrows 1994).
This result stems from the strength and effectiveness of indigenous property rights institutions
that still exist in much of Africa, often super ceding national land laws in the eyes of local
people. Definitions provided by Place, Roth, and Hazell (1994) and Roth, Wiebe, and Lawry
(1993) stress that the necessary components of tenure security include excludability, duration,
assurance and robustness. Excludability allows those with rights to exclude those without rights
to a particular factor such as land. Duration refers to the temporal extent of one’s rights. To have
secure tenure, one must possess a sufficient time horizon to reap the benefits of one’s
investments. An institutional framework capable of enforcing an individual’s rights to land
provides the assurance component, while robustness refers to the number and strength of the
bundle of rights an individual possesses. Indigenous property rights institutions have often
proven effective in recognizing and enforcing secure property rights for community members,
and where these institutions persist, a title is not worthy to strengthen the land rights of
community members (Ensminger 1997). In contrast to the conventional wisdom, Smucker,
20
White, and Bannister (1997) report that in Haiti local tenure systems are a source of protection
against the insecurity that comes from involvement with formal state tenure systems, which often
bring a threat of urban elites taking the land. Where indigenous local systems have become
defunct because of internal forces or external threats to the security of tenures, such as outsiders
attempting to claim land, registration or land titling may be needed. This may also be true where
commercialization has advanced to the point where efficient credit and land markets are needed
in which non-community members become important agents (Bruce 1993; Cohen 1980; Noronha
1985). Yet, even where there is a demand for land titles, this may stem largely from the ability to
reinforce the exclusion and duration elements of security. Recent empirical research from Brazil
has shown that it is these factors emanating from the possession of land titles which have
implications for tree investment and conservation, whereas the ability to sell land with a formal
title appears to have little bearing on these decisions (Walker and Wood 1998).
Concepts of tenure security have largely been confined to individually or household controlled
property rather than common property, which is controlled by one or more groups of individuals
or communities. To define tenure security for the users of a common property resource, three
dimensions need to be considered. First, does the group or community have autonomy ownership
rights over the collectively managed resource? Second, is there security of membership in the
group to ensure that an individual will have continued use rights to the resource over time?
Third, is there an effective local institution to manage and regulate the use of the resource, to
assure members that if they abide by the rules, others will also? Many common properties are
under increasing pressure today and are degenerating to open access areas. One major reason is
population expansion exerting increased competition for resources and producing a growing
number of people with group membership claims. Breakdowns in common property management
also occur when the ownership rights of the community are challenged by outsiders, including in
some cases the state (for example, nationalization of rangelands and forests), and in response to
market forces, policy interventions, and other institutional and technological forces which
undermine the institutions which have managed the resource (Bromley and Cernea 1989; Jodha
1992; Richards 1997).
21
2.7 Collective action
Marshall (1998) defines collective action as, “action taken by a group either directly or on its
behalf through an organisation in pursuit of members’ perceived shared interests.” Collective
action is most visible in community-level efforts to build and maintain local infrastructure for
natural resource management. This is seen clearly in farmer-managed irrigation systems (Coward
1986; Leach 1961; Mahendrarajah 1981; Yoder 1994). White and Runge (1994 and 1995) show
that people in Haiti often contribute labor for watershed management programs out of a sense of
solidarity and reciprocity even if they do not directly benefit economically from land
improvements. Drijver, van Wetten, and de Grout (1995) present evidence from the floodplains
regions of Lake Chad of village participation in digging canals and constructing protected fish
spawning areas, which are owned by groups of villagers. Groups take annual turns refraining
from fishing in their spawning area in order to enable increased spawning and augment the
fishing population, a sacrifice which is rewarded by a guaranteed percentage of the subsequent
communal catch. Oakerson (1992) and Ostrom (1994) insists that for a resource to be managed
or improved collectively, it should be accessible to group members to facilitate control and
exclusion of outsiders, and small enough for a group to effectively govern it. It helps too if used
by one member has a limited effect on the availability of the resource to other members (low
‘subtractability’). There is greater social cohesion within the community if the numbers of those
who demand the resource is small and when members have uniform shared values and that the
net benefits from group membership is equitably distributed. Access to shared property rights
can also strengthen collective action in a community, whereas privatisation of a resource or
government claims of possession can erode local management institutions (Wade 1988). In their
study of land tenure and deforestation in Brazil, Walker and Wood (1998) demonstrate that
mutual cooperation to prevent the spread of fire contagions among privately held land holdings
constitutes an important element of tenure security and thereby affects investment incentives and
environmental protection outcomes. For example, Fortmann, Antinori and Nabane’s 1997 study
of tenure security and gender differences in tree planting in Zimbabwe found that where women
have less security of duration of tenure they are less likely to plant trees. Likewise, the formation
of networks among community members can facilitate access to information by reducing the cost
of acquiring it. Social networks may also enable coordination of technology adoption efforts, for
22
example, a communally managed seed bank may be established to facilitate individual tree
planting, but also provide a forum for information sharing about the technology or other matters.
Swallow et al. (1997) show how the spread of information through kabeles (cooperatives) and
interaction among neighbors facilitate the study of the adoption of tsetse control measures in
Ethiopia. The development of agricultural cooperatives in many countries is based on the
premise that collective action for marketing of inputs and outputs can substantially reduce costs,
and make it feasible for farmers to use hybrid seeds, agrochemicals, or produce new crops.
Although collective action may serve to diminish both technology acquisition and management
costs, it will not necessarily make adoption profitable. North (1995) reiterates that the ‘adaptive
efficiency’ of a society or community is the critical variable in ascertaining the potential for
technical and institutional change. In this regard, most decisions regarding management of
thatching grass are made within the existing institutional framework, but there is increased
pressure from competing uses of land and urbanization threatening the existing rules and norms.
2.8 The tragedy of managing the commons
Designation of certain common pool resources (CPRs) with the metaphor "tragedy" is in near
universal parlance since Hardin coined it three decades ago (Hardin 1968). Much earlier
Aristotle wrote, "what is common to the greatest number has the least care bestowed upon it.
Everyone thinks chiefly of his own, hardly at all of the common interest", (Marshall, 1998). The
tragedy of the commons has been called a social dilemma because strategies that are individually
rational collectively can produce irrational results. Hardin (1968) showed how each herder would
regard it as in his own best interest to maximize his individual gain by adding animals to the
commons. While any losses that would occur would be borne by all of the herders, the gain
would be his. Since other herders would reason similarly, the only outcome of the process would
be the destruction of the commons itself. Hardin chose the term "tragedy" to capture what he
mistakenly believed to be the remorseless, deterministic, and destructive nature of the process as
a whole. Adopting Hardin’s metaphor, others have cited examples of the tragedy everywhere,
from those of air and water pollution, the extinction of marine species as, to Mafia activities,
drug racketeering and international terrorism. In this study, thatching grass management in
Nyabira Ward 26 is also a good example of a tragedy of the commons. Yearly reports from
23
organizations such as the Worldwatch Institute or the World Resources Institute, document the
decline in the earth’s ecosystems, depletion of both non-renewable resources and regenerative
capacities of renewable resources, reinforce a fatalistic pessimism. In Törbel, Switzerland and
the villages of Hirano, Nagaike, and Yamanoka, Japan, hybrid systems of private and
communally owned institutions have used mountain meadows and forest products for hundreds
of years. In Spain, in the region of Valencia, and in the Philippine Islands there are examples of
irrigation systems that have been maintained for similar lengths of time (Ostrom 1990). For the
past 140 years, the Menominee Tribe has inhabited Northeast Wisconsin and Michigan's Upper
Peninsula. During that period it has practiced sustainable forestry, even as the forests outside the
reservation were depleted. Today there is more standing saw timber volume (1.7 billion board
feet) than there was in 1854 (estimated at 1.2 billion board feet). During this same period over
2.25 billion board feet have been harvested from the same acreage. The variety of institutional
arrangements that are embodied in both successful and unsuccessful instances of CPR use is
staggering. While the study of institutions of collective action appears to be in the formative
stages, significant strides have been made.
2.9 The capacity of local institutions to manage thatching grass
Thus, the question that remains is whether local institutions have the capacity to ensure
compliance in line with mainstream natural resources management structures of the state.
Additionally most natural resources interventions strategies have been top down, railway
channelled, without incorporation of resource users’ interests. This has created a wide gap in
management of common resources between the formal institutions and local fragmented ones.
Overally, sustainable management of thatching grass hinges on the assurance of security of
tenure (Sola, 1996). This is not the case as the leasehold system in resettled areas has made
smallholder farmers to consider full maximization of available resources to meet their basic
needs without thinking of future generations (Chigumira and Matshe, 2004). In addition,
resettled farmers are not visible in the media hence there has been no work done to examine their
practices, social composition, the environment in which they operate and the socio-economic
benefits of integrating the management of thatching grass into the mainstream national policy on
natural resources (Murisa, 2007). It is in view of these factors that the need has arisen to develop
24
a comprehensive understanding of the emerging forms of organisation in resettled areas and the
forces that shape it in order to formulate a holistic and sound governance model of managing
natural resources. If left unattended, the existing status quo poses a great threat to the local
institutional arrangement of managing common pool resource. Societal norms that govern
access, use, appropriation and trade in thatching grass are on the verge of total erosion
exacerbating degradation of natural resources.
Open access or common property resources are subject to the 'tragedy of the commons' where the
benefits to the individual are maximised by exploiting the resource given that the costs of
overexploitation are incurred by the group as a whole (Hardin 1968). This is consistent with
evolutionary theory which presumes individuals to act in ways that benefit their own, rather than
the group interests (Place and Hazell, 1993). By contrast, other researchers believe that
traditional authority, local and cultural institutions, customs and taboos act to conserve common
property resources and prevent the degradation associated with open access to natural resources
(Berkes, 1989). Prompt legal action has been taken by some headmen regarding damage or
unauthorised cutting in their areas by people from ‘other communities’ but to no avail.
25
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
The research methodology according to Robson, (2007) is a fundamental plan for carrying out
empirical data gathering necessary to refute or corroborate basic conceptual frameworks, models
and or theories being studied. The study implemented both the qualitative and quantitative
research approaches. Quantitative Research is defined by Bryman and Bell (2005:154), as
“entailing the gathering of numerical data and presentation of the link between theory and
research.” On the other hand, Polonsky and Waller (2005) categorize vision, images, forms,
structures in various media as well as spoken, printed text and recorded sound into qualitative
data. Results obtained from these two approaches were triangulated so as to deduce meaningful
conclusions.
3.1 The Research Philosophy
Research Philosophy refers to a system of beliefs and postulations about the development of
knowledge (Burrell and Morgan 1979). These include assumptions about human knowledge
(epistemological assumptions), about the realities encountered in research (ontological
assumptions) and the extent and ways the researcher’s values influence the research process
(axiological assumptions) (Crotty 1998). Research Philosophy considers that there are various
ways of interpreting the world and undertaking research. This study is guided by the critical
realism and pragmatism paradigms respectively. A combination of these two philosophies
facilitates credible, well founded, reliable and relevant data to be collected (Kelemen and
Rumens 2008). Critical Realism (CR) focuses on explaining what we see and experience, in
terms of the underlying structures of reality that shape the observable events. Thus, in this study
critical realism was adopted as it enabled the researcher to take a realistic philosophical
consideration of the existing status quo in the management of thatching grass based on the
structured and layered local and national government institutions. Bhaskar (1989) argues that it is
easier to understand what is going on in the social world if one is aware of the social structures
that have given rise to the phenomena that are under investigation. Critical realism enabled the
26
researcher to identify that which is difficult to notice through the practical and theoretical
processes of the social sciences. In this case, critical realist research provided an explanation for
observable institutional arrangements by looking for the underlying causes and mechanisms
through which thatching grass is managed.
Pragmatism Philosophy is based on the notion that ideas are only relevant when they support
action (Kelemen and Rumens 2008). It strives to reconcile objectivism and subjectivism, facts
and values, accurate and rigorous knowledge and different contextualised experiences.
Pragmatism formed the fulcrum of the study by considering theories, concepts, ideas and
research findings not in an abstract form, but in terms of the roles they play as instruments of
thought and action as well as their practical implications to thatching grass management. It
informed the quantitative data analysis tools with regards to what drives smallholder farmers to
participate in thatching grass management given the current institutional arrangements. The two
philosophies are premised on the fact that reality matters in socio-ecological livelihoods and as
such practical ideas and knowledge is valued more if it enables actions on the ground to ensure
sustainable management practices are carried out successfully.
3.2 Research Design
A research design is a conceptual structure within which research is conducted. It constitutes the
blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data (Kothari, 2004). Ghauri and
Gronhaug (2005) posit that a research design facilitates the smooth sailing of the various
research operations, thereby making the research as efficient as possible. Although there are
endless ways of classifying research designs, they usually fall into one of three general
categories: experimental, quasi-experimental, and non-experimental (Marczyk et al. (2005). This
study adopted a non-experimental research design which will take the form of a cross sectional
survey. The choice of a descriptive survey was influenced by Mujis (2004) who postulated that
non- experimental methods include survey research, historical, observation and analysis of
existing data. Accordingly, Ghauri and Gronhaug (2005) also indicated that the greatest
advantage of a survey is that it collects data from a wide coverage and it can also focus on
numerous issues. As such, this study presumes a survey to be the best method for investigating
27
institutions governing the management of thatching grass in resettled areas and the implications
for access, control and livelihoods in Ward 26, Nyabira, Zvimba District.
3.3 The Research Strategy
Marczyk, DeMatteo, and Festinger (2005) argued that when investigating a phenomenon of
interest, researchers have two research strategies (quantitative and qualitative) that have a
bearing on data collection methods. Since the proposed study will adopt a cross-sectional survey
design, it, therefore, follows that both qualitative and quantitative research strategies are
preferred because of the need to unravel the dynamics in the management of thatching grass in
the face of emerging practices by smallholder farmers, land use change, changes in tenure system
and climate change.
3.4 Geographic location of study area
Nyabira is found in Zvimba East Constituency allocated in Mashonaland West Province of
Zimbabwe in Agro-ecological Region two. It is located about 34 km North West of Harare on
the main road and railway line from Harare to Chinhoyi. The area is under the jurisdiction of
Zvimba Rural District Council. Mashonaland West has a total area of 57 441 square kilometers
and comprises 6 districts which are Kariba, Hurungwe, Makonde, Zvimba, Chegutu and
Kadoma. The population of the province is 11.2 % of the country’s total population. The area is
largely composed of flat and undulating terrain. The soils in the area vary from sandy loams to
clays. Similarly, soil fertility varies from place to place. The sparse population offers
opportunities for agriculture. In Mashonaland West about 76 per cent of the population is rural.
The average household size is 4 persons with a total number of households being 408 351.
Overally, 66,7 per cent of the population of Mashonaland West is classified as poor with 40,4
being extremely poor. The main factor which accounts for the widespread poverty is, therefore,
rurality rather than rainfall and land quality. Owing to lack of formal employment incomes are
very low in these rural areas and as such, the use of technical inputs is very low due to the fact
that most farmers cannot afford them. This results in low yields hence poverty or high food
insecurity. Thus households diversify livelihoods by engaging in thatching grass harvesting for
commercial purposes in order to obtain income necessary for basic needs provisions.
28
3.4.1 Climate
The total annual rainfall for the area varies from slightly more than 800mm per annum in Region
2 to less than 300mm per annum in Region 5. Most of the rains fall in summer that is from
October to end of April. Generally, the average annual temperatures range between 25 to 28
degrees Celsius. Winters are generally cool to warm and dry whereas summers are hot and wet.
3.4.2 Agriculture
The main economic activity in the study area is farming. The major crop grown is maize. Other
crops of importance include millet, cotton, sorghum, and tobacco. Livestock production is also a
major economic activity in the area. The main livestock enterprises include cattle, poultry, pigs
and goats. Generally, cattle production is extensive although in most cases supported by
supplementary feeding. Pen fattening is also a common practice. Poultry and pigs are produced
under intensive systems.
3.5 The research population
A research population is the totality of people, organisations, objects or occurrences from which
a sample is drawn (Gray, 2004). In this study, the target population was divided into three main
sectors namely, smallholder farmers, government head of departments –District Administrator
(Zvimba Rural District Council), National Parks and Wildlife, EMA, AGRITEX and local
leaders (headmen, councilor, chief).
3.6 Sampling strategy
Sampling according to Adams, Khan, Raeside and White (2007) entails selecting or choosing a
manageable number of respondents from the targeted population. Kothari (2010) posits that
sampling entails selecting some part of an aggregate or totality in a bid to draw inferences from
the entire population. The study area was selected using the purposive sampling approach. This
was so because of the fact that the study area is near Harare, and so data collection could be
easily done at different intervals. The researcher employed the convenience survey method in
sampling respondents and gathering information about management of thatching grass. A total of
58 smallholder households drawn from a systematic selection in Moonrackers, Waigon, Upway,
Mizpar, Newlands and Sodbury were selected for the household survey. The researcher assumed
29
that every unit under observation carries the traits of the population from which it is drawn such
that decisive conclusions can be made from samples. An analysis of issues to do with
confidentiality, political resistance and that smallholder farmers were busy preparing their
agricultural fields were the major determinants of the sample size.
Selection for key informant interviews was carried out tactically in the sense that the researcher
targeted heads of departments and community leaders. The heads of government departments
who were interviewed at Murombedzi Growth Point included District Administrator, Zvimba
Rural District Council Lands and Natural Resources Officer, AGRITEX Animal Health
Inspector, the Environmental Management Officer and Small to Medium Enterprise
Development Officer. At Nyabira Sub-District Office the researcher interviewed Animal Health
Inspector, Councilor and the Zimbabwe Republic Police Officer Public Relations. Ideally,
community leaders were also a key informant of locals’ interests in thatching grass. The key
instruments used in this study to address the magnitude of the problem are based on the
objectives of the research. Application of the methods and tools used in this research is justified
by looking at their advantages and disadvantages.
3.7 Data collection Instruments
The study used observational fieldwork, focus group discussions, interviews, questionnaires and
review of archival information to ascertain themes arising from locals and stakeholders’
perspectives. The research instruments were guided by the objectives namely; (a) to identify the
country’s legal framework that deals with management of thatching grass; (b) to investigate the
role of local institutions governing access to and management of thatching grass; (c) to establish
the level of community participation in the management of thatching grass; (d) to give
recommendations on policy framework and practice regimes that seek to improve management
of thatching grass without compromising environmental sustainability.
3.7.1 Legislative framework governing access to thatching grass
Researchers build on work that has already been done in order to add to it, thus providing more
resources for other researchers to build on (Wesleyan University Library, 2008). It was therefore
imperative for the researcher to review the literature on the country’s legal framework that deals
with the management of natural resources. Statutes that were examined include, Communal Land
30
Act (20:24), Communal Land Forest Produce Act (19:04), Environmental Management Act
(20:27), Forest Act (19:05), Rural District Council Act (29:13), Traditional Leaders Act (29:17).
Through key informant interviews, the researcher had to interrogate public officers to check on
compliance or noncompliance by smallholder farmers and whether the existing legal provisions
are
being
enforced.
The
researcher
also
critically
reviewed
international
treaties/protocols/conventions on sustainable development, conservation of biological diversity
and management of non-timber forests, and how these informs the national legislation and
policies dealing with environmental management in general and thatching grass management in
particular. The internet was a rich source of information which provided an array of publications
for review. Published and unpublished sources of information provided background data on
institutional arrangements in farming communities especially with regards to the impact of
changes in tenure systems on common pool resources.
3.7.2 The role of local institutions in governing access to and management of thatching
grass
Oatey (1999) defines interviews as a purposeful conversation involving two people that is one
who asks prepared questions (interviewer) while the other answers them (respondent). To
support the choice of interviews in this research, Wimmer and Dominick (1997) argue that
interviews are a suitable way to deal with sensitive issues and it requires a very good rapport to
be established between the interviewer and the respondents. In-depth individual interviews were
held with household heads in Nyabira in order to investigate the role of local institutions
governing access to and management of thatching grass. The researcher used Lenovo Tablets
with questionnaire prepared on KoBo toolbox to encode responses while at the same time
recording audio responses. Household heads were targeted since they are responsible for income
provisions at home hence they have a vested interest in how local institutions regulate access to
thatching grass as it is their source of livelihood. Household heads were asked about their
opinion with regards to the effectiveness of local institutions in managing natural resources.
They were also probed on the action that is taken at local level to deal with violators of standing
rules of regulating access to thatching grass.
31
The researcher found some of the household heads at home, others selling thatching grass along
Lomagundi road and some were busy preparing fields since it was the beginning of the farming
season. In-depth individual interviews were ideal in the circumstances because they did not
disrupt the work that the household heads were involved in by, for example, asking them to join
other respondents at a different place. They would continue with their work while discussing
critical issues and where possible, the researcher would also sometimes join in the work, like
carrying crop residues for a few moments. It is a traditional cultural practice amongst the locals
in Zimbabwe that if you find people working in the field you have to “feel the hoe”, that is, ask
to share their work for a while to show appreciation for what they are doing. Interview data was
analysed by making reference to responses which answered the aforementioned objectives at the
same time supported by facts from renowned publishers’ views.
3.7.3 Drivers of participation in the management of thatching grass
Household heads were asked about whether they participate in community based programmes to
manage thatching grass. The question which this study sought to address is what drives a
smallholder farmer to participate in thatching grass management in Nyabira, Zvimba District.
This study used a Logit regression model to establish the drivers of participation among
smallholder farmers in Zvimba District. Logistic models are used when the dependent variable is
binary (Menike and Arachchi, 2016; Greene, 2003) and the independent variables are either
continuous or categorical (Field, 2009). In this case, the dependent variable has two outcomes
that are Yi =1 when a farmer is participating or zero when a farmer is not participating in
thatching grass management. Based on the independent variables, the Logistic model for
participation in thatching grass management can be specified as follow:
The probability of participation in thatching grass management is given as follows
P(Y=1)=(eB0+B1xi)/(1+eB0+B1Xi)
(1)
The Log transformation of the probability of participating in thatching grass management
P(Y=1) can be represented as follows:
Log[(P(Y=1)/(1-P(Y=1))] =Bo+BiXi+et
(2)
32
Where Bo is the intercept, Bi is the vector of parameter coefficients, Xi is the vector of
explanatory variables and et is the error term. Quantitative data was analysed using SPSS
Version 20. The main tests which were run by SPSS are descriptive statistics.
3.7.3.1 Independent variables
In this study, the independent variables were selected based on literature review and context of
the study area. The independent variables are summarised in Table 3.7 with expected signs.
These variables are marital status, sex of household head, household head age, household head
education, family labor, employment status and position of leadership.
3.7.3.2 Marital Status of household head
The structure of the family is a key factor with regards to participation in community
programmes. Thus married couples support each other and shift roles such that if one has gone to
the fields to harvest thatching grass then the other spouse remains doing other household chores.
Each individual has the opportunity to choose what they want to do and is privy to advice,
information and guidance from the other partner. It, therefore, follows that married couples are
more likely to participate in thatching grass management than single household heads.
3.7.3.3 Sex of household head
Gender of the household head influences a household’s ability to participate in community based
thatching grass management programmes (Maddisson, 2006). Some scholars observed that maleheaded households are more likely to participate as they easily network and get access to
information from various platforms such as beerhalls, townships and meetings. Males are also
responsible for designing a daily work plan of what should be done while at the same time
controlling resources needed for such endeavors. Male-headed households are also better
positioned to source labour for on-farm operations than female-headed households (Horrell and
Krishnan, 2007). For instance, male headed households can hire labour to comb and properly
stack harvested thatching grass. However, Nhemachena and Hassan (2007) observed that in
some African countries, female-headed households are more likely willing to take part in
community based programmes compared to their male-headed households. In the case of
thatching grass, the argument is that socially, the work of finding and harvesting thatching grass
is regarded as a women’s venture. Women are actually involved in all the agricultural production
33
processes including off-farm entrepreneurship as most men are away working in cities and
towns. As such, the women have richer knowledge of harvesting, processing and storage of
thatching grass. Recently, women share a great deal of information on natural resources
management including farming practices through social platforms such as ecofarmer or social
network groups and are therefore better placed to participate (Kibue, et al., 2015). This study
hypothesizes that gender has a differential impact on the likelihood of partipating in thatching
grass mangement.
3.7.3.4 Household head’s age
A household head’s age is an indicator of the wealth of experience the farmer has in terms of
managing natural resources in their community. It determines the receptiveness or and the risk
appetite of the respondent (Deressa, Hassan, and Ringler, 2010). There are mixed results on the
effect of age on participation. Some scholars argue that the influence of household head age on
participation is location and technology specific. They argue that what is being practised and
where it is being applied determines whether or not age will positively or negatively influence
participation. Older farmers are more likely to have lived realities of experience in the
conservation of thatching grass and in-depth knowledge of harvesting practices (Apata, 2011).
As the majority of the older generation was former commercial farm workers, they have a great
deal of wisdom and skills in thatching grass management spanning for more than forty-years. In
such a case, they may be very much interested in passing on new ideas and therefore willing to
participate. On the other hand, older farmers may be risk-averse, less receptive and therefore
unwilling to take new ideas on proper thatching grass harvesting (Maddisson, 2006). As such,
age may have a positive or negative influence on the probability to participate in thatching grass
management.
3.7.3.5 Household head education
A household head’s level of education determines the household’s access to and use of
information. Education improves a household’s ability to receive, decode and understand
information on the importance of collective action (Gbetibouo, 2009). Educated farmers are
likely to be aware of impacts of degradation of thatching grass, its usefulness as an alternative
livelihood safety net during difficulty periods (Deressa, Hassan, and Ringler, 2010) and food
34
insecurity situations. It is also likely that educated farmers would be aware of strategies to adjust
to the ever changing welfare needs and ways of strengthening local institutions to remain
relevant in their mandate. As such, educated farmers are more likely to be willing to participate
than their unlearned counterparts. However, education alone is not a determinant of participation
as even those who are uneducated can be more willing to participate since the educated ones
would regard the practice of managing thatching grass as an activity for the less educated.
3.7.3.6 Economically active
Family labor is an indicator of human capital resources that are at the disposal of a household for
the execution of different household activities. Households with larger family labor pools are
more likely to adapt as the labor pool offers technical and cheap manual skills for participating in
thatching grass management. Such households have adequate labor resources that they can
spread across different household and societal needs. In this case, it is more likely that larger
labor pools are more likely to participate. However, some scholars note that households with
larger households may be forced to divert their labor to off-farm activities to earn some incomes.
3.7.3.7 Leadership position in society
In any society leaders always intend to lead from the front demonstrating to their subordinates
and giving the direction of what is expected. Thus those who are in leadership positions are more
likely to participate in thatching grass management than ordinary members. The entitlement to a
position of leadership places them in a strategic position where in almost every economic and
social activity the leader is expected to be exemplary.
35
Table 2: Description of dependent and independent variables
Variables
Description
Expected
Sign
Dependent variables
Participation
in
thatching
grass Dummy, 1 if household adapted and 0
management
otherwise
Independent variable
Marital Status of Household head
Dummy, 1 if household head is married and +/0 unmarried
Household head gender
Dummy, 1 if household head is male and 0 +/otherwise
Family Labor
Number of Economically active
who +/-
provide labor in the household
Household head age
Age of household head in years
+/-
Household head’s education
Dummy, 1 if household head attained +
Secondary Education and 0 Primary
Leadership position in society
Dummy, 1 if the household head is a +
committee member and 0 ordinary
Employment status
Dummy, 1 if the household is employed +
and 0 otherwise
3.7.4 Challenges resettled communities face in the management of thatching grass.
Key informant interviews in this research were carried out with officers in the relevant
government departments, Zvimba Rural District Council (ZRDC) officers and local leaders. The
government officials that were interviewed include Agricultural Extension Supervisor Zvimba
District, the Environmental Management Agency Education and Publicity Officer, Zvimba Rural
District Council Lands, Agriculture and Natural Resources Officer and the District Administrator
for Zvimba District. From government officials, the researcher sought to establish the legal and
constitutional mandates of their departments in thatching grass management in the district and
36
what policies are in place that aid towards sustainable management. From the local leaders
namely village head, councilor (Ward26) and church leaders, the role that they play in the
management of the environment particularly thatching grass was under scrutiny. The researcher
also sought their opinions on the effectiveness of current practices versus provisions in national
statutes and the relevance of both in achieving sustainable management.
The researcher was able to probe on issues to do with the complexity involved in regulating
smallholder farmers’ activities and opinions of different stakeholders regarding the conservation
of grassland resources. In a relaxed and conducive atmosphere, the researcher was able to change
the order of questions in response to the feedback of the respondent. Wimmer and Dominick
(1997) noted that the manner in which in-depth interviews are carried out allows information to
be gained without directly asking for it. This was achieved in the field. Respondents’ opined
completely different views on aspects that the interviewer had not considered, for example, most
of the key informants proposed that the government should have left Nyabira area for cattle
ranching. The platform made respondents have the freedom to answer anyhow and this bestowed
some feeling of being involved in issues affecting them hence more and new information was
provided. However, interviews seemed to consume a lot of time during data collection as the
conversation would degenerate to discussing issues, not on the interviewer’s schedule. Overally,
data obtained through interviews took a lot of time to analyse because of varied responses.
3.7.5 Collective action and sustainability in the management of thatching grass.
The researcher conducted 2 Focus group discussions sessions at Moonrackers and Derick Farms
respectively. In Focus Group Discussion at Derick Farm, participants were women only and at
Moonrackers it was a mixed group of males and females of all ages. The reason for holding these
focus group discussions was to obtain divergent views on the same issues, as the women would
debate amongst themselves while men also would do the same until they agreed on one position
or, at times, not at all. The participants would also correct each other immediately if they
believed one of them gave an inaccurate statement during the interviews. The debates raised
issues for discussion that may never have come up had individual ones been held. The focus
group discussions also made the research process very lively and, at times, enigmatic, as the
participants would suddenly and spontaneously act out the points they desired to emphasize.
37
Thematic analysis was used to analyse qualitative data gathered through focus group discussions
and key informant interviews. According to Braun and Clarke (2006), thematic analysis is a
qualitative technique that is used to identify, scrutinize and report patterns within a data set. The
thematic analysis focused on identifying and describing implicit and explicit ideas.
3.8 Field Observations
Allan and Randy (2005) suggested that a broader range of information, potentially more open for
discussion is acquired through field observations. Photographs of present features were taken
during the fieldwork. Thus observation was done in two phases. The researcher began with the
familiarization stage to assess the situation before approaching the target interviewees for a
discussion. During this stage, the existing institutional arrangements were identified. After
comprehending the nature of interactions among smallholder farmers, the researcher embarked
on stage two which involved field work and data collection. In the field, the researcher made an
observation of the different types of grass, major uses, processing and storage. Photograph
interpretation
3.9 Validity and reliability of data
The study followed comprehensive research methods. Triangulation of the methodology, which
is using both quantitative and qualitative methods helped to ensure the reliability, validity and
analytic strength of the research findings. Triangulation was also enhanced through the use of
focus group discussions (FGDs), key informant interviews and field observations. The blend of
respondents gave the research a compacted perspective. By merging multiple sources, methods
and respondents, the researcher managed to overcome the intrinsic bias that is most popular with
a single respondent and single method.
3.10 Limitations
The main problem faced during the study included resentment and lack of cooperation by some
smallholder farmers who took the researcher to be a spy sent to investigate and expose illegal
settlers. To them, the researcher was an intruder. Non-cooperation was also encountered with
stakeholders as they were passive in responding to interview questions claiming they wanted to
get benefits first such as money or food. They chronicled this to the problems they always
38
encounter with Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) who give them empty promises.
Issues of common pool resources management are controversial in Zimbabwe and as such the
information is highly concealed and protected. Thus, winning the hearts and minds of
government heads of departments was a challenge the researcher needed to overcome. The other
challenge encountered in this study was the application of the quantitative paradigm. It became
difficult to quantify such phenomena as the quantity of thatching grass available as a proportion
of the whole biomass.
3.11 Ethical considerations
According to Boyce and Neale (2006), it is important to be conscious of the ethical principles
and code of conduct when carrying out social science research. This assisted the researcher in
ensuring high quality work without offending and disappointing the participants. The basic
ethical principles which were maintained during the research were to do with the good manners
and protecting the sovereignty, safety, wellbeing and dignity of all the participants. Informed
consent was observed by the researcher through the village heads in the wards. Whenever
possible, research participants were informed about the purpose of the research which is for
academic purposes only. Participation in the study was voluntary and no participants were forced
to take part. Resettled areas are politically volatile areas and Nyabira is no exception and hence
there was need to attune to gatekeepers in the areas of research. The researcher was well aware
of the power dynamics of different actors and hence had to observe all protocol during focus
group discussions. The researcher would acknowledge the presence of local leaders in the
traditional hierarchy and gave them their due respect.
3.12 Conclusion
This Chapter has focused on the various methods used to collect data that would answer the
problem statement, research objectives and justified why the specific data techniques are used for
a specific research question. Triangulation, which is, using various methods helped to get the
information needed for the research and also to avert some of the challenges that are normally
encountered in the research for instance gatekeepers and tight work schedules for some key
informants in government and local authority departments.
39
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
4.0 Introduction
This chapter focuses on data presentation and discussion of findings. The chapter provides a
detailed presentation of the major arguments made by communities, stakeholders and leadership
groups in Ward 26 of Zvimba Rural District Council, Nyabira area. This study sought to (a) to
identify the country’s legal framework that deals with management of thatching grass; (b) to
investigate the role of local institutions governing access to and management of thatching grass;
(c) to establish the level of community participation in the management of thatching grass and
(d) to give recommendations on the policy frameworks and practice regimes that seeks to
improve management of thatching grass without compromising environmental sustainability. In
this regard, the research findings presented here are in line with the research objectives. Data
analysis according to Kothari (2004) refers to the process whereby collected raw data is
evaluated using analytical tools. The ultimate goal of data analysis is to arrive at useful
information that will aid decision making (Bryman et al., 2007). Collected data was analysed
quantitatively using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS v16). The analysed data
was presented graphically using statistical tables. Photographs from field observations
augmented the critical analysis of the themes.
4.1 Demographic and Socio-Economic profile of respondents.
The demographic characteristics of the respondents according to Zikmund et al., 2012, is very
impotent to the study in that it can reveal unknown relationships that may be present in the data.
The demographic profile revealed that there were more male respondents than females, being
95% and 5% respectively. This is reflective of the sex ratio in the district and also the fact that
most households are being sustained by women who do various livelihoods strategies of fending
for the family hence they were not available for interviews. The main economic activities most
women in the ward do include, casual labour on A2 farms, doing laundry and garden work for
households at Inkomo Pararegiment, part time work in Nyabira township, selling agricultural
produce and thatching grass along Lomagundi Road. Most males in the ward spend are engaged
40
in enterprises around the home for example gardening, harvesting and selling of thatching grass,
brick molding, thatching houses, gardens and yards. From focus group discussions, men
complained that A2 farmers are no longer offering them part time jobs preferring to engage
women because they accept paltry wages. This has forced men to engage in illegal dealings such
as selling of firewood to township residents, operating shebeens and drug abuse. The average age
in Ward 26, is 47 years. Thus the population of Nyabira is youthful. The table below summarises
the household demographic and economic outlook of Ward 26 dwellers.
INDICATOR
Education
Employment Status
Marital Status
Leadership
CATEGORY
PROPORTION
% Primary
34,5%
% Secondary
63,8%
% Tertiary
6,9%
% Employed
6,9%
% Unemployed
93,1%
% Married
84,5%
% Unmarried
15,5%
% In leadership
20,7%
% Ordinary Members
79,3%
Table 3 – Profile of Households in Ward 26, Nyabira.
From the table above, the ward has high unemployment of 93% with only about 7% employed.
Majority of respondents were ordinary members constituting 79% while those in leadership
accounted for about 20%. Ward 26 residents at least attain basic high school education (64%) but
very few complete to write ordinary level examinations. Those who manage to attain education
up to tertiary level are very few (7%).
41
4.2 Sources of income and thatching grass in Ward 26
Variable
Percentage
Remarks
Agriculture
63,2%
Major important economic activity
Thatching grass
18,3%
A very important source of livelihood
Casual labour
15,1%
An important source of income
Formal employment
3,4%
Somewhat important.
In our fields
47%
Main source
On vacant land
20%
Free access
On other farmers’ land
28%
Seek permission or concession with owner
Pararegiment fields
5%
Apply for permission
Source of income
Sources
of
thatching
grass
Table 4 – main sources of income and areas where thatching grass is obtained
Overally, agriculture is the mainstay of Ward 26 (63.2%) with smallholder farmers specializing
in maize production and small livestock production. Thatching grass is mainly found in idle
fields and on undesignated land. The most preferred thatching grass species were hyparrhenia
hirta, hyperthelia dissolute, clayton (yellow thatch grass) and hyparrhenia cymbaria. The grass is
mainly harvested between June and October. Farmers use a sickle and then comb with a brush.
From the focus group discussions, it emerged that there are a number of safety and health issues
bedeviling the harvesters. For instance, harvesters indicated that the comb used in processing is
hard and so their hands have become so cracked with numerous cuts. During all the stages from
going into the fields to do the harvesting, carrying the grass bundles, combing and stacking, the
farmers have no protective clothing and suffer a myriad of risks including snake bites. Most of
the residents complained about pneumoconiosis related ailments from dust they inhale while
combing and ferrying the grass.
42
Analysing local resource use provides an entry point into understanding the governance
structures and the activities which threaten the existence of thatching grass. Similar to other rural
areas in Zimbabwe, the livelihoods of most households in Nyabira are constructed from various
portfolios in which thatching grass play a crucial role. Although highly rated for its gap-filler role
during times of household food shortages (Chileshe 2005), the results indicate that thatching
grass is valued for a much wider range of goods and services obtained throughout the year
forming a crucial role to the general welfare of Nyabira people. Most households rely on
thatching grass for energy, construction, livestock grazing and selling.
Plate 1. Tool used to comb thatching grass.
Plate 1 above shows the main tool used to comb thatching grass. During focus group discussions
and the household survey, most of the people in Nyabira complained of various coughing and
breathing problems due to the dust particles inhaled while combing thatching grass.
43
4.3 What happens to violators of rules governing the management of thatching grass?
Table 5- Response to the violation of rules governing thatching grass management
ACTION
VALID PERCENT
Arrest by local leaders
21%
Reported to police
74%
Instant justice
3%
Nothing
2%
The table above depicts what happens to violators of rules governing the management of
thatching grass. It reveals that most of the violators were reported to police. However, at the time
of conducting the survey, it was not possible to establish how the reported cases were handled.
The table also shows that local leaders have the authority to arrest violators with 21% of the
cases having been dealt with. It is important to also note that about 5% of the violators did not
receive any form of correction.
4.4 Key institutions in the management of thatching grass.
This section looks at the main institutions that regulate access to thatching grass in Nyabira,
Ward 26. From the field engagements with different stakeholders, information gathered show
that there are a number of institutions with a particular interest in thatching grass management
both from government as well as local sectors. At district level, it was highlighted that there are
five key institutions which are key in the management of thatching grass. The key institutions
are, Zimbabwe Republic Police (ZRP), Zvimba Rural District Council Police (ZRDCP),
Traditional leadership structure and the Environmental Management Agency (EMA).
4.4.1 The Zimbabwe Republic Police (ZRP)
The Zimbabwe Republic Police (ZRP) is tasked with the enforcement of all laws in terms of the
Police Act: Chapter 11:10. For forest produce, police are concerned with its harvesting and how
it is subsequently used. Illegal harvesting and illegal use can lead to arrests and confiscation of
the forest produce by the ZRP. For example, in terms of Section 17 of the Communal Land
44
Forest Produce Act a police officer may at any reasonable time require any person found outside
communal land in possession of forest produce that is reasonably suspected to have come from a
communal land, to prove to the police officer that they are not committing or have not committed
an offence in relation to the forest produce concerned and, if they cannot do so, they are liable to
arrest, prosecution and payment of a fine.
4.4.2 The Municipal Police
The municipal police of the various urban areas are concerned with the enforcement of by-laws
that relate to their particular areas of jurisdiction. In terms of forest produce, they are concerned
with whether or not it is sold legally in terms of the by-laws of the respective local authorities. In
all urban local authorities in Zimbabwe, one requires a hawker’s license to move about selling
any wares or produce in the urban areas or a vendor’s license which stipulates a selling (vending)
site if they are to sell within a specified location. In both cases, the vendor or hawker has to pay
fees to the local authority. The municipal police would, therefore, arrest anyone that they find
selling wares/produce in the urban areas without the requisite authority. They may also arrest
traders of forest produce if they reasonably believe that their activities are creating litter within
the municipal area.
4.4.3 The Traditional Leadership Structure
Traditional Leaders include chiefs, headmen and village heads with the chief being the highest in
the hierarchy in a community and the village-head the lowest. They are the custodians of
traditional culture and customs within their areas of jurisdiction. In terms of forest produce, they
are required to enforce cultural practices that deal with when the produce can be harvested, who
can harvest it, to what use the produce can be put and the cultural rules that have to be followed
in the process of picking the produce. This role is reinforced by statute law (the Traditional
Leaders Act) which recognizes the role of traditional leaders in the rural areas generally and their
role in environmental and natural resources management in particular.
45
4.4.5 The Environmental Management Agency (EMA)
The Environmental Management Agency is established in terms of the Environmental
Management Act: Chapter 20:27 (Section 9). It is the coordinating institution tasked with
environmental management in the country and all other institutions dealing with environmental
issues are required to work hand in hand with this agency. The Agency’s work is managed and
controlled by a board called the Environmental Management Board. The two institutions have
overall responsibility for the management of forest resources and environmental implications of
accessing and using natural resources.
4.5 The legislative framework governing the management of thatching grass
The standpoint here is that there are laws, policies and practices that deal with access to and
control of thatching grass in the country. The practices relating to access and control of thatching
grass in Nyabira is linked to the relevant policy and legislative framework in the country. These
practices were compared to provisions at the international level to measure the level of
compliance or noncompliance with best practice frameworks. This assessment helps to formulate
recommendations for policy, legislative and practice reforms that take into consideration the
provisions of the international environmental instruments so that there is compliance in the
management of common pool resources.
According to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), “State parties shall
encourage customary use of biological resources in accordance with traditional cultural practices
that are compatible with conservation and sustainable use requirements.” This provision
demonstrates that indigenous knowledge is critical in the management of environmental
resources and this importance is quite evident in the study area. Of particular importance is the
recognition that customary laws and practices still play a vital role in the management of
thatching grass, although it is mostly the older generation that is keeping alive these practices.
The younger generation is of the view that the customary laws, are restrictive and in a way deny
them an opportunity to access, control and own thatching grass as they wish. Whilst the younger
generation and other people may see these traditional practices as insignificant and out of sync
with modern day ways of living, the reality on the ground shows that failure to abide by some of
these traditional practices has seen greed creeping into the communities and the environment
46
being destroyed with devastating effects on ecosystems. The over-consumption of thatching
grass and degradation of the environment has been some of the reasons why successive
Zimbabwean governments have put in place legislation that criminalizes the use of forest
resources.
Sections 116 (1) (i) and (j) of the Environmental Management Act Chapter 20: 27 recognizes the
need by government to protect the indigenous property rights of indigenous communities in
respect of biological diversity and to support the integration of traditional knowledge on
conservation of biological diversity with scientific knowledge. These are progressive provisions
which show that the government is making legislative efforts to comply with the international
standards in order to help local institutions to use their indigenous knowledge to obtain the
maximum benefit from these resources. An attempt should be made, however, to ensure that
these provisions are implemented on the ground. During the field research, it came to light that
the people who have the mandate of ensuring proper management of thatching grass by the
government have little regard for traditional practices and indigenous knowledge. Instead, in so
far as management of forest produce is concerned, they rely more on the command and control
system that is contained in old forest management legislation such as the Forest Act and the
Communal Land Forest Produce Act. Faced with the enforcement of contradictory laws, officers
on the ground are forced to choose which of a range of laws to enforce. They usually enforce
those which will achieve whatever they want them to achieve at any given time. For example,
whilst the Environmental Management Act encourages sustainable use of natural resources, the
Communal Lands Forest Produce Act still has restrictive provisions in relation to access to forest
produce which makes it difficult for sustainable use to be realized. It is therefore important for
the government to ensure that all the relevant laws are harmonized so that sustainable
management of common pool resources can be a reality.
In a face to face interview with the Environmental Education and Publicity Officer for
Mashonaland West, any form of produce from the forest should benefit the local people first and
if one wants to sell outside the district for commercial purposes then they were supposed to
obtain a licence. Thatching grass is regulated under Communal Land Forest Produce Act
(Chapter 19:04) administered by the local authority. In terms of Section 4 of the Act: “the
47
inhabitants of any communal land shall have the right within that communal land to exploit for
their own use any forest produce” except major forest produce which requires a permit, even if it
is being exploited for personal use. Forest produce that is exploited by the inhabitants of
communal areas cannot be given to any other person who is not an inhabitant of that communal
area. In addition, once a permit has been granted to another person to exploit certain forest
produce, then no other person is entitled to exploit such produce. In terms of Section 5, the
Minister responsible for the environment may issue a license to any person to exploit any forest
produce within a communal area. Forest produce acquired in terms of a permit or license may be
sold or given to a non-inhabitant of the producer community. The role of EMA is to regulate,
monitor and promote sustainable management of resources. It is also actively involved in
training environment subcommittees in rural areas and empowers them to efficiently manage
resources in their locality. EMA conducts community engagement so as to strengthen the
capacity of the community to appreciate the value of the resource and how best they can benefit
from the resource. Smallholder farmers in Nyabira have been assisted in crafting a project
proposal for the community to consider thatching grass harvesting as a business enterprise and
hence they get a living out of the resource. In the same vein, communities are able to control veld
fires by reducing the fuel load.
Resettled farmers are failing to manage the pastures properly as evidenced by the continued
increase in hectarage destroyed by veld fires. When people are not getting a value from the
natural resource (thatching grass) they have a tendency to misallocate functions, for instance,
grazing their livestock. A life skill approach should be promoted by all stakeholders so as to
constantly educate, train and make awareness a prerequisite of the value of the thatching grass.
SI 7 (2007) on Ecosystem Management stipulates a farmer should have a fire guard around their
farm. Most people do not follow the stipulated law because of ignorance and lack of knowledge
about the value of these resources. Harvesting of thatching grass should be permitted in order to
reduce biomass load which is susceptible to catching fire. In cases where farmers make a report
about veld fire outbreak at their farm, EMA we first educate the farmer that they have the sole
responsibility of ensuring fireguards are erected around farms. The RDC has stipulated penalties
on veld fires and cutting down of trees. Generally, the farmers who do not own livestock are
negligent in managing grasslands hence they start fires in an effort to hunt wild meat.
48
According to AGRITEX, there is a correlation between the magnitude of veld fires and
household provision of food. Due to lack of alternatives, locals are forced to engage in
degradation practices such as using fire to hunt wild animals without considering other existing
natural resources. The Agriculture Extension Services encourage the farm owner to be
responsible for veld management at their farm. EMA is not regularly visible in the area and
hence farmers do as whatever they think is ideal for their immediate benefit. Framers have
formed social media grouped to communicate incidents of fire outbreak. However, the District
Administrator for Zvimba Rural District lamented the lack of cooperation between government
departments, for example, EMA and AGRITEX in addressing concerns of farmers.
4.6 Stakeholder participation in thatching grass management.
The role of Zvimba Rural District Council (ZRDC) is to ensure sustainable management of
natural resources, conserve scarce resources, practice reforestation, enforce mining regulations
and promote awareness. In an interview with the Lands, Agriculture and Natural Resources
Officer, the vision of the ZRDC is to promote and facilitate sustainable rural development for the
well-being of the residents, clients and stakeholders. As a district, they have carried out a number
of initiatives in managing natural resources such as awareness campaigns and clean up
campaigns, provision of alternative energy sources- biogas project, provision of loans for
horticultural projects and tree planting. During household survey farmers indicated that they
obtain thatching grass from other peoples farms where they have to negotiate with plot holders to
share the harvest. Plot holders with a landholding of about 3 Ha or less have to source thatching
grass from bigger plot owners’ farms and sometimes are denied access forcing them to poach at
night or to go in secluded parts of the farm where they cannot be easily identified. As a
community, smallholder farmers engage in collective participation to fight fires through alerting
everyone to gather implements for the task such as tree branches and knapsacks. Each household
out of the 101 households in Waigon is given 9 meters to harvest thatching grass thereby creating
a fireguard. Participants in focus group discussion called for assistance in creating fireguards
using tractors instead of using hands to clear 9 meter fireguard.
The ZRDC has an Environmental Management by-law which was amended in 2017 and is
awaiting approval by council. There are reported cases of veld fires started by local residents.
49
One case is that of one accused man who consented that he negligently threw a cigarette stub
which started a veld fire. People are aware of the by-laws because when the council embarked on
public consultation meetings the locals participated and had their contributions taken on board.
People in Zvimba are not complying with existing by-laws because they did not attend the public
consultation and even those who would have attended are not able to explain properly the
expectations. The council should work towards trying to reach all people. There are local
environmental monitors. Council communicates with residents through councilors but the
challenge is to do with a negative attitude about the importance of the by-laws. People in this
area are reluctant and not forthcoming to participate in community initiatives hence they do not
approach the Council with any concerns about the natural resources. The Council offer
incentives to locals who participate in natural resources programmes at rates given to casual
workers.
4.7 The monetary value of thatching grass
Harvesting and selling of thatching grass is a major source of livelihood for most nonlandowners and smallholder farmers as the current A2 farmers can not employ them. A 4 inch
bundle of thatching grass costs fifteen cents. Most of the farmers sell a thousand bundles for
prices that range between twenty to thirty dollars. The practice is that each supplier set his or her
pricing based on the effort they would have invested to gather thatching grass including hiring
transport. Some former commercial farm workers are knowledgeable about firefighting gave the
wealth of experience gained while working for commercial farmers. Due to high levels of
unemployment in the district, most of the key government officials interviewed content that it is
better to allow the farmers to harvest thatching grass for sale so that they are able to sustain their
families while at the same time enhancing value in the management of the natural resource.
Given the recent government programme on Command Livestock, the value of thatching grass is
set to increase as farmers would want to improve the security of available grass. Crop and animal
production rests on the availability of pastures and hence thatching grass management boosts and
safeguards good grazing pastures for livestock. Farmers are trained to conserve natural resources
such as soil and grass by having fireguards around farms at least 9 meters wide. The
Environmental Management Agency pointed out that it is the responsibility of the farmer to
ensure proper soil and grass conservation works are in place at the farm and failure to do so
50
attracts a fine. Most farmers comply with the regulations to construct fire guards but their efforts
are watered down by outsiders who sometimes fight for permission to be allowed to harvest
thatch grass by using fire. He recommended that there was need to educate farmers on benefits of
value addition of thatching grass and target local markets in Kariba, Chinhoyi, Harare Victoria
Falls as well as international markets in Botswana, Zambia, Namibia and even as far as China.
The importance of dry grass for thatching cannot be overstated. Most houses in Nyabira are of
dry grass thatch. Dry grass is used for thatching buildings and making fences around compounds.
Results from this study have estimated the average amount of thatch grasses harvested in the
field per annum per household to be 1500 bundles sold at a price of 40 cents per bundle. An
estimated total of more than 50 000 thatch grass bundles can be extracted from the Nyabira
annually. Demand for thatch grass in the study area is high because it is the main resource which
is used as protective for roofing, fencing, traditional rural housing and animal pens and the most
favored thatch grass is Hyparrhenia rufa. Thatch grass is an important seasonal source of income
sold between villagers to assist those who are re-roofing or building new houses especially
among poor families who cannot afford to buy iron sheets. Thatch grass is seasonally collected
between May and November.
Plate2: Thatching grass enterprise at Moonrackers in Nyabira
51
4.8 Thatching grass harvesting: a tragedy of the commons
The DA for Zvimba confirmed that their office has dealt with a number of cases involving
conflicts between illegal settlers and A 1 Farmers particularly on the harvesting of thatching
grass. Most meetings convened by the DA Office to deliberate issues affecting farmers end up
with heated confrontations between A1 farmers and non-landowners accusing each other of
being responsible for starting fires. On one hand, A1 farmers accuse former farm workers of
sabotaging their economic activities such as cattle rearing by setting the field alight as a way of
demanding free access to thatch grass. On the other hand, former farm workers argue that these
A1 farmers are not giving them part time jobs and their only livelihood survival means is through
harvesting of thatching grass for sale. The DA bemoaned the lack of capacity from all
stakeholders to effectively monitor these practices so that the community and development
partners develop corporate trust in managing common pool resources. She reiterated that Zvimba
Rural District is very big and so they require motor vehicles to reach out to faraway places such
as Nyabira since their pot of call is mainly centered on Murombedzi Growth Point. She further
lamented the nature of risks involved in discharging their duties such as the fact that the DA‘s
Office rides on programmes spearheaded by other departments hence compromising its ability to
fulfill a constitutional mandate. The second Focus Group Discussion at Moonrakers Farm which
was composed of both males and females revealed that the practice of harvesting and selling
thatching grass dates back to their forefathers. Ideally, smallholder farmers in Nyabira have put
in place mechanism of preserving thatching grass such as erecting fireguards around the farm,
early cutting of thatching grass, proper storage of the thatching grass and collective action to
fight fires. The biggest challenge being faced is that the perpetrator of veld fires is unknown and
they do such actions during the night.
The community uses a neighborhood watch approach where each member keeps an eye on
illegal and adherence to rules governing appropriation of thatching grass. During the focus group
discussion, it emerged that community members are quick to notice the presence of outsiders and
instantly would question their aim.
52
4.9 Community participation in the management of thatching grass.
The results of the model estimation for the determinants of participation in thatching grass
management by smallholder farmers in Nyabira are shown in table 4 below. The results show
that the Logistic regression model is statistically very significant at 1% (Prob>chi2=0.3020) with
a pseudo R2 of 0.0914%. The results show that participation to thatching grass management is
positively influenced by marital status (p<1%), household members (p<5%) and length of stay
(p<10%). Participation in thatching grass management is negatively influenced by age and
position of leadership. The decision to participate in thatching grass management is not
influenced by age and leadership position contrary to prior assumptions. These variables have pvalues that are above the 10% level of significance.
Table 6: Determinants of community participation in thatching grass management
Dependant
Coefficient. Standard
variable-
z
P>IzI
Interval]
Confi.
Error.
Participation
[95%
Age
0.0406949
0.0444904
0.91
0.360
-0.0465047 0.1278944
Marital status
2.256261
1.118802
2.02
0.0044***
0.0634496
4.449072
0.9826733
0.31
0.760
-1.626161
2.225847
-0.3729929
0.2813494
-1.33
0.0185**
-0.9244277 0.1784419
Period stay
0.0443997
0.0365412
1.22
0.0224**
-0.0272198 0.1160192
_cons
-1.2679776
2.31152
-0.55
0.0583
-7.222058
Position
in 0.2998429
leadership
Household
members
4.686106
N=58; LR Chi2(5)=4.25; Prob>Chi2=0.3020; Pseudo R2=0.0531 Level of significance: ***=1%;
**=5%; *=10%
53
4.9.1 Discussion of findings
In this section, we discuss the variables that government can influence to enhance participation
in thatching grass management by smallholder farmers. These variables include head age, marital
status, the position of leadership, household members and period of stay. It is clear from the
findings that participation in thatching grass management is strongly influenced by marriage.
Married couples participate in community programmes aimed at conserving thatching grass
because they can exchange roles at the household level and they are deeply concerned about their
future well-being together with children. Household head’s age has a negative effect on
participation in thatching grass management by smallholder farmers. This suggests that despite
having experienced the changes in tenure system over time and witnessing the impact of
unregulated harvesting practices, older farmers are reluctant to take part and less receptive to
new ideas of conserving natural resources. A probable explanation for the passive response is
that the older households are mainly composed of former commercial farm workers of Malawi
descend who were not considered for land allocation during land reform programme after 2000.
As a result, they feel there is no need for them to participate in thatching grass management
because of lack of ownership to land.
Generally, participation in thatching grass management requires labour to carryout activities such
as veld fire management, monitoring and security. During the focus group discussions,
smallholder farmers complained of the prevalence of outsiders in their area and as such, it was so
difficult to monitor entry and exit into their fields. The syndicates were also hard to track as it
involved locals plus outsiders. In focus group discussions, it emerged that once local leaders put
in place stringent conditions in accessing thatching grass, then the poachers sabotage A1 farmers
by throwing burning dry cow dung fire causing veld fire outbreak. Thus the number of household
members has a positive influence on participation in thatching grass management.
The researcher observed that there are a lot of former farm workers living in compounds made
from thatch grass for instance at Derick Farm, Moonrakers and Waigon Farms. At the household
level, thatch grass is used to construct walls, roofing, fencing homesteads, fencing gardens, and
constructing granaries, sweeping brooms, bathing rooms and toilets, mats, chicken nests and
making fowl runs. The researcher observed that at any single homestead there are several
structures, apart from the dwelling house made of thatching grass. For example, a family’s
54
compound may have the main house, standalone kitchen, bath shed, poultry house, crop storage
sheds (barns) for maize and groundnuts and garden, toilets, and thatched durawall. In this case,
the observation is that all households in Nyabira rely on thatching grass for the construction of
various structures and provision of income. For example, women interviewed in the study noted
that they collected thatch grass from far distant places to upgrade and refurbish their homesteads.
Plate 3. Kitchen built of thatch and wood at Derick Farm.
4.10 Challenges faced by women
The researcher held a Focus Group Discussion with women and young children at Derick Farm.
Most of the women concurred that thatching grass is the mainstay of their livelihoods since the
current farm owner is unable to offer employment. To them, anything which concerns the
management of thatching grass touches their hearts, minds and soul hence they always keep
track of what is happening in the locality. As women their major challenges are that their spouses
are struggling to fend for the families as a result of unemployment, orphans who are not
attending school, buyers of thatching grass do not buy on a daily basis, some buyers dictate the
price, and some of the women are on Anti-Retroviral Treatment (ART) and cannot afford the
drugs. With respect to harvesting of thatching grass, there are a myriad of challenges such as
55
arrest by army personnel, injuries of eyes, snake bites, lack of transport and equipment to use
like sickles, gumboots, face masks and worksuits.
As women their role in ensuring sustainable management of thatching grass includes fighting
veld fires, controlling household use of fire so that it does not light up stocks of thatching grass,
rotating frequency of cutting grass from other farmers’ fields as well as volunteering to create
fireguards around farms. The women complained that they were getting very little assistance
from the local leadership on how to market their thatching grass and also the issue that most
donor funds benefit Nyabira township residents. Local politicians were accused of a tendency to
pretend they have empathy for the plight of former farm workers while in reality what they want
is their vote. The women at the focus group discussion agreed that what they want for now and in
future are projects that empower them to be self-reliant instead of piecemeal deals by donors
which handicap their capacity to provide livelihoods needs at all times. Their situation is further
worsened by lack of social amenities namely clean water, ablution facilities and electricity. The
discussion also revealed that a lot of rural women have a thirst for land since the majority of
them did not benefit during the fast track land reform programme. Access to land and owning
title to it would result in most women diversifying livelihoods ultimately uplifting their social
standing.
4.11 Collective action: a panacea to environmental sustainability
Thatching grass commercialisation was proposed as one of the best management strategies as
opposed to top-down approaches in which the government sets rules for regulation. However,
farming communities have the appropriate ecological knowledge based on their knowledge
systems to manage natural resources sustainably. The Nyabira community is a good example of
how natural resources especially those regarded as minor can be managed and continues to
sustain generations. Collective action has been the centre pivot of the success story of Nyabira
dating back to more than 50 years. This knowledge included among others the preferential
harvesting of various grass species according to environmental gradients (soil fertility and
moisture), knowledge about the quality of the grass as determined by its thickness, which varied
with the soil water content and that thick grass is unmarketable as it rotted and is more fragile
compared to thin grass. Community elders have also consistently imparted knowledge regarding
56
the use of fire in managing grasslands. Arguably, information gathered through household survey
indicated that most of the farmers are aware that repeated and or indiscriminate burning of
grasslands leads to short grass and sometimes less grass hence the need to erect fireguards.
Community elders have passed on nonmaterial knowledge such as the fact that frequent burning
destroys the seeds and increases weeds hence they should avoid frequent burning. Ideally, good
quality thatching grass is obtained after the winter season as it would have been hardened by the
cold temperatures. The interviewed farmers concurred that good quality thatching grass which
produces durable products is harvested after the month of June. Locals discouraged frequent
burning as it would reduce the stock of thatch grass while increasing the proliferation of invasive
species.
Plate 4. Thatching grass storage
The plate above shows how the thatching grass is stocked for sale. The community members
cooperate in ensuring that there is no fire outbreak around the premises where thatching grass is
stored.
57
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0 Introduction
This study sought to understand the institutional dynamics in the management of thatching grass
in resettled areas, emerging practices and implications for livelihoods among smallholder
farmers in Zvimba District of Zimbabwe. Building on the study findings, this section endeavors
to discuss the findings as per the outlined objectives in liaison with supporting literature. The
findings are the cornerstone for the conclusions and recommendations of the research.
5.1 Discussion of findings
Lessons can be drawn from Nyabira where locals have been able to manage thatching grass since
the colonial period inspite of the socio-economic and political turmoil they have endured all
these years. Thatching grass has remained a key facet of their livelihood which enables the
household to diversify income sources. In Nyabira District, households that are headed by
married couples are the ones that are participating more in thatching grass management. These
households can make use of family labor and can rotate roles. The fitted Logit model results
show that marital status, household head age, household size and position of leadership
positively influence participation in thatching grass management. Participation in thatching grass
management is negatively influenced by employment status and sex of the household head.
Considering the first objective, there are various pieces of legislation that deal with the
management of natural resources in Zimbabwe. However, all the legal provisions do not really
provide for the preservation of thatching grass. Thus local institutions need to be capacitated to
continue to ensure that so called minor resources such as thatching grass are valued and
sustainably managed. This is possible only if there are integration and transformation of existing
institutions by recognizing areas of cooperation. Government departments are mandated to be
more pragmatic in their technical and enforcement endeavors so that local institutions have the
necessary back-up and are highly rated in ensuring compliance by locals. Overally, the amended
pieces of legislation and statutory instruments on environmental management should be aligned
58
to the Constitution so that devolution and decentralization of roles empower local communities
to derive benefits from resources in their areas.
With regards to the second objective, local institutions play a pivotal role in the governance of
thatching grass. The majority of the community members expressed willingness to participate in
managing thatching grass but their biggest challenge is lack of market. A cocktail of measures
was proposed by these smallholder farmers such as capital to do value addition and marketing of
thatching grass through Ministry of Tourism and Hospitality as well as the Ministry of Women,
Small and Medium Enterprise Development so that they secure regular markets. The farmers
also appealed for support in working as groups by opening group account with local banks so
that they can be able to obtain loans for starting small livestock projects.
As opposed to national government approach to natural resources management, community
participation in the management of thatching grass requires collective action. Ostrom (1990)
asserts that collective action is a prerequisite to normalize rights and responsibilities to manage
resources such as thatching grass that do not respect farm boundaries and come up with
appropriate technology for harvesting and fighting veld fires. For these initiatives to be effective
it was noticed that local communities consider the material and economic benefits they derive
from managing thatching grass hence people are unlikely to participate if they realize
insignificant outlays. The robustness of local institutions managing thatching grass relies heavily
on the abundance of the resource which enables them to perpetuate with economic livelihoods
even in times of distress.
5.2 Conclusion
The study unearthed the dynamics in the management of thatching grass in resettled areas,
emerging practices and implications for livelihoods. Overally, the legislation governing natural
resources in Zimbabwe has to be updated in order for it to address the so called ‘minor
resources’ instead of focusing mainly on commercially rewarding resources such as timber and
forestry. Thus, in line with the dictates of the Constitution, the study revealed that there is need
for the alignment and harmonization of pieces of legislation that deal with natural resources. This
is so because natural resources function as an ecosystem and hence there is interdependence
59
between these components. In order to deal with participation in natural resources management,
the study concludes that there is need to recognize and strengthen local institutions through
continued education, extensions services, incentives, support from government departments,
addressing land tenure issues as well as provision of social amenities. Local institutions play an
important role in the management of natural resources particularly the so called minor resources.
Thus, considering the fact that in resettled areas the community is made up of people from
diverse backgrounds, there is need to identify practices that are good for managing natural
resources and those which endanger availability of such resources to future generations.
Successful participation requires empowering people to mobilize as social actors, resource
managers, and decision-makers, allowing for the control of activities that affect their lives.
According to Hadenius (2000), decentralization only works if local state agencies govern
democratically with the skills and capacity to make important decisions, and are adequately
funded. Additionally, if participation is about choice and the defining of paths, then it needs to be
capable of balancing competing interests and values at the local, national and global levels.
5.3 Recommendations
5.3.1 Capacity development
There is need for the government to facilitate capacity development initiatives targeting
smallholder farmers who harvest and sell thatching grass. These farmers require access to
market, transport and marketing platforms so that they are able to realize the true value of their
labour. Thus, these farmers may be mobilized to form groups and then work on adding value to
thatching grass by including transaction costs associated with management and harvesting of
thatching grass in the pricing of a bundle of thatch. As such, policymakers can promote access to
information about the availability of thatching grass through the creation of marketing platform
particularly with the Ministry of Small to Medium Enterprises Development, Zvimba Rural
District Council and the Environmental Management Agency. In addition, the Ministry of
Economic Planning can establish a special economic zone in Nyabira aimed at creating a viable
market for thatching grass.
60
5.3.2 Promote labor-saving technologies
Adaptation technologies are diverse with some being labor intensive while others are labor
saving. Given that elderly-headed households are food insecure and yet more unlikely to
participate in thatching grass management, policymakers should consider promoting labor-saving
technologies. Such technologies could include the use of battery powered grass cutters. These
kinds of the tool are user friendly and save time spent in the fields. The use of labor-saving
technology will reduce the processes and costs associated with harvesting of thatching grass..
5.3.3 Value addition of thatching grass
The Councilor for Ward 26, appreciated the work by the researcher for considering taking up
such a noble study which articulates on real issues affecting people in his area. He lamented the
lack of recognition of the important role being played by thatching grass harvesters in fighting
veld fires, protecting biodiversity, and improving living conditions in Nyabira. Thus Councilor
Bako appealed to the Ministry of Small to Medium Enterprise Development to consider funding
thatching grass harvesters with short term loans so that they are able to source markets, transport
thatch grass to markets in towns, run the enterprise on a commercial basis and value addition
related aspects.
5.3.4 Addressing conflicting policies
Whilst most countries do have policies that empower local people to manage resources, in
Zimbabwe the policies target empowering one sector only (often wildlife) whilst command and
control policies continue to apply in other sectors such as forestry resources. The principles of
sustainable natural resources management which integrate the biophysical, social and economic
resources should be broadened to cater for the so called minor resources such as thatching grass.
The government should ensure that the gap between local and national policies is closed so that
local institutions and government departments play a complementary role as opposed to
competition. Stakeholder involvement in the formulation of environmental policies is
fundamental especially the inclusion of local peoples’ wisdom and practices
61
5.3.5 Inclusion of traditional authorities
There is need to strike a balance regarding the role and influence that traditional authorities have
in governing natural resources in their area. At the district level, local people elect leaders to
represent them on executive committees in various capacities set to deliberate and tackle critical
issues affecting their welfare. The significant role played by traditional authorities in natural
resources conservation need to be respected and observed when establishing thematic
committees at the district level. Indeed, the charismatic leadership and guidance provided by
properly ordained chiefs and headmen have been cited as one of the pillars of ensuring
sustainable management of local resources. Thus, there is need for the government to continue to
constructively incorporate traditional leadership in issues of national resource governance
.
5.3.6 Community rights to available natural resources
Illegal thatching grass harvesters from both inside and outside the community have been
highlighted in this study as posing a serious threat to proper management of resources. These
actors tend to ignore local regulations and controls, undermining the authority of local
institutions. Where local institutions have attempted to take action, their efforts have been futile
because of lack of support from government law enforcement agencies. Communities need to
have strong legal rights over resources and recourse to the law in order to protect resources in
their locality. In some cases, negotiated agreements may be required to allow access to resources
to “outsiders”.
5.3.7 Socio-economic differentiation
Highly stratified and differentiated communities with multiple interests pose a particular
challenge in that such situations create varying incentives and disincentives for participating in
thatching grass management. The role played by external stakeholders is critical. All
stakeholders with a vested interest in thatch grass regardless of social standing need to be
brought into the web process of ensuring equitable and collaborative negotiations. Disputes over
access to thatching grass need to be worked through the mediation process involving impartial
representatives from local and national boards. Some communities for example CAMPFIRE
communities have proven that conflicts of interest can be resolved through discussion,
62
mediation, patience and unbiased support by external players. Arrangements for the sharing of
costs, benefits and management responsibilities, and mechanisms for resolving conflicts between
groups, are most likely to motivate participation if they are widely understood and agreed upon
by all stakeholders through an open negotiating process. Special measures may be needed to
ensure that women, indigenous groups, and landless households are not excluded.
Thus, timeous intervention strategies have to be adopted to limit the negative impacts of
unregulated appropriation of thatching grass in Zvimba District. This can be done with the
involvement of all stakeholders including arms of government. Ideally, there is need to push for
a speedy harmonization of acts and statutes to eliminate duplication of roles and incompleteness
of Environmental legislations such as Communal Land Act (20:04), Communal Land Forest
Produce Act (19:04), Environmental Management Act (20:27), Forest Act (19:05), Traditional
Leaders Act (29:17) and Rural District Councils’ Act (29:13). For instance grassland resources
boundaries are different from land resources boundaries thereby creating complexities in terms
of sustainable natural resources management.
63
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Research Instruments
Appendix 1
GUIDE FOR FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION
“Thank you for accepting my invitation so that you could help me in carrying out this
research. My name is Mafuratidze Nobleman. I am a student at the University of
Zimbabwe studying for a Master of Science Degree in Social Ecology. The purpose of this
gathering is that we want to discuss how thatching grass is being managed in this
community. I hope to establish the linkages that exist between local institutions and
government departments in managing common pool resources. Specifically, the study seeks
to investigate whether local institutions inform or are undermined by government
departments in managing common pool resources in resettled areas. Furthermore, the
research intends to unpack the effect of smallholder farmers’ practices on sustainability of
common pool resources.”
WARD NAME
………………………………………..
DISTRICT
………………………………………..
PROVINCE
………………………………………..
DATE
…………………………………………
FACILITATORS
AGE
…………………………………………………………………
OF SEX
RESPONDENTS MALE
TOTAL
FEMALE
Young
Youth
Aged
1.1 What are the main ways in which you manage thatching grass in this community?
70
PRACTICE
SCORE OF IMPORTANCE (Use codes
below)
Fireguards
Controlled burning
Veld fire fighting
Controlled grazing
Fallowing
Codes: (1=very much important; 2=somewhat important; 3=undecided; 4=not really important;
5=Other………………)
1.2 Who are the main stakeholders that support your endeavors of managing thatching grass?
Stakeholders
Score of importance (use codes below)
DA
RDC
EMA
Farmers’ Association
ZNA
NGOs
Codes: (1=very much important; 2=somewhat important; 3=undecided; 4=not really important;
5=Other………………)
1.3 Explain how and why these stakeholders support you?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
1.4 Locally, do the following stakeholders help in any way particularly management of thatching
grass?
Stakeholders
Score of importance (use codes below)
Village Head
Councilor
Churches
Chief
Schools
71
Business Community
Codes: (1=very much important; 2=somewhat important; 3=undecided; 4=not really important;
5=Other………………)
1.5 Explain the kind of support you get from these stakeholders?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
1.6 What is the community based strategies in place to ensure sustainable management of
thatching grass?
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
1.7 How are people coordinated for collective action in managing thatching grass and what is the
level of commitment?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
1.8 Do you think you are getting enough support from the major stakeholders in Zvimba
District? (Circle a response for each stakeholder)
Stakeholder
NGOs
Strongly
Somewhat
Neither agree Somewhat
Strongly
disagree
disagree
nor disagree
agree
agree
1
2
3
4
5
72
Zvimba RDC
1
2
3
4
5
EMA
1
2
3
4
5
Chief
1
2
3
4
5
Village Head
1
2
3
4
5
Gwebi
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
College
Farmers
Associations
AGRITEX
2a. Are there any stipulated by-laws in the management of natural resources in your area?
1=Yes
2=No
2b. If yes, describe each by-law affecting natural resources management.
By-law
Who
provision
enacted?*
Code
Community
awareness**
Code
Community
Code
compliance***
Preventing
Veld fires
Against
deforestation
Use of slays
Brick
molding
Overgrazing
Harvesting
of grass.
*Codes: 1=village authority; 2=RDC; 3=DA; 4=Government Line Ministries;
** Codes: 1=no one aware of by-law; 2=minority of people aware; 3=majority of people aware;
4=everyone aware
73
*** Codes: 1=no one complies; 2=minority complies; 3=majority complies; 4=everyone
complies
3. Is there any action that you think can be taken to enhance sustainable management of
thatching grass in your community?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………................................................................................................................................
‘Thank you very much for taking time to deliberate on important issues regarding management
of our natural resources. Your contributions are very important in informing the study of
institutions governing the management of thatching grass as well as future development
initiatives.”
Appendix 2
RESEARCH INSTRUMENT FOR KEY INFORMANT INTERVIEW: VILLAGE HEAD
AND COUNCILLOR
1. Demographic information
Name of Interviewee…………………………………..
Gender…………………..
Years of experience…………………..
Date interviewed…………
Name of Interviewer………………………….
2. Conservation of thatching grass
a) What is the importance of conserving thatching grass here in Nyabira?
b) As a community leader, what is your role in the conservation of thatching grass?
c) Are the practices in place to conserve thatching grass sustainable?
d) What do you envisage should be done to improve the conservation practices obtaining
currently?
e) Are there any other stakeholders assisting you and your community in conserving thatching
grass?
74
3. Compliance
a) Are there any rules governing access to thatching grass?
b) Do the people under your area of jurisdiction comply to set rules of managing thatching grass?
1=Yes
2=No
c) If yes, what could be the reason for this?
d) If no, how do you exercise your powers to ensure they adhere to laid down rules?
e) Do you think sustainable use of thatching grass is possible?
f) Does your position allow you to change the way other people approach natural resource use?
g) How do you and your community deal with thatching grass poachers
h) What are the practices by smallholder farmers in terms of management of thatching grass in
your area?
Appendix 3
RESEARCH INSTRUMENT FOR KEY INFORMANT INTERVIEW:
EMA AND
AGRITEX OFFICER
Name of Interviewee…………………………
Official position………………………….
Occupation Experience……………………
Date
of
Interview……………………………
Interviewer…………………………….
1. What is the role of your organisation in the management of thatching grass?
2. Are there any laws governing access, harvesting and use of thatching grass which your
organisation oversee?
3. How do you ensure people comply with these regulations?
75
4. What is your organisation doing to ensure that small holder farmers’ activities in resettled
areas are regulated?
5. Do you think harvesting of thatching grass in Newly Resettled Areas should be regulated in
order to permit it or it has to be banned? Give reasons…………………….
6. In your view is there any relationship between the challenges faced by smallholder farmers
and the magnitude of environmental degradation?
7. What do you do with those who defy the role of your organization in the governance of natural
resources?
8. What type of environmental degradation is due to unregulated harvesting of thatching grass?
9. In your view, what should be done by institutions managing natural resources to ensure
sustainability.
‘Thank you for your invaluable input to this research’.
Appendix 4
RESEARCH INSTRUMENT FOR KEY INFORMANT INTERVIEW:
D.A. AND
ZVIMBA RURAL DISTRICT COUNCIL CEO.
1. Demographic Information
Name of Interviewee…………..
Official Position…………………...
Occupation Experience…….……………
Date of interview………………………
Name of interviewer……………………………….
2. Role of Zvimba Rural District Council in Natural Resources Management
a) What is your mandate as the Rural District Council in managing natural resources under your
jurisdiction?
b) Are there any by-laws governing appropriation of thatching grass?
c) If yes, please elaborate on how you ensure enforcement of these by-laws?
76
d) Who are the major drivers of thatching grass degradation?
e) Are people in this community aware of the by-laws?
f) Do they comply with these by-laws?
g) If not, what are some of the reasons for non-compliance?
3. Community Participation in Natural Resources Management
a) What are some of the community based Natural Resources Management Programmes that you
spearheaded as the ZRDC?
b) How do you mobilize people to participate in these activities?
c) Are people in this community eager to volunteer to manage natural resources?
d) If not, why is this so?
e) Do you give incentives to locals for participating in community based natural resources
management?
f) If yes, what do you offer the locals as incentives for participating in natural resources
management?
4. Recommendations
a) In your view, do you think the existing status quo is the best for managing natural resources?
b) What do you think needs to be done at policy level to ensure sustainable management of
thatching grass in Zvimba?
c) Briefly, explain how local institutions and government departments can be transformed to
operate in liaison on natural resources?
‘Thank you for your invaluable input to this research’.
77
Appendix 5
HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIRE
INTRODUCTION AND CONSENT
My name is Mafuratidze Nobleman. I am a student at the University of Zimbabwe studying for a
Master of Science Degree in Social Ecology. I am conducting a survey on institutions governing
thatching grass in this district and the emerging practices by smallholder farmers. This interview
is part of a study I am conducting on the management of thatching grass in Zvimba District. I am
going to ask you questions about your household, economic activities, education, health and
participation in community based programmes.
I want to make sure that you understand fully that this interview is voluntary and will remain
confidential. I am not going to use your name or the name of this community in any publication
with the information that you share today. I hope you will feel free to talk about your experiences
and views on both the benefits of and problems specific to management of thatching grass. You
are of course free not to answer any of my questions and to end the interview whenever you like.
However, I hope to complete the interview in a short period because your views and experiences
are very important. If possible I could record the discussion so that i can document your views
and experiences accurately. If you prefer that I do not record the session, however, I will not do
so. Do you have any questions before we begin?
QUESTIONNAIRE USED IN THE HOUSEHOLD SURVEY
Village
Age
Gender
Date
Time
Location of interview
Interviewee Number
Verbal consent given
Interviewer Name
78
A.
HOUSEHOLD DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE
1. Can you please briefly tell me about your household?
Household head profile
a. What is your relationship to the household head?
1=self; 2=Spouse; 3=Mother; 4=Father; 5=Daughter; 6=Son; 7=Niece; 8=Nephew;
9=Other (Specify)
b. Name of Household Head
c. Sex of Household Head: 1=Male; 2=Female
d. Age of Household Head: 1=(<18 years); 2=(18-45 years); 3=(46-59 years);
4=(60 years+)
e. Marital Status of Household Head: 1= Married; 2=Unmarried; 3=Divorced;
4=Widowed
f. Employment Status of Household Head: 1=Not employed; 2=Formally
employed; 3=Self Employed
g. Position in Community Leadership: 1=committee member; 2=ordinary member;
3=Traditional Leader
2. Profile of Household Members
Total number
Male
Female
a. Total number of children (below 18 years)
b. Total number of economically active
c. Number of people with some disability
d. Number of people chronically sick
3. What are the main sources of income for your household? (List 5 major sources of income)
Source of income
Rank
Order of importance
1
Major source
2
Very Important
3
Important
79
4
Somewhat important
5
Least important
B. PARTICIPATION IN COMMUNITY BASED THATCHING GRASS MANAGEMENT
INITIATIVES.
1. Do you or any member of your household participate in community based programmes to
manage thatching grass?
1=Yes
2=No
2a. What do you think about the effectiveness of the following in improving sustainable
utilisation of thatching grass?
Management regulation
a) Perceived
b) What is the level of
effectiveness
Controlled grazing
Tree planting
Fireguards
Harvesting quotas
Farmers association
Fines and permits
2b. Where do you or your community get thatching grass from?
Along the highway
In our fields
In vacant uncultivated fields
Grazing lands
Inkomo Camp fields
80
compliance
2c. Name the types of grass species that you or your community harvest most.
Spear grass(Heteropogon contoros)
Common thatching grass(Hyparrhenia hirta)
Bamboo
Other (specify)
3. What is the main use of harvested grass in this community?
Thatching
Mats
Building walls
Furniture
Fodder
Making nests for chickens
Other (specify)
4. How many bundles of thatching grass do you harvest each year?
0-10
11-20
21-50
51-100
More than 100
8. Do you sell the grass that you harvest?
1=Yes
2=No
9. If Yes, how much do you sell a bundle of grass for?
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$
C. ROLE OF LOCAL INSTITUTIONS IN REGULATING ACCESS TO AND
MANAGEMENT OF THATCHING GRASS
1. Are you or any other member of the household a member of any group that is dealing with the
management of thatching grass? Yes=1 No=0 ___________.
2. Are you or any other member of the household a member of any group that deals with veld
fire management? Yes=1 No=0 _______
3. If no, why do you not participate in community programmes to manage thatching grass?
Codes: 1=Lack of time 2=Lack of resources 3=No need for group benefits 99=Other (specify)
…………………………
4. If yes, how big is the group that you belong to in terms of geographic coverage?
Code: 1= village; 2 = ward; 3 = district; 4 = provincial; 5 = national; 99 others, specify
…................................
5. If yes, how do you rate the effectiveness of the local institutions in managing natural resources?
1 = Excellent 2 = good 3 = poor 4 = very poor
6. Besides community based groups, what other ways do you and your community regulate
access to thatching grass?
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
7a). Are there any designed principles which every member of this society has to follow with
regards to thatching grass management?
1=Yes
2=No
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7b) If yes, specify at least four major design principles
1=……………………………………………. 2=…………………………………………
3=…………………………………………….. 4=…………………………………………
7c) What action is taken against people found violating the existing principles?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
8. Who is the custodian of natural resources in this area?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
9. What is your view regarding outsiders who come to harvest thatching grass in this area?
They are poachers
They cause degradation of the environment
They should be arrested
They should pay a fee to Village head
11.
Where do these outsiders come from? (list 3 places of origin)
…………………………………………………………………………
12. Going forward, what do you think should be done to ensure that all people conform to
stipulated rules of managing natural resources? ………………………………………………
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